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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



farmer's IKlew (3^^^^^ 

, , lor ♦ * 

jfielbt jfarm anb jFitesibe 

^ Compendium of 9onni> anii 

Practical Jnformation on all Subfccts 

Eclating to tl)e -farm anb ^cnseholb. 

ITftomas Bond, M.B., ^.%. 



iniustrateb. ,^^>ym,a,^ 



^ 



Philadelphia : 



MAR 19 ^894 J 



John E. Potter & Co., 



Publishers, 



\ 



s\ 






Copyrighted 1893 



JOHN E. POTTER & CO, 



XZ^IDXS 



The Farm, 

A.nimal manures 41 

Apple-tree borers 74 

Apples 53 

Ashes from the soil by combustion i!2 

Barnyard manure 40 

Bones for manure 35 

Buckwheat 51 

Oabbage cut-worms , 73 

Canker worm 75 

Cherry 53 

Cherry-tree slugs 76 

Clay lands, plowing 42 

Clover 45 

Clover, cutting and curing 45 

Codling moth 73 

Colorado potato beetle 67 

Cranberries 57 

Cucumber beetle 73 

Curing grass 45 

Currant 53 

Cutting grass, time for 44 

Cut-worms 69 

Filter, water 59 

Fish compost, for manure 37 

Fruit-trees . 51 

Garden, the , .60 

Grapes 54 

Grapes and pears for the holidays 59 

Grasses 46 

Grass seed, sowing 44 

Green crops for manures 42 

Guano, home made 35 

Hot-bed 63 

Xce-house 58 

Indian corn 50 

Injurious insects and remedies 6' 

Insects, injurious 6' 

I^ime plaster for manure 40 

Liquid manure, value of 41 

]Manurc3 \ 33 

May beetle 70 

Meadows, pasturing 44 

Oats 49 

I*astures 46 

Pasturing meadows 44 

Peach 55 

Pear 56 

Pear-tree slugs 76 

Pea weavil 71 

Plant lice 70 

Plowing 43 

Plowing, depth of 43 

Plum ciirculio 76 

Potato beetle 67 



Raspberry 56 

Refrigerator 58 

Rye 48 

Salt for manure 39 

Sandy or dry soils for plowing 43 

Savingseed 64 

Seed, preserving 64 

Seed, sowing 65 

Squash bug 72 

Strawberry 57 

Substitute for barnyard manuie .38 

Super-phosphate of lime 34 

Tomato worm 72 

Transplanting 66 

"Water-filter 59 

Wheat 47 

Wire-worm U 

See Keeping, 

A-piary, the 80 

Bees, diseases of 81 

Bees, Italian 79 

Bees, wintering 81 

diseases of bees 81 

Drones 78 

Egg, the 77 

Feeding 82 

Foul brood 81 

Hatching 78 

Hive, the 79 

Hives, stands for 80 

Hiving bees 80 

ItaliaD Bees 79 

Queen, the 77 

"" ueen, the loss of 81 

Stands for hives 80 

Swarming 80 

Transferring 82 

"Wintering bees 81 

Worker Bee 78 



The Horse, 

A-sthma and cough 107 

Age, how to tell tne 91 

Back, sprain in the 135 

Bladder, disorders of 123 

Blinds 165 

Blood spavin 141 

Bone liniment 159 

Bone spavin 140 

Bots 102 

Bote, cure for 156 

Bowels, inflammation of 103 

Breaking 90 



INDEX. 



Bleeding , 

Broken uoof , 

Broken wind 

Bronciiitis 

Bruises of the Withers 

Burns and scalds 

Castrating 

Coffin- joint, sprain in the 

Cold, remedy for 

Colic, cure 

Colic, bilious or inflammatory 

Colic, flatulent or windy 

Colic or gripes 

Colt,the 

Condition powders 

Consumption 

Contracted hoof 

Convulsions, or stag evil 

Corb 

Cordial balls 

Cough 

Cough and asthma 

Cough mixtures 

Cracked heels 

Crown scab 

Cup-bone lameness 

Cuts 

"Diseases and remedies 

Diseases and causes 

Disorders of the intestines 

Disorders of the kidneys and bladder. . 

Distemper, cures for 156, 1 58, 

Draft horses head 



Eye Water 

Farcy 

Farcy, the water 

Feeding 

Feeding, hints on 

Feet, hurts in the 

Fevers 

Fistula 

Flat nose head 

Flesh wounds 

Founder , 

Founder cured in twenty-four hours. . . 

Founder, remediesfor. . , 

Fundament bot 

Oirt galls 

Glanders 

Grease 

Grease, molten 

Grease, heel , 

Gripes 

Gripes, dry •. 

Hair, to grow 

Healing mixtures 

Heaves, remedies for 

Heaves, relief for .. 

Hidebound 

Hints on feeding 

Horizontal head 

How to maka a horse follow you 

How to manage ahorse on a journey.. 

Hurts in thefeet 

Imposthumes 

Inflammation of the bowels 

Intestines, disorders of, 

Jaundice 

Jtidneys, disorders of 

Knees and pasterns, spains of the 

I^ameness in the cup-bone 

Lameness in the stifle 



Laxative balls 162 

Liniments . <■ 160 

Looseness, or scouring 157 

Lop-eared head 87 

M!allenders and sallenders 142 

Mange 128 

Mange cure for 163 

Miscellaneous recipes 155 

Molten Grease 185 

Nerve and bone liniment 159 

Ointments 161 

li*hysic balls 159 

Pin-worms 157 

Points of the horse 85 

Poll evil .135 

Powders, condition 159 

Quarter crack 163 

R,ainbow neck 87 

Rhinoceros head 87 

Ringbone ..142 

Ringbone and spavin 156 

Rules for purchasing 166 

Saddle horses head . 8T 

Saddle plushes and galls 149 

Scalds and burns 105 

Scouring 120 

Scours and pin-worms 157 

Scratclies 151 

Sheep-faced head 87 

Shoeing 96 

Shoulder, sprain in the 136 

Sore lips Ifi2 

Sores 161 

Sound or not by law 168 

Spavin 156 

Spavin, blood or bog 141 

Spavin, bone — 140 

Split hoof 156 

Sprains, cure for IfiS 

Sprain in tlie back 135 

Sprain in the back sinews 187 

Sprain in the coffin-joint 137 

Sprain in the shoulder 136 

Sprains of knees and pasterns 138 

Stag-evil "4 

Staggers "^ 

Staggers, cure for lo" 

Stifle, lameness 138 

Strangles 143 

Surfeit % 126 

Sw-eeny liniment 15' 

Swellings 1^ 

Thrush 162 

To make a horse stand without holding. 165 

Tonic balls '. 162 

To prevent a horse from scaring ]6.> 

Twitter bone ^^'^ 

"Warbles 149 

Warranty | 'J 

Wind broken Jl < 

Wind galls 1^9 

Withers, bruises of the 148 

Worms ••••164 

Wounds 145, 161 

Yellows or jaundice 112 

Cattle. 

A.bortion -45 

Abortion treatment *4i 

Alderneys }xX 

Aphthae 270 



INDEX. 



Apoplexy, pulmonary 267 

Ayrshires ISl 

Beef 229 

Beef, its preservation 230 

Bowels, spaain of the 271 

Breaking Bteers 232 

Breeds 177 

Breeds, ramarks on 185 

Bronchitis 254 

Butter 203 

Butter, comparitive profits of making.. 212 

Butter from whey ... 211 

Batter, marketing 208 

Butter, packing and shipping 210 

Buttermilk 213 

Buttermilk cheese 215 

Calf, the 189 

Calving 187 

Calvinsi table 189 

Castration 243 

Catarrh, epizootic 202 

Chapped teats 250 

Cheese 213 

Cheese, buttermilk 215 

Cheese, qualities of 21 

Cheese, size of 219 

Cheese, whey 215 

Choking 260 

Colic, flatul^t 270 

Constipation 271 

Corj'za 250 

Cow-house 198 

Cow-pox 256 

Curd, treatment of the 218 

Curing 219 

Cutting up 

Cutting up, English mode 228 

Cutting up, Scotch mode 22^^ 

Dairy 203 

Dairy produce 203 

Devons 17r 

Diarrhoea 25' 

Diseases and remedies 245 

Diseases of the teats 25 

Dysentery 25 

IZpizootic catarrh 262 

r'alse presentation 250 

Fat cattle, points of 221 

Fattening for market 220 

Feeding 199 

Fever, milk 251 

Fever, puerperal 251 

Fever, simple 253 

Flatulent colic 270 

Formation of teeth 193 

Foulinthe foot 200 

G-ad flies 270 

Galloways 182 

Galls, yoke 277 

Garget 249 

Gastric enteritis 263 

Herefords 180 

Hoove 259 

Hoven 259 

House, cow., 198 

Tnflammation of the kidneys 274 

Inflammation of the liver 375 

Inflammation of the lungs 264 

Jerseys 184 

Itidneys, inflammation of the 274 

Leather 231 



Lice 262 

Liver, inflamation of the 275 

Lungs, inflammation of the 264 

>Ianagement of oxen 233 

Mange 261 

Method of ascertaining weight of living 

cattle 231 

Milk 204 

Milk fever , 251 

Milking , 202 

Murrain 268 

TVative cattle 179 

Navel-ill 268 

OfEaljthe 230 

Oxen, management of 233 

Pharyngitis 266 

Phrenitis 269 

Pleurisy 269 

Polled cattle 182 

Points of cattle 173,185 

Points of fat cattle • -221 

Presentation false 250 

Puerperal fever 251 

Pulmonary appoplexy 26< 

-Rabies 272 

Red water 2(3 

Remarks on breeds loo 

Rennet 215 

Rennet, making the 216 

Rheumatism 274 

Salt, how it is appliad 219 

Shorthorns 183 

Slaughtering 225 

Sore teats 256 

Spasm of the bowels 2< 1 

Spaying ' 234 

Spaying, advantages of the operation. .235 

Spaying, after the operation 242 

Spaying, the operation 2:18 

Steers, oreaking 232 

Tableoffood 202 

Teats, diseases of 255 

Teats, chapped and chafed 256 

Teats, injuries to the 255 

Teats, obstruction in the 255 

Teats, sore 256 

Teats, tumors in the 255 

Teeth, diagrams of 194, 195, 196, 197 

Teeth, formation of 193 

XJdder, chafed 256 

Warbles 262 

Weinhtof living cattle, how to ascer- 
tain 231 

Whey, butter from 211 

Whey, cheese from 215 

Yoke galls 277 



Shee2i, 

A.dministering medicine 324 

Age of sheep 2^6 

Barn 309 

Bleeding 324 

Bowels, constipation of •• « 

Branding or marking 322 

Breeding 299 

Breeding, Merinos 286 

Breeding, selections for 307 

Castrating and docking 303 

Catarrh, common 329 

Chevoitjthe 294 



INDEX. 



Coldstormfl iw..* 320 Barrel, ewill 353 

Colic 330 

Constipation of the bowels 330 



Cotswold, the 293 

Cutting hoof 314 

I>entition 209 

Diarihtea and dysentery 329 

Dipping 321 

Diseases and remedies 32-1 

Docking and castrating 303 

Dog guard 3J2 

Dysentery and diarrhosa 32U 

IDwes, care of after weaning 306 

Eye, inflammation of the 328 

Food 312 

Food, additional 304 

Food and management in winter 307 

Foot rot 327 

Fracture 330 

G iddiness or vertigo 327 

Grub in nostrQs 328 

Hoofs, cutting 314 

Horns, shortening 323 

Hydatids in the liver 325 

Inflammation in the eye 328 

Inflamation in the lungs 329 

Lamb, the 302 

Leicester, the new 288 

Lincoln, the 295 

Lungs, inflammation in the 329 

IVraggots 323 

Management and food in Bummer 313 

Management and food in winter 307 

Mangers or racks 310 

Marking or branding 322 

Medicines, administering 324 

Merinos, breeding 286 

Merinos, Spanish , 281 

TVati ve sheep 280 

Nostrils, grubs in 32S 

DPointsof sheep 279 

Racks or mangers 310 

Rot or hydatids in the liver 325 

Rot in foot 327 

©axon, the 287 

Selection for breeding 307 

Shearing 318 

Shed 311 

Shelters 308 

Shortening horns 3; 

South Downs, the 200 

Spanish Merinos 281 

Storms, cold 320 

Summer management • 313 

Sun scald 320 

Teeth, the 29(3 

Ticks 320 

Tympanitis 330 

Vertigoor giddiness 327 

Washing Sij 

Washing, apparatus 31"^ 

Weaning 305 

Weaning, care of ewes after. 306 

Winter management and food 307 

YeUows 326 

Stvine, 

A-merican swine 333 

Bacon, Yorkshire 364 



Bedford, the 335 

Belfast hams 3(,5 



Bleeding 3CC 

Breeding 3^5 

Berkshire, the 3£8 

Byfield, the 335 

Castration 3r-3 

Catarrh 377 

Catching the pig 8C(j 

Chinese, the 336 

Cholera 373 

Cleanuness 367 

Coiic .318 

Cracuings 373 

Curing and pickling 363 

Uiarrhoea 376 

Diseases and remedies 365 

Drenching pig 365 

Epilepsy 377 

Fattening 356 

Feeding 351 

Fever 3C8 

Food, table of 357 

Formation of teeth 339 

Foulekiu 370 

Hams, Limerick and Belfast 365 

Hams, Westi)lialian 363 

HeavingSjOr inflammation of the lungs. 386 

Hog, points of a good 343 

Houses and piggeries 340 

Inflammation of the lungs 376 

Jaundice 370 

Hieiscester, the 335 

Leprosy 369 

Lethargy 376 

Lice 380 

Limerick and Belfast hams 3C5 

Lungs, inflammation of the 376 

TMEange 370 

Measles 370 

Murrain 369 

I» arturition 349 

Pickling aud curing 362 

Piggeries and houses 340 

Pigs, drenching 305 

Points of a good hog 343 

Points of swine 333 

Quinzy 377 

Itabies 379 

Ratille 374 

Skin, foul 370 

Slaughtering 361 

Spaying 354 

Spleen, swelling of the 374 

Staggers .373 

Suftolk, the 337 

Surfeit 376 

Swelling of the spleen 374 

Swill barrels and troughs 352 

Swine, American 333 

Swine, points of ._ 333 

Teeth, formation of ." 339 

Troughs 352 

Tumors 377 

"Weaning 355 

Westphalian hams 363 

Yorkshire bacon 364 

YorksMies, the 326 



INDEX. 



Poultry. 

A-Bthma 406 

IBantam, the 381 

Bolton Gray, the 38~ 

Breeding stock, management of 39v 

Chickens, the 401 

China, the Cochin ^ 

Cochin China, the ^°f 

Costiveness 40 

Cuckoo, the 3a4 

Diarrhoea 40' 

Diseases and remedies 400 

Dominique, the ^°^ 

Dorking, the ^°5 

Dorking, the Black ^°^l 

Ducks 40u 

Feathers, loss of 409 

Fever 408 

Food 399 

Fowl, the game 38 

Fowls and sitters ^ Jfa 

Fowls for layers 394 

O-ame fowl, the 387 

Game fowl, Spanish 388 

Game fowl, Wild Indian "88 

Goose 403 

Goose, breeding 404 

Gray, the Bolton 38~ 

Guinea Hen 403 

I-Iamhnrgh, the Spangled 380 

Hen house 400 

Indigestion 408 

Layers, fowls for 304 

Lice 408 

Loss of feathers 409 

380 

fstock 397 

I*eacock and Guinea lien 403 

Pheasant, the Silver 393 

Pip 409 

Plymouth Eock, the 391 

Poland, the 391 

Poultry 381 

Roup 410 

Silver Pheasant, the 393 

Sitters 390 

Spangled Hamburgh, the 389 

Spanish, the 393 

Spanish, game 388 

Sores and wounds 411 

Turkey, the 401 

Turkey, breeding 40'^ 

"Wild Indian game 388 

Wounds and sores 411 

Medicinal. 

A-bdomen, wounds of the 511 

Abortion 485 

Air, fresh 413 

Ague 423 

Ague, cure for 5i3 



]Vralay, the 

Manasement of breeding 



Alcoholic stimulants 549 

Appoplexy 4'^ 

Arterial Haemorrhage 513 

Artery, tying of an 515 

Asthma 437 

Asthma, remedies for 535 

Ayre's Cherry Pectoral , 51" 

ISarber's shampoo mixture 520 



Barren's Indian liniment 520 

Baths and bathing 537 

Baths, cold 538 

Baths, hot 539 

Baths, hot-air 539 

Baths, sponge 538 

Baths, terpid - 539 

Baths, Turkish 540 

Beef tea 545 

Biliary derangements 428 

Biliousness 428 

Bite, dog 431 

Bite, serpent 430 

Bladder hsemorrhage from the 474 

Bladder, inflammation of the 433 

Bleeding from tlie bowels 433 

Bleeding from the lungs 432 

Bleeding from the nose 431 

Bleeding from the stomach 433 

Blistering liquid 417 

Blistering plaster and liquid 415 

Blood, expectoratioa of 432 

Bloody flux 462 

BiteSjleech .• 515 

Boils 43 1 

Bone liniment 523 

Bowels, bleeding from the 433 

Bowels, inflammation of the 434 

Bowels, strangulation of the 445 

Brain, concussion of the 440 

Brain, congestion of the 4415 

Hrain fever 480 

Brain, iuflammaticm of the ....480 

Brain, irritation of the 451 

Breast, inflammation of the 435 

Brif^ht's disease of the kidneys 436 

Bruises . . ■ 436 

Bruises, dressings for 513 

Broken collar bone 470 

Broken ribs 470 

Bronchial Troches, Brown's 517 

Bronchitis 440 

Bronchitis, chronic 543 

Bronchocele 472 

Brown's Bronchial Troclies 517 

Buchu, coinpoiiml extract of 518 

Burns and scalds 437 

Burns, from chemicals 433 

Burns, gunpowder 438 

Camphor ice 520 

Cancer, English remedy for 523 

Carbolated oil 513 

Carbuncles 434 

Carded oakum stypium 513 

Catarrhal ophthalmia 454 

Caution in the use of stimulants 419 

Chapi)ed bands ^ 439 

Charcoal cure for headache 523 

Cheese 549 

Chemicals, burns from 438 

Cherry pectoral, Ayre's 517 

Chest, inflammation of the 439 

Chest, wounds of the 511 

Chicken pox 441 

Chilblains 442 

Chin cough 476 

Cholera , 442 

Cholera, Asiatic 443 

Cholera, Egyptian cure for 527 

Cholera, malignant 443 

Cholera, spasmodic 443 

Circassian cream 519 

Cleanliness 414 

Clergymen's sore throat 444 

Climate, ... 541 



INDEX. 



Climate, effects of change of 541 

Cold bath 538 

Cold in the head 439 

Colic 444 

Colic, the painter's 445 

Collar bone, broken 4V0 

Compound dislocation . '. 459 

Concussion of the brain 446 

Congestion of the brain 446 

Coni^estion of the liver 4:28 

Constipation 44'i' 

Consumption 447, 542 

Consumptives, gyrup for 521 

Convulsions 448 

Cornea, inflammation of the 456 

Corns 449 

Corns and warts . 524 

Cough 449 

Cough, chin 476 

Cough syrup 520 

Cough, whooping 476 

Counter-irritants .417 

Cramp 497 

Cream, Circassian 519 

Cream, oriental 519 

Cream, shaving 519 

Cronp 449 

Cuts, stabs, wounds, etc 509 

T>andrifE 450 

Deformity 465 

Degeneration of the kidneys 4;36 

Delirium tremens 450 

Dentition 451 

Derbyshire neck 472 

Diabetes 452 

Diarrhoea 453 

Diarrhoea, English or autumnal 442 

Diet, 421 

Diet, general 547 

Diet, la relation to disease 543 

Diphtheria, remedy for 517 

Diseases and remedies 423 

Diseases of the eye 453 

Dislocations 457 

Dislocations, compound 459 

Dislocation of the liip joint 458 

Dislocation of the jaw 457 

Dislocation of the shoulder joint 458 

1 )og bites 431, 459 

Dropsy 459 

Dropsy, pills for the 526 

Drowning 459 

Dysentery 462 

Dyspepsia 478, 543 

Ear-ache 462 

Ear, inflammation of the 403 

Eclectic liver pills. , 520 

Eggs 546 

Egyptian cure for cholera 527 

Electro-magnetic liniment 524 

Embalming, new method of 518 

'English remedy for cancer 523 

Enteric or intestinal fever 503 

Epilepsy 40: 

Expectoration of blood 432 

External stimulants ..' 41^ 

Eye, diseases of the 453 

Eye preparations 526 

Eyes, sore, Indian prescription for 52" 

Eye water, Indian 52 

Fainting 464, 516 

Fainting from bleeding 516 

Farinaceous foods 547 

Febrifuge wine 520 



Feeding-bottles objectionable 5*,. 

Felons 523 

Felons, salve for 524 

Felons, ointment for 534 

Female complaints 521 

Female complaints, chronic 522 

Fever, infantile remittent 478 

Fever, intestinal or enteric 503 

Fever,milk 485 

Fever, puerperal 489 

Fever, remittent 490 

Fever, scarlet 492 

Fever, teething 451 

Fever, typhoid 503 

Fish 548 

Fish, shell 548 

Fits 448 

Flooding, powder for excessive 523 

Fomentations 415 

Food, farinaceous 547 

Fowls, game, etc 548 

Fractures 4(vt 

Fractures, comminuted 465 

Fractures, compound 404, 471 

Fractures, compound comminuted 465 

Fracture of the armbones 466 

Fracture, bone of the nose 471 

Fracture, fingers and hands 468 

Fracture, knee-cap 469 

Fracture, leg 468 

Fracture, thigh 468 

Fracture, simple 464 

Freckle, cure 519 

Fresh air 413 

Fruits, vegetables, etc 548 

Game, poultry, etc 548 

Ganglion '. ,471 

General diet ..547 

Goiture 472 

Gonorrhoea, cure for 520 

Good Samaritan liniment 534 

Gout 473, 543 

Gravel 474 

Gravel, imperial drops for 530 

Great London liniment 524 

Green Mountain salve 523 

Green ointment 525 

Gunpowder burns 438 

Gunshot wounds 512 

Hiemoptymis 432 

Ilremorrhage, arterial 513 

Haemorrhage from the bladder 474 

Hcpmorrhagefrom wounds 513 

Iliemorrhage, uterine 521 

Hremorrhage venous 513 

Hicmorrhoids 473 

Hands, chapped 439 

Hair dyes 5I8 

Hair invigorator 519 

Hair restorer 519 

Headache 475 

Headache, sick, charcoal cure for 523 

Heart, rheumatic affection of the 491 

Hip joint, dislocation of 458 

Hot bath 539 

Hot air bath 539 

Hydropathy 540 

Hydrophobia 459 

Hydrophobia, cure for 526 

Hysteria 477 

Ice 415 

Imperial drops for kidney «somplaint . . 520 

Incontinance of urine 477 

Indigestion 478 



INDEX. 



Indian eye water 52' 

Indian liniment, Barrel's 520 

Infantile remittent fever 478 

Infant, management of the new-born. ..420 

Infant, to give medicine to 423 

Infant's syrup 517 

Intiammation 479 

Inflammation of the bladder 432 

Inflammation of the bowels 434 

Inflammation of the brain 480 

Inflammation of the breast 435 

Inflammation of the chest 43'J 

Inflammation of the cornea 450 

Inflammation of the ear 4fi3 

Inflammation of the eye 454 

Inflammation of the iris 456 

Inflammation of the mouth 483 

Inflammatory rheumatism 525 

Injection for leucorrhiea 522 

Insects, etings of 49'" 

Intestinal or enteric fever 503 

Intestinal worms 516 

Iris, inflammation of the 456 

Irritants, counter 417 

Irritation of the brain 451 

Isinglass plaster 514 

Itch 483 

Itch ointment 525 



Jaundice, Dr. Peabody's cure 525 

Jaw, dislocation of the 457 

Judkin's ointment 525 

ICidney complaint. Imperial drops for.520 

Kidneys, Bright's disease of the 436 

Kidneys, degeneration of the 436 

King of oils, for neuralgia and rheuma- 
tism 527 

T.<a'uor 419 

Leech bites 515 

Leucorrhea, injection for 522 

Light 413 

Liniment, Barrel's Indian 520 

Liniment, electro-magnetic 524 

Liniment, for old sores 521 

Liniment, Good Samaritan 524 

Liniment, great London 521 

Liniment, nerve and bone 523 

Liquid, blistering 416,417 

Liquors, malt 549 

Liver, congestion of the 428 

Lotions 414 

Lotions, sedative 414 

Lozenges, worm 577 

Lungs, bleeding from the 432 

Lying-in room 419 

Lying-in woman, treatment of 421 

]Vralt liquors 549 

Managemen t of the new-born infant 420 

Management of the sickroom 413 

Mattico and tincture of 516 

Mead's salt-rheum ointment 525 

Measles 484 

Medicinal 413 

Medicine to give to an infant 423 

Menstruation, anodyne for painful 521 

Menstruation, obstructed 521 

Menstruation, difllcult 472 

Milk fever 485 

Milk 544 



Nervous shock 48g 

Neuralgi a, internal remedy for . . . . .' . .' ' .527 

Neuralgia, king of oils for ..', |627 

New method of embalming '. 5i8 

Nipples Bore !423 

Nose, bleeding from '.'.".'.'.'.'.'. !431 

Nose, broken bones !!!.!!!'.!! .471 

Nurse, the '..'.'..'.'.'.'.'.'. !41S 

Nursing and rest .4i2 

Oaknm strpiura, carded 513 

Obstructed menstruation 521 

Ointment, for old sores 524 

Ointment, green 525 

Ointment, itch 505 

Ointment, Judkin's ^525 

Ointment, Mead's ralt-rheum 525 

Ointment, pile 520 

Opiates 433 

Ophthalmia, catarrhal 454 

Ophthalmia, purulent of adults 454 

Ophthalmia, purulent of children 454 

Ophthalmia, rheumatic 455 

Oriental cold cream 519 

Faralysis 488 

Paregoric ' [52O 

Paste, razor-strop 519 

Pile ointment 520 

Piles 473 

Pills, dropsy 526 

Pills, eclectic liver 526 

Pills, to promote menstrual secretion.. 521 

Pitting, to prevent in small-pox 497 

Plaster, blistering 416 

Plaster, isinglass 514 

Poulticing 415 

Poultry, game, etc 548 

Pregnancy 487 

Pregnancy, disorders of 489 

Pregnancy, signs of 487 

Prolapsus uteri 522 

Protrusion of the navel 489 

Puerpural fever 489 

Purpura 490 

Purulent ophthalmia of adults 454 

Purulent ophthalmia of children 454 

Razor-strop paste 519 

Recipes, miscellaneous 517 

Remittent fever 478, 400 

Rest and nursing 422 

Revaccination 508 

Rheumatic ophthalmia 455 

Rheumatism. . 491 

Rheumatism, chronic 492, 543 

Rheumatism, inflammatory 525 

Rheumatism, neuralgic 463 

Rheumatism, sciatica 492 

Rheumatism, eub-acute 491 

Ribs, broken 470 

Ripe fruit, vegetables, etc 548 

Russia salve 517 



Salt rheum ointment. Mead's 525 

Salve, Green Mountain 523 

Salve, Russia 517 

Scalds 437 

Scarlet fever 492 

Scarletina 492 

Scrofula 502 

„. . . .. ,„, Sedative lotions 414 

Miscarriage, or abortion 48o Serpent's bite 430 

Miscellaneous recipes ^'^Shavin" cream 519 

Mouth, inflammation of the 4a3 shaving mixture '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. .'!.".'!!.'.'!!.".'!! .'519 

Navel, protrusion of the 489] Shaving soap, Yankee 519 

Nerve and bone liniment 523, Sheet, wet 415 



• INDEX. 



Shell-flsh 548 

IShock, nervous 486 

Shoulder-joint, dislocations of 458 

fsick headache, charcoal cure for 523 

Sick room, management of 413 

Sleep WO 

Suiall-pox, malignant 495 

Small-pox, modified 493 

Soap, Yankee shaving 519 

Soothing syrup 51? 

Sore nipples 423 

Sore throat, clergymen's 444 

Spasm 497 

Spirits 550 

Spitting of blood 432 

Splinters, thoins,etc 497 

Splints 465 

Sponge bath 538 

Stabs, cuts, wounds, etc 509 

Stimulants, caution in the use of 419 

Stimulants, alcoholic 549 

Stimulants, external 417 

Stings of insects, etc 497 

Stomachache 498 

Stomach, bleeding from the 433 

Stone-pock 500 

Stranguary 501 

Strn ma or scrofula 502 

Suckling 422 

Sunstroke 502 

Swaim's vermifuge 51 

Swallowing foreign bodies 502 

Sweating drops 521 

Syrup, cough 520 

Syrup, for consumptives 521 

Syrup, infant's 51 

Syrup, sootliiag 517 

Tea, beef 545 

Teething fever 451 

Teeth to extract with, little pain 517 

Tepid bath 539 

Thorns, etc 497 

Throat clergymen's sore 444 

To extract teeth with little pain 517 

To give medicine to an infant 518 

Toothache 502 

Tooth wash 518 

Treatment of lying-in woman 431 

Tremens, delirium 450 

Troches, Brown's bronchial 517 

Turkish bath 540 

Typhoid fever 503 

Typhus 505 

XJrine, incontinence of 477 

Uterine, hiemorrhages 521, 532 

Vaccination 507 

Vaccination, mode of 507 

Vapor baths 539 

Variola 403 

Vegetables, fruits, etc 548 

Venous h;emorrhage 513 

Vermifuge, Swaim's 51 

Voice, loss of 509 

Vomiting 503 

Vomiting (in pregnancy) 

"Warts and corns 524 

Water 546 

Wens, to cure 53 

Wet sheet 415 

Whooping cough 476 

Wine febrifuge 520 

Wines 550 

Woman, treatment of the lying-in 421 

Womb, falling of the 522 



Worm lozenges 5i7 

Worms, intestinal 516 

Wounds and bruises, dressings for 513 

Wounds, bruised 510 

Wounds, contused — 509 

Wounds, cuts and stabs 509 

Wounds, gunshot 512 

Wounds, haemorrhage from 514 

Wounds, incised .509 

Wounds, lacerated 509 

Wounds, non-perforating 513 

Wounds, perforating 512 

Wounds, punctured 509 

Yankee shaving soap 519 

Poisons and Antidotes. 

A.cid, carbolic 534 

Acid, hydro chloric 534 

Acid, hydrocyanic 533 

Acid, muriatic 534 

Acid, nitric .'31 

Acid, oxalic 533 

Acid, prussic 533 

Acid, sulphuric 534 

Aconite 528 

Alkalies 537 

Ammonia .... 537 

Animal poisons 528 

Antimony 535 

Aqua f ortis 534 

Arsenic 535 

"Belladonna 529 

Blue vitriol 536 

Butter of antimony 535 

Calomel 536 

Cambogia 530 

Carbolic acid 5.34 

Chloride of zinc 537 

Copper 536 

Corrosive sublimate 536 

"Deadly nightshade 529 

Digitalis purpurea 529 

Fox-glove 529 

Gamboge 530 

Tlpllpbores, the SrO 

Hemlock 5: 

Hemp, Indian 531 

Henbane 531 

Hydrochloric acid 534 

Hyoscyamua 531 

Indianhemp 531 

Ijabnrnum 531 

Lead , r. . 536 

Lead, sugar of 5.36 

Lead, wfiite 536 

Meadow saffron 531 

Mercury 536 

Mineral poisons 534 

Monkshood 528 

Muriatic acid 534 

Mushrooms 532 

]Vightshade, deadly 529 

Nitric acid , 534 

Nux Vomica 533 

Oil of Vitriol 5.34 

Opium 532 

Oxalic acid 533 

I*oisons 528 

Poisons, animal 528 

Poisons, mineral 534 



INDEX. 



Poisons, vegetable 528 

Prussic acid 533 

Saffron, meadow 531 

Salt, spirits of 5:54 

Strychnine 5:52 

Sui^ar of lead 5'i'J 

Sulphuric acid 534 

Tartar emetic 535 

Vegetable poisons 528 

Verdigris 53G 

"White lead 536 

Yew 533 

Zinc, Chloride of 537 

Medicines & their looses. 

Articles suitable for a medicine chest. 552 

Houseliold, 

^Imond cake 678 

Ants, to eetridof 692, 694 

Apples (dried) pies 6G7 

Apple dumpling 670 

Apple pies 6G7 

Arti'^hokes G55 

Asparagus 652 

Atmosphere, to test purity of 6bl 

Tiacon, to fry or boil 633 

Bass, striped 5'Jl 

Beans and corn, succotash 652 

Beans and pork 635 

Beans, green 652 

Beans, Lima 653 

Beans, shelled 655 

Beans, string 655 

Bedbugs, cure for 693 

Beef 603, 617 

Beef and onion stew .". . .610 

Beef, bouilli 605 

Beef, corned GU6 

Beef, hashed 609 

Beefheart 609 

Beef, remains of roast 61 

Beef, soup with vegetables 5!i0 

Beef, spiced 610 

Beefsteaks 610 

Beefsteaks, fried 610 

Beef, to boil pickled 610 

Beef, to choose 607 

Beef to ague 607 

Beef, to roast 611 

Beef, to stow 603 

Beef, to stew a round 608 

Beetles, to kill 691 

Beets 650 

Berry pie 669 

Beverages and condiments 572 

Birds 620 

Birds, to pot 624 

Biscuit, milk 663 

Biscuit or bread cake 661 

Black bean soup 58 ! 

Black fish stewed 591 

Black fish, to fry 5!;i 

Bluing 693 

Board, cleaning 682 

Boiled meats and stews 601 

Boiled or roast chickens 620 

Boiling meats 617 

Brains, to make a dish of calf's 613 

Brass, to clean 684,688 

Bread 657 

Bread, browu 660 



Bread, cake or biscuit 661 

Bread, corn 660 

Bread, graham 658 

Bread-making and flour 656 

Bread, rye G61 

Bread, to make twist 660 

Bread, wheat and Indian 660 

Breakfast, for 559 

Bride cake, rich. 677 

Brittania metal, to clean ...691 

Bronze, to clean G'jS 

Buns, common CG3 

Cabbage •wq 

Cabbage jelly !...'.'!!."!!'.!!!. ,^G54 

Cabl)age, to prepare the 637 

Cake, icing for 677 

Oake, Indian griddle 661 

Cake, Johnny tJ61 

Cake, loaf .(,75 

Cake, molasses cup 674 

Cake, plum G76 

Cake, pound 075 

Cake, ricn bride 677 

Cake, soft gingerbread 674 

Cake, spice 674 

Cake, sponge 675 

Cake, to ice or frost 677 

Cake, ■wedding 676 

Cake, wine 674 

Cakes 674 

Cakes, almond 678 

Cakes, common cup 673 

Cakes, currrant short 678 

Cakes, drop 676 

Cakes, flannel 665 

Cakes, French tea 676 

Cakes, griddle Buckwheat 662 

Cakes, griddle Indian 661 

Calf's brains, to make a dish of 613 

Calf's head fiitj, 613 

Calf's head-clieose 613 

Calf's head soup 583 

Candlesticks, to clean 689 

Canningand preserving 679 

Canning, general rules for 680 

Carpets, how to clean 682 

Carpets, to remove grease from 682 

Carpets, to remove ink from 682 

Carrots .648 

Carrots, old or winter 653 

Carrot pudding 673 

Carving 503 

Cauliflower 646 

Canliflower, boiled 654 

Cement for glass 692 

Cheese, calf's head 6l3 

Cherry pie 6:i9 

Chicken, escalloped 625 

Chicken, fricassee 625 

Chicken jelly 626 

Chicken pie 625 

Chicken pie and rice (.^.i 

Chickens, jellied (:22 

Chickens, prairie 623 

Chickens, roast or boiled 620 

Chicken, stuffing for 62:3 

Chicken, to boil 62:3 

Chocolate 577 

Chops, veal 614 

Chowder 594 

Clam chowder 597 

Clams, fried hard shell 597 

Clams, hard sliell 596 

Clam^ stewed 596 



INDEX. 



Clams, to boil 596 

Clame, to boil soft shell 596 

Clame, to fry soft shell 596 

Cloths, to clean floor (5Sa 

Cocoanut pie ^^^ 

Cod, baked 5b9 

Cod, cold boiled 588 

Codflsh cakes 588 

Codfish, dried 58i 

Codfish steaks fried joo 

Cod, fresh 588 

Cod, fresh, to boil 588 

Cod, stewed salt ■^' 

Coffee, cream and milk for ^i}> 

Coffee, good New England 5^6 

Coffee, Vienna 57u 

Cold slaw to4 

Cookies ^1° 

Cookies, soft 0^° 

Condiments and beverages •>t^ 

Copper, to clean 6ffi 

Corned beef 606 

Corn beef, to boil salted or 6o6 

Corn, green "53, 655 

Corn green, fritters 655 

Corn oysters 653 

Corn pudding 6a5 

Corn soup 583 

Crabs, to boil 59o 

Crabs, to choose 59o 

Cream and milk for coffee 5TC 

Crickets, to kill 691 

Crullers and doughnuts 664 

Crust, plain pie 606 

Crust, tart 666 

Currant short cake 6i 8 

Curtains, to clean 688 

Custard pie 669 

I>iningroom, the 555 

Dinner table, the 561 

Doughnuts 664 

Doughnuts, to fry and crullers 664 

Duck, canvass-back 629 

Duck, roast 6^ 

Duck, to choose 628 

Dumpling, apple 6i0 

Dyeing 694 

Dyeing, black 694,69^ 

Dyeing, blue on cotton or linen 69 1 

Dyein g, blue, quick process 695 

Dyeing, chrome blackfor woolen goods. 694 

Dyeing, crimson 698 

Dyeing, dark colors 696 

Dyeing, green ._ 697, 698 

Dyeing, green, on wool or silk 695 

Dyeing, green, with oak bark 695 

Dyeing, madder red 695 

Dyeing, orange 690 

Dyeing, pink 690 

Dyeing purple 696 

Dyeing, red 69' 

Dyeing, scarlet with cochineal 696 

Dyeing, silver drab 696 

Dyeing, snuff brown, dark 695 

Dyeing, stocking yarn or wool 695 

Dyeing, wine color 695 

lyeing. yellow 

Eels 592 

Eels, fried 593 

Egg plant 654 

Eggs and ham fried 635 

Eggs and ham omelet 641 

EggB baked 641 

Egg omelet 641 



Eggs poached , , 642 

Eggs sur le Plat 642 

Eggs, to boil 641 

Eggs, to choose 640 

English breakfast or Oolong tea 577 

Fi&h 585 

Fish, baked cod 589 

Fish, black, stewed 591 

Fish, black to fiy 591 

Fish, cold boiled cod 588 

Fish, dried cod 587 

Fish, fresh cod 588 

Fish, fresh cod to boil 588 

Fish, shell 594 

Fish, stewed fresh cod 587 

Fish, to broil 586 

Fish, to fry or broil properly 586 

Flannel cakes 665 

Flannel, colored, to wash 692 

Flannel, to wash without shrinking 692 

Flies 691 

Flour and bread making 656 

French polish 687 

Game and poultry 618 

Gilt, to clean 685 

Gilding, to clean 691 

Gingerbread soft, molasses 674 

Gingerbread without eggs ..674 

Ginger padding 672 

Glass, to clean 683 

Good New England coffee 576 

Goose, roast... 626 

Goose, to choose 626 

Graham bread 658 

Grease spots, to remove 681 

Green peas 651 

Greens and sprouts ... 650 

Griddle cakes, buckwheat 662 

Griddle cakes, buckwheat, to bake 663 

Griddle cakes, Indian 661 

Guest, duties of 571 



H addock 589 

Halibut 591 

Halibut, to boil 591 

Ham and eggs, fried 635 

Ham boiled 632 

Ham fried, and poached eggs 635 

Ham, glazed 618 

Ham gravy 634 

Ham omelet 641 

Ham, to bake 618 

Ham, to boil 632 

Ham, to broil 634 

Ham, to fry 634 

Hashed beef 609 

Heart, beef, baked or roasted 609 

Herrings 594 

Host, duties of 569 

Household 553 

Ice cream and ices, freezing 679 

Ice cream of cream 679 

Ice cream w'ith eggs 679 

Iced tea 577 

Icing for cakes, to make 677 

I Ddian muffins 664 

Ink, to remove 692 

Iron, to clean 685 

Japanned waiters to clean 685 

Jelly, cabbage 654 

K^idneys, beef 609 

Kitchen, the 553 

Knives and forks, to clean 691 



INDEX. 



r^amb, boiled 607 Pancaxes, rice... rrk 

Lamb quarter, roasted 638 Parlor, the ^ 

Lamb, quarter, to prepare for broiling. (i38 Parsnip stew ......!!!!!!] 637 

Lamb, stewed with peas &iS Partridges and quail rJi 

Lamb, to broil a breast of t)37 Pastry [ " e?2 

Lamb, to choose C37jPeas, ereen !,'.!!!!!.! kr? 

Leg of pork, to boil 033 jPea soup ...!.'. 5gi 

Lemoa pie 6(58 1 Pepper, vinegar .'..',' m^ 

Lima beans 653|Perch.. f ^of 

Liver, beef 608 Pie crust... '.'....'...'. 666 

Lobster salad 595:Pie, cherry and berry 669 

Lobsters, to choose 594 Pie, cocoanut kro 

Lobsters, to boil syj'Pie, custard. . . 669 

Loin, to roast.... 631 Pie, dried-apple 667 

Looking glasses to clean 689. Pie, grandmother's apple .'.'.'.'.'. 667 

Miacaroni 645 Pje, lemon '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.(i68 

Mackerel, dried 593 J, ■"» '"iiice, rich 667 

Mackerel, fresh 593 ! gf e. orange 669 

Mackerel, salt or dressed 593:f:^e. pie-plant 669 

Matting, to clean 68:i!^fe, pumpkin . . 

Mahogany, to clean 687[:^iei rich mince 



669 
667 



Marble, to clean 684'Pie, squash or pumpkin 668 

Marrow pudding 673||:ie, strawberry 669 

Meats 603^^16, sweet potato 668 

Meats, boiling 617^?e3 666 

Meats, boiled and stewed 604^ickled beef, to boil 616 

Mice to drive away 694r^igeoD3 t cook 624 

Mildew, to remove 693 gig's check 633 

Milk and cream for coffee 576 f,]S's feet soused 632 

Pig, to bake 631 



Mince pie 667 

Mint vinegar 602 

Miscellaneous recipes 681 

Mock turtle soup, perfect 580 

Molasses cup cakes 674 

Muffins 663 

Muffins, Indian meal 662 

Muffins, rice 664 

Mutton 604 

Mutton, boiled 607 Pork chops, steaks and cutlets 

Mutton, breast of to broil 640 Pork, salt, to fry or broil, 



Pike or pickerel 594 

Plate, to clean 689 

Plum cake 676 

Plum pudding, any day . G71 

Plum pudding, English 671 

Poundcake 675 

Pork 604,630 

Pork and beans 635 

...633 
...633 



Mutton chop fried 640 Pork sausages . .' aSO 

Mutton, haunch of 639 Pork, sparerib 630 

Mutton, leg of boiled 640 Pork, tenderloin 631 

Mutton, observations on ©W Pork, to boil leg of 633 

Mutton, shoulder of 640 Pork, to broil 633 

IVew England coffee 576 potato puffs 647 

^^ , ^ " „,jPotatoes 643 

Omelet, egg 641 Potatoes, browned '.'.'.'.'.'.M'l 

Potatoes, cream 644 

Potatoes, creaming 647 

Potatoes, fried 647 

Potatoes, fritters '. . .'.648 

Potatoes, hashed 649 

Patatoes, mashed 648 

Patatoes, Saratoga 64r 

Potatoes, snow 644 

Potatoes, sweet ! ! !649 

Potatoes, sweet, roasted 649 

Potatoes, sweet, to bake 649 

Potatoes, sweet, to boil 649 

Poultry 604 

Poultry and game 6I8 

Poultry, dressing for 619 

Poultry, to clean 6I8 

Preserving and canuing 679 



Omelet, ham 641 

Onion and beef stew 610 

Onions 654 

Oolong tea 577 

Orange pie 009 

Oyster fritters . 597 

Oyster patties 600 

Oysterplant 647 

Oyster pie 599 

Oysters 597 

Oysters and chicken croquettes 600 

Oysters broiled 598 

Oysters broiled on the shell 599 

Oysters fricasseed 599 

Oysters fried 538 

Oysters griddled 598 

Oysters, mock or fried salsify 64' 

Oysters, panned 

Oysters, pickled 

Osyters, scalloped 

Oyster soup 584,585 

Oysters, to fry with batter 599 

Oysters, to stew 598 

I»aint, to clean 681 

Paint, to remove from wood 685 

Paint spots 643 

Pancakes 665 



"mte'H^g^ ■ 670 

o""!Pudding batter, boiled or baked 671 

wu Pudding, carrot 671 

Pudding, cheap apple 673 

Pudding, cottage 672 

Pudding, carrot 673 

Pudding, gin ger 673 

Pudding, marrow 672 

Pudding, plum, any day 673 

Pudding, olum. English 671 



INDEX. 



Pudding, rice 6"2 

Pudding, Bteamed graham bread 673 

Pudding, tapioca 671 

Pudding, wbortleberry — 673 

Pumpkin pie 669 

Quail 623 

Quail on toast 624 

Hecipee 580 

Eemarks 559 

nice 644 

Rice and chicken pie 625 

Rice pancakes 665 

Rice Puddings 673 

Round of beef, to stew 608 

Roux, to make a 601 

Rusk, tea 603 

Rust, to remove 683 

Ruta baga 650 

Rye bread 661 

©alads 665 

Salads and sauces 601 

Salad, chicken 665 

Salads, dressing for C66 

Salmon 531 

Salmon, boiled ...592 

Salmon, broiled 592 

Salmon, salt 592 

Salmon, spiced 502 

Salsify fried, or mock oysters 647 

Sauce, bread. 601 

Sauce, celery 601 

Sauce, Chili 602 

Sauce, cranberry 602 

Sauce, Dutch 603 

Sauce, egg 602 

Sauce, horseradish 603 

Sauce, mint 602 

Sauce, mushroom 603 

Sauce, oyster 602 

Sauces and salads 601 

Sauces, to serve with roast pork 631 

Sauce, tomato 602 

Sauce, white 603 

Sausage meat 630 

Seasoning 577 

Scorches, to remove 693 

Shad 589 

Shad, baked 591 

Shad, broiled 589 

Shad, fried 589 

Shellfish 594 

Silk dresses, to clean 693 

Silver, to take stains out of 690 

Soups 580 

Soap, beef, with vegetables 580 

Soup, black bean 584 

Soup, calf's head 583 

Soup, corn 583 

Soup, oyster 584 

Soup, pea 584 

Soup, perfect mock turtle .. . ...580 

Soup, summer or winter corn 583 

Soup, tomato 584 

Soup, to season the 582 

Soup, turkey 583 

Soyer's cafe au lait 576 

Spinach 651,655 

Sponge cakes 675 

Sprouts and greens 650 

Squash pie 

Squash, summer 650 

Squash, winter 650 

Stains, grass, to remove 69: 

Staias, iron rust, to remove 692. 



Stair rods, to clean 689 

Starch 692 

Steaks, beef 610 

Steaks, fried 610 

Steel, to clean 685 

Stock and seasoning 577 

Strawberry pie B(i9 

Straw matting, to clean 683 

Succotash 636 

Summer and winter corn soup 083 

Sweet breads, broiled 643 

Sweet breads, roasted 64.3 

Sweet breads, stewed 642 

Sweet breads, veal 642 

Sweet potato pie or pudding !668 

Tables, to polish 086 

Tapioca pudding... 671 

Tart crust 666 

Tea '. ...577 

Tea, English breakfast or Oolong 577 

Tea, iced 577 

Tea rusk 661 

Tenderloin, pork 631 

Tins, to clean 688 

Tomato soup 584 

Tomatoes, stewed 645, 656 

Tongue, boiled 607 

To clean silk dresses 693 

To prevent blue fabrics from fading. . .693 

To remove grass stains 692 

To remove iron rust stains 692 

To remove mildew 693 

To remove scorches 693 

To season the soup 582 

To wash colored flannels 692 

To wash flannel without shrinking it.. 692 

Tripe, to fry 608 

Trout 594 

Turkey and chicken stuffling 623 

Turkey, boiled 620 

Turkey, boned : 621 

Turkey, escalloped 623 

Turkey, roast 619 

Turkey, soup 58:i 

Turkey, to boil 623 

Turnips, young 649 

Veal 612 

Veal and potato pie 616 

Veal, boiled 607 

Veal chops 614 

Veal, hashed 615 

Veal pie 616 

Veal stewed with vegetables 614 

Veal sweet breads 642 

Veal, to broil 612 

Veal, to roast 615 

Vegetables .643 

Venison. . 629 

Venison steak, fried 629 

Vienna coffee 576 



"Wall papers, to clean 681 

Water, to preserve fresh 692 

Wedding cake 676 

Whortleberry pudding 673 

Wine cakes 674 

Wood furniture 686 

Yeast 656 

Yeast, hop 65» 

Yeast, old school Presbyterian . . .659 

Domestic Pets. 

Birds 703 

Canaries ,..-.-....•. 1 709 



INDEX. 



Uomestic pets- 699 

Dormouse 701 

Doves 719 

Goldfinch 706 

IMCice 703 

Westlings ,.705 

Nightingale, Virginian 717 

Parrots 717 

Pets, domestic 699 

Squirrel 699 

"Virginian Nightingale 717 

Licgal Points, 

A^rticlee of agreement 721 

Attorney, power of 737 

I$ill of sale of personal property 737 

Bills of sale 721 

Building contract short 737 

Chattel mortgages 721 

" " withpower of Bale..739 
Contract, building 737 

Ueeds ,,., 72^ 



Exemptions from forced sales 727 

Form of will 741 

Forms of notes 735 

I^andlord and tenant 723 

Legal points 721 

IMortgage deed, sale and release 740 

Mortgage of personal property .738 

Mortgages, chattel 721 

Mortgages,chattel,with power of sale.. 739 

iNotes, forms of 735 

Partnerships 724 

Personal property, bill of sale 737 

Personal property, mortgage 738 

Points, legal 721 

Power of attorney 737 

Sale,billsof 721 

Sales, exemptions from 727 

Tenant and landlord 723 

>^ill, formof 741 

Wills 725 

Useful Tables 743 



THE FA.RM:. 



Manures. — In their broadest sense, manures embrace every 
material, which, if added to the soil, tends to its fertilization. 
They are appropriately divided into organic and inorganic : 
the first embracing animal and vegetable substances which 
have an appreciable quantity of nitrogen ; the last compre- 
hending only such as are purely mineral or earthy, and which 
in general contain no nitrogen. These characteristics are 
sometimes partially blended, but they are sufificiently distinct 
for classification. 

Much pertinacity has been exhibited by some highly intelli- 
gent minds, who should have entertained more liberal views, 
as to the peculiar kinds of manures necessary to support a 
satisfactory productiveness. We have seen that Tull main- 
tained that the deepening and thorough pulverization of the 
soil was alone sufficient to secure perfect fertility. But this 
crude notion, it is evident to the most superficial modern 
reader, is wholly untenable. Some agriculturists of the pres- 
ent day, however, while they scout at the theory of Tull, (who 
was really a shrewd m9.n for his day,) will yet claim as ess^n- 
l 



34 THE FARM. 

tial to successful vegetation, the existence m the soil of but a 
part only of the food of plants. Thus, one asserts that the 
salts alone will secure good crops ; others maintain that the 
nitrogenous substances are the true source of fertility ; while 
still another class refer to the presence of humus or geine (the 
available product of vegetable and animal decay in the soil) as 
the only valuable foundation of vegetable nutriment in all 
manures. Truth and sound practice lie between, or rather in 
the combination of all these opinions. 

It is obvious that such principles as all fertile soils furnish 
to vegetables must be contained in manures. It is no satis- 
factory answer to this position to assert that numerous experi- 
ments have apparently been successful, of growing plants in 
pure sand and water ; or with charcoal and the salts added ; 
or even that there are some atmospheric plants that fulfill 
their zoophytic existence in air. Growth may continue for a 
long time under such circumstances ; but full maturity never 
arrives, and probably never can, without the available presence 
in the soil of every element which enters into the composition 
of plants. 

Profitable farming requires that manures embodying all 
these elements should be added in sufficient quantities to the 
soil, to develop fully and rapidly such crops as are sought 
from it. It becomes, then, a matter of the highest conse- 
quence to the farmer to understand, not only what substances 
may be useful as manures, but also how to apply them in the 
best manner to his crops so far as they may be made profitable. 

Superphosphate of Lime. — Take a large tub, or barrel, 
and put into it loo lbs. water ; add, very slowly and cautiously, 
43 lbs. of pure sulphuric acid ; you must be very careful while 
handling this article not to let it touch your skin or clothing, 
as it will instantly blacken the skin, and destroy the clothing, 
wherever it comes in contact ; and, when mixed with water, it 
engenders a very intense heat. Into this mixture throw loo 
lbs. weight of bones, no matter how old or useless they may 
be. The sulphuric acid instantly attacks and enters into com- 
bination with the bones, reducing them to a pasty consistency, 
and completely dissolving them. Keep under cover, and 
turn them over occasionally, while the process is going on ; 



THE FARM. 35 

and, when completed, dump out the whole contents on the 
barn floor or on a platform of boards, and thoroughly work 
into the mass four times its bulk of dry bog earth or dry road 
dust ; mix and pulverize completely with a wooden shovel. 
The bog earth acts as an absorbent, or dryer, retaining the fer- 
tilizing properties of the compound, and rendering it easy of 
uniform distribution. If whole bones are used, it will take six 
or eight weeks to dissolve them ; if they are broken with an 
axe, they will dissolve in about three weeks ; if they are ground 
in a bone mill, four days will be sufficient. This manure is 
the most powerful fertilizer in existence ; and, when made by 
these directions, it is the cheapest, as one ton is equal to thirty- 
two tons of barn-yard manure. For top dressing grass lands, 
use 300 lbs. per acre ; for corn, potatoes, beans, turnips, &c., 
apply 450 lbs. per acre in the drill, mixing with the soil ; for 
wheat, rye, oats, or barley, 400 lbs. per acre, harrowing in with 
the seed ; for buckwheat, 300 lbs. per acre. 

Home-made Guano of Unequalled Excellence. — 
Save all your fowl manure from sun and rain. To prepare it 
for use, spread a layer of dry swamp muck (the blacker it is 
the better) on your barn floor, and dump on it the whole of 
your fowl manure ; beat it into a fine powder with the back of 
your spade ; this done, add hard wood ashes and plaster of 
Paris, so that the compound shall be composed of the follow- 
ing proportions : Dried muck, three bushels ; fowl manure, 
two bushels ; ashes, one bushel ; plaster, one and one-half 
bushels ; mix thoroughly, and spare no labor ; for* in this mat- 
ter the elbow grease expended will be well paid for. A little 
before planting moisten the heap with water, or, better still, 
with urine, cover well over with old mats and let it lie till 
wanted for use. Apply it to beans, corn, or potatoes at the 
rate of a handful to a hill, and mix with the soil before drop- 
ping the seed. This will be found the best substitute for 
guano ever invented, and may be depended on for bringing 
great crops of turnips, corn, potatoes, &c. 

To DISSOLVE large Bones for Manure without Ex- 
pense. — Take any old flour-barrel, and put into the bottom a 
layer of hardwood ashes ; "put a layer of bones on the top of 
the P-shes, filling the space between the hordes with theni | then 



8fi THE FARM. 

add bones and ashes alternately, finishing off with a thick 
layer of ashes. When your barrel is filled, pour on water 
(urine is better), just sufficient to keep them wet, but do not on 
any account suffer it to leach one drop ; for that would be 
like leaching your dungheap. In the course of time they will 
heat, and eventually soften down so that you can crumble 
them with your finger. When sufficiently softened, dump them 
out of the barrel on a heap of dry loam, and pulverize and 
crumble them up till they are completely amalgamated into one 
homogeneous ma^s with the loam, so that it can be easily 
handled and distributed whenever required. You may rely on 
it, this manure will leave its mark, and show good results wher- 
ever it is used. 

How TO Double the usual Quantity of Manure on 
A Farm. — Provide a good supply of black swamp mould or 
loam from the woods within easy reach of your stable, and 
place a layer of this, one foot thick, under each horse, with 
litter, as usual, on the top of the loam or mould. Remove the 
droppings of the animal every day, but let the loam remain 
for two weeks ; then remove it, mixing it with other manure, 
and replace with fresh mould. By this simple means any far- 
mer can double, not only the quantity, but also the quality, of 
his manure, and never feel himself one penny the poorer by 
the trouble or expense incurred, while the fertilizing value of 
the ingredients absorbed and saved by the loam can scarcely 
be estimated. 

Josiah Quincy, jun., h .s been very successful m keeping 
cattle in stables the year through, and feeding them, by means 
of soiling. The amount of manure thus made had enabled 
him to improve the fertility of a poor farm of loo acres, so 
that in twenty years the hay crop had increased from 20 tons 
to 300. The cattle are kept in well arranged stables, and are 
let out into the yard an hour or two morning and afternoon ; 
but they generally appear glad to return to their quarters. By 
this process, one acre enables him to support three or four 
cows. They are fed on grass, green oats, corn fodder, barley, 
&c., which are sown at intervals through the spring and sum- 
mer months to be cut as required'; but he remarks that his 
Riost valuable crop is his manure crop. Each cow produces 



THE FARM. 3t 

3 1-2 cords of solid, and 3 cords of liquid, manure, or 6 1-2 
cords in all. He uses twice as much muck to mix with it, 
making 20 cords in all. Five to 8 miles from Boston, such 
manure is worth five to eight dollars a cord. From this esti- 
mate, he has come to the conclusion that a cow's manure may 
be made as valuable as her milk 

Twenty Dollars' Worth of Manure for almost 
Nothing. — If you have any dead animal, say, for instance, the 
body of a horse, do not suffer it to pollute the atmosphere by 
drawing it away to the woods, or any other out of the way 
place, but remove it a short distance only from your premises, 
and put down four or five loads of muck or sods, place the car- 
cass thereon, sprinkle it over with quick-lime, and cover 
over immediately with sods or mould sufficient to make, with 
what had been previously added, 20 good wagon loads, and 
you will have within twelve months a pile of manure worth $20 
for any crop you choose to put it upon. Use a proportionate 
quantity of mould for smaller animals, but never less than 
twenty good wagon loads for a horse ; and, if any dogs mani- 
fest too great a regard for the enclosed carcass, shoot them on 
the spot. 

Fish Compost, Substitute for Bone-Dust. Manure 
FROM Fish Refuse, &c. — The fish owes its fertilizing value 
to the animal matter and bone earth which it contains. The 
former is precisely similar to flesh or blood, consisting of 25 
per cent, of fibrin, the rest being water ; and their bones are 
similar in composition to terrestrial animals. As fertilizing 
agents, therefore, the bodies of fish will act nearly in the same 
way as the bodies and blood of animals ; 100 lbs. in decaying 
produce 2 1-2 lbs. of ammonia. Hence, 400 lbs. of fish rotted 
in compost are enough for an acre. The great effect is due to 
the ammoniacal portion ; for it renders the herbage dark green, 
and starts it very rapidly. One of the best composts is made 
as follows : Dried bog earth, loam, or peat, seven barrels ; 
hardwood ashes, two barrels ; fish, one barrel ; slacked lime, 
one bushel. Place a thick layer of the bog earth on the bot- 
tom ; on the top of this put a layer of the fish, then a sprink- 
ling of lime, then a layer of ashes ; on top of the ashes put a 
thick layer of bog earth, loam, or peat ; then another thin 



88 THE FARM. 

layer of fish, lime, and ashes, and so on till your materials are 
worked in ; then top off with a thick layer of the absorbents 
to retain the fertilizing gases. The decomposition of the fish 
will proceed very rapidly, and a very rich compost will be the 
result. It should be shoveled over and over, and thoroughly 
intermixed and pulverized. Put this on so as to have 400 lbs. 
of fish to the acre. It may be applied with the greatest bene- 
fit to corn, turnips, potatoes, beans, &c.. in the drill, and 
broad-cast on the grass. 

Ashes from Soil by Spontaneous Combustion. — Make 
your mound 2 c feet long by 10 1-2 feet wide. To fire, use 72 
bushels of lime. First a layer of dry sods or parings on which 
a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it, then a cover- 
ing of eight inches of sods, on which the other half of the lime 
is sp'^ad, and covered a foot thick, the height of the mound 
beixig about a yard. In twenty-four hours it will take fire. 
The lime should be fresh from the kiln. It is better to suffer 
it to ignite itself than to effect it by the operation of water. 
When the fire is fairly kindled, fresh sods must be applied, 
but get a good body of ashes in the first place. I think it may 
be fairly supposed that the lime adds full its worth to the 
quality of the ashes, and when limestone can be got I would 
advise the burning a small quantity in the mounds, which 
would be a great improvement to the ashes, and would help to 
keep the fire in. 

Substitute for Barn Manure. — Dissolve a bushel of 
salt in water enough to slack 5 or 6 bushels of lime. The best 
rule for preparing the compost heap is, i bushel of this lime to 
I load of swamp muck intimately mixed, though 3 bushels to 
5 loads makes a very good manure. In laying up the heap let 
the layers of muck and lime be thin, so that decomposition 
may be more rapid and complete. When lime cannot be got, 
use unleached ashes, 3 or 4 bushels to a cord of muck. In a 
month or six weeks overhaul and work over the heap, when it 
will be ready for use. Sprinkle the salt water on the lime as 
the heap goes up. 

Ashes may he pronounced the best of the saline manures. 
They are also among the most economical ; as, from our free 
use of fuel, they are largely produced by almost every house- 



THE FARM. 39 

hold. Good husbandry dictates that not a pound of ashes 
should be wasted, but all should be saved and applied to the 
land ; and, where they can be procured at a reasonable price, 
they should be purchased for manure. Leached ashes, though 
less valuable, contain all the elements of the unleached, having 
been deprived only of a part of their potash and soda. They 
may be drilled into the soil with roots and grain, sown broad- 
cast on meadows or pastures, or mixed with the muck heap. 
They improve all soils not already saturated with the princi- 
ples which they contain. 

The quantity of ashes that should be applied to the acre 
must depend on the soil and crops cultivated. Potatoes, tur- 
nips and all roots — clover, lucern, peas, beans, and the grasses, 
are great exhausters of the salts, and they are consequently 
much benefited by ashes. They are used with decided advan- 
tage for the above crops in connection with bone dust ; and 
for clover, peas and roots, their effects are much enhanced 
when mixed with gypsum. Light soils should have a smaller, 
and rich lands or clays, a heavier, dressing. From twelve to 
fifteen bushels per acre for the former, and thirty for the lat- 
ter, is not too much ; or, if they are leached, the quantity may 
be increased one-half, as they act with less energy. Repeated 
dressings of ashes, like those ot lime and gypsum, Avithout a 
corresponding addition of vegetable or barnyard manures, will 
eventually exhaust tillage lands. 

Salt. — As a manure, salt was extensively used by the an- 
cients, and has ever since been employed by intelligent agri- 
culturists. On some soils it yields no apparent benefit. Such 
as are near the sea-coast, and occasionally receive deposits 
from the salt spray, which is often carried far inland by the 
ocean storms ; or such as contain chlorine and soda in any 
other forms, are not affected by it. But in other situations, 
when used at the rate of three to sixteen bushels per acre, the 
crops of grains, roots or grasses have been increased from 20 
to 50 per cent. It may be applied in minute portions in the 
hill, or scattered broadcast, or mixed with the muck heap. Its 
great affinity for water has the effect, like that of gypsum, of 
attracting dews and atmospheric vapor to the growing vegeta- 
tion by which it is supplied with moisture in a period of 



40 THE FARM. 

drought, much beyond what is conveyed to such as are desti- 
tute of these manures. Salt is also useful in destroying slugs, 
worms and larvae, which frequently do much injury to the 
crops. 

Old Lime Plaster, from Walls of Buildings, Etc. — 
For meadows, and for most other crops, especially on clays 
and loams, this is worth twice its weight in hay ; as it will 
produce a large growth of grass for years in succession, with- 
out other manure. But the farmer cannot too carefully remem- 
ber that with this, as with all other saline manures, but a part 
of the ingredients only is thus supplied to vegetables ; and, 
without the addition of the others, the soil will sooner or later 
become exhausted. 

Barn- YARD Manure. — The bulk, solubility and peculiar 
tendency to fermentation of barn-yard manure, renders it a 
matter of no little study so to arrange it as to preserve all its 
good qualities and apply it vmdiminished to the soil. A part 
of the droppings of the cattle are necessarily left in the pas- 
tures, or about the stacks where they are fed ; though it is 
better, for various reasons, that they should never receive their 
food from the stack. The manure thus left in the fields should 
be beaten up and scattered with light, long-handled mallets, 
immediately after the grass starts in the spring, and again be- 
fore the rainsin the autumn. With these exceptions, and the 
slight waste which may occur in driving cattle to and from the 
pasture, all the manure should be dropped either in the stables 
or in the yards. These should be so arranged that cattle may 
pass from one directly into the other ; and the yard should, if 
possible, be furnished with wells, cisterns, or running water. 
There is twice the value of manure wasted annually on some 
farms in sending the cattle abroad to water, that would be re- 
quired to provide it for them in the yard for fifty years. 

The premises where the manure is dropped should be 
kept as dry as possible ; and the eaves should project several 
feet beyond the side of the building so as to protect the 
manure thrown out of the stables from the wash of rains. The 
barns and all the shed" ::hould have eave-troughs to carry off 
the water, which, if saved in a sufficiently capacious cistern, 
would furnish a supply for the cattle. The forin of the yard 



THE FARM. 41 

ought to be dishing toward the center, and, if on sandy or 
gravelly soil, it should be puddled or covered with clay to 
prevent the leaking and escape of the liquid manure. The 
floors of the stables may be so made as to permit the urine to 
fall on a properly prepared bed of turf under them, where] it 
would be retained till removed ; or it should be led off by 
troughs into the yard or to a muck heap. 

Value of Liquid Manures. — The urine voided from a 
single cow is considered in Flanders, where agricultural prac- 
tice has reached a high state of advancement, to be worth $io 
per year. It furnishes nine hundred pounds of solid matter, 
and, at the price of $50 per ton, for which guano is frequently 
sold, the urine of a cow for one year is worth $20. And yet 
economical farmers will waste urine and buy guano ! The 
urine of a cow for a year will manure one and a quarter acres 
of land, and is more valuable than its dung, in the ratio by 
bulk, of seven to six ; and in real value as two to one. How 
important, then, that every particle of it be carefully husbanded 
for the crops. 

Solid Animal Manures. — Of these horse dung is the 
richest and the easiest to decompose. If in heaps, fermenta- 
tion will sometimes commence in twenty-four hours ; and even 
in midwinter, if a large pile be accumulated, it will proceed 
with great rapidity ; and, if not arrested, a few weeks, under 
favorable circumstances, are sufficient to reduce it to a small 
part of its original weight and value. 

The manure of sheep is rich and very active, and, next to 
that of the horse, is the most subject to heat and decomposition. 
The manure of cattle and swine, being of a colder nature, may 
be thrown in with that of the horse and sheep in alternate 
layers. If fresh manure be intermixed with straw and other 
absorbents (vegetables, peat, turf, etc.,) and constantly added, 
the recent coating will combine with any volatile matters which 
fermentation develops in the lower part of the mass. Frequent 
turning of the manures is a practice attended with no benefit, 
but with certainty of the escape of much of its valuable pro- 
perties. Many farmers assign a distinct or peculiar merit to 
the different manures. Much of this opinion is fanciful, for 
there is frequently more difference in the comparative value of 



43 THE FARM. 

that from the same species, and even the same individual, at 
different times and under different circumstances, than from 
those of different species. 

Manuring with Green Crops. — This system has within 
a few years been extensively adopted in some of the older set- 
tled portions of the United States. The comparative cheap- 
ness of land and its products, the high price of labor, and the 
consequent expense of making artificial manures, renders this 
at present tha^most economical plan which can be pursued. 
The object of this practice is, primarily, fertilization ; and 
connected with it, is the clearing of the ground from noxious 
weeds, as in fallows, by plowing in the vegetation before the 
seed is ripened ; and finally to loosen the soil and place it in 
the mellowest condition for the crops which are to succeed. 
Its results have been entirely successful, when steadily pursued 
with a due consideration of the objects sought, and the means 
Dy which they are to be accomplished. Lands in many of our 
eastern states, which have been worn out by improvident culti- 
vation, and unsaleable at $io an acre, have, by this means, 
while steadily remunerating their proprietors for all the outlay 
of labor and expense by their returning crops, been brought 
up in value to $50. 

Plowing. — The time, the depth and the manner of plow- 
ing must depend on the crops to be raised, the fertility and 
character of the soil, and other circumstances. 

Plowing Clay Lands. — Whenever practicable, these 
should be plowed in the fall for planting and sowing the ensu- 
ing spring. The tenacity of the soil may thus be temporarily 
broken up by the winter frosts, its particles more thoroughly 
separated, and the whole mass reduced to a finer tilth than 
can possibly be effected in any other manner. 

The furrows of clay soils should be turned over so as to 
lap on the preceding and lie at an angle of 45 o; and for this 
purpose the depth of the furrow slice should be about two- 
thirds its width. Thus a furrow six inches deep should be 
about nine inches wide, or, if eight inches deep, it should be 
twelve inches wide. This will allow of the furrows lying regu- 
larly and evenly, and in the proper position for the drainage of 
the soi>, the free circulation of air, and the most efficient ac- 



THE FARM. 43 

tion of frosts which in this way have access to every side of 
them. Land thus thrown up is found to be finely pulverized 
after the frosts leave it, and it is comparatively dry and ready 
for use some time earlier than such as is not plowed till 
spring. For sowing, land plowed in this manner requires no 
additional plowing, but it is better fitted for the reception of 
seed than it can be by any further operation, unless by a slight 
harrowing if too rough. The different kinds of grain or peas 
may be dibbled in, or sown directly upon the surface and 
covered by the harrow ; and, if sown very early, the grass and 
clover seeds require no covering, but find their best position 
in the slight depressions which are everywhere made by the 
frosts, and which the subsequent rains and winds fill up and 
cover sufficiently to secure a certain growth. 

Plowing Sandy or Dry Soils. — These require flat 
plowing, which may be done when they are either quite wet or 
dry, but never till wanted for use. To insure flat plowing on 
an old sward, the depth of the furrow should be about one- 
half its width, and the land or ridges as wide as can conveni- 
ently be made, so as to preserve as much uniformity of sur- 
face over the whole field as possible. 

Depth of Plowing. — For general tillage crops, the depth 
of soil may be gradually augmented to about twelve inches, 
with decided advantage. Such as are appropriated to gardens 
and horticultural purposes, may be deepened to fifteen and 
even eighteen inches to the manifest profit of their occupants. 

Grasses. — Blue grass of Kentucky is highly esteemed for 
hay and pasture. The seed ripens in June and falls upon the 
ground, where the succeeding rains give it vitality and it 
pushes out its long, rich slender leaves, one to two feet in 
height, which in autumn fall over in thick windrows, matting 
the whole surface with luscious herbage. Upon these fields, 
which have been carefully protected till the other forage is ex- 
hausted, the cattle are turned and fattened through the winter. 
It maintains its freshness and nutritive properties in spite of 
frost, and the cattle easily reach it through the light snows 
which fall upon it. A warm, dry, calcareous soil seems to be 
Its natural element, and it flourishes only in a rich upland. 

The sweet scented vernal grass is an early, valuable pasture 



44 THE FARM. 

grass, which exhales that delightful perfume, so characteristic 
of much of the eastern meadow. It is a late as well as early 
grass and luxuriates in a dry, sandy loam. It affords two, and 
sometimes three, crops in a single season. 

Sowing Grass Seed. — Grass seeds do best when sown 
early in the spring, on a fine tilth or mellow soil. If this is 
done while the frost is leaving the ground, no harrowing will 
be necessary, as the spring rains wash the seed into the honey- 
comb left by the frost, and secure to it an early germination. 
They are also successfully sown in August or September, when 
the fall rains will generally give them sufficient growth to with- 
stand the effects of the succeeding winter, if the land be free 
from standing or surface water. It has recently been the prac- 
tice of many judicious farmers to renovate their old worn out 
meadows by giving them a coating of unfermented manure, 
and then turn the sod completely over. On the surface thus 
plowed, a dressing of well rotted manure or compost with 
ashes, is spread and throughly harrowed lengthwise of the 
furrows. The seed is then sown and slightly harrowed in, and 
the decomposing manure with the stubble and roots of the sod 
give an immediate and luxuriant growth. Grain may occupy 
the land with the grass seed, but, if the latter be sown alone 
and sufficiently thick, the young plants will exclude the weeds 
and occupy the soil as profitably as can be done with the grain. 
The English method is to mix together and sow on a single 
acre, without any grain, a bushel or more of various seeds, 
which are best adapted to the purpose. 

Pasturing Meadows. — There is no objection to feeding 
off meadows in early autumn, while the ground is dry and the 
sod firm. The roots of the grass are rather benefited than 
injured by the browsing and the land is improved by the drop- 
pings from the cattle, and more particularly by sheep. But 
they should never be pastured in spring. It is economy to 
purchase hay at any price rather than to spring pasture 
meadows. 

Time for Cutting Grass. — This must depend on the 
kind of grass. We have seen that timothy affords nearly 
double the quantity of nutriment in seed that it does in it» 
early flower, and it is then much more relished by stock. Tim 



THE FARM. 45 

othy, therefore, should never be cut except when the seed is 
formed. The proper time is when it is between the milk and 
dough state, and will nearly- ripen after cutting. Orchard grass, 
on the other hand, although it possesses two-sevenths more 
nutritive value for hay in the seed, yet as it is more tender and 
preferred by stock when cut in the flower, and as it con- 
tinues to grow rapidly afterwards, should be always cut at 
that time. 

Curing Grass. — Many farmers do not consider the 
scorching effects of July suns, and the consequence is that 
hay is too much dried. Unless the crop be very large, grass 
will generally cure sufficiently when exposed in the swath for 
two days. When shook or stirred out, it should not remain in 
this condition beyond the first day, as it will lose much of its 
nutritive juices ; nor should dew or rain be permitted to fall 
upon it unless in cocks. It is better, after partially drying, to 
expose it for three or four days in the cock. Hay should go 
into the barn or stack, not crisp and dry, but slightly soft and 
moist in its own juices, and as soon as properly cured place it 
under cover. 

Clover. — Mode of Cultivation. — Clover may be sown 
broadcast either in August or September, but much better and 
surer early in the spring, with most of the cereal grains, or the 
cultivated grasses ; or it may profitably constitute a crop by 
itself. On well prepared loams, ten or twelve pounds of good 
seed will frequently give a full covering to the land, while on 
clay twelve to sixteen pounds are necessary per acre. When 
Bown with the grasses, four to six pounds on the first, and 
eight to twelve pounds on the last, soil will suffice. An addi- 
tional amount of seed, as with the grasses, will give a finer 
quality of hay in consequence of multiplying the number of 
stalks ; and for this purpose, as well as to insure it on every 
spot of the field, it should always be liberally sown. The 
covering, like that of grass seeds, should be of the slightest 
kind ; and when sown very early in the spring, or on well 
pulverized grounds, and followed by rains, it will germinate 
freely without harrowing. 

Time for Cutting and Mode of Curing Clover,— » 



46 THE FARM. 

Clover should be cut after having fully blossomed and assumed 
a brownish hue. By close cutting, more forage is secured, and 
the clover afterward springs up more rapidly and evenly. The 
swath, unless very heavy, ought never to be stirred open, but 
allowed to wilt on the top. It may then be carefully turned 
over, and, when thus partially cured, placed in high, slender 
cocks and remain till sufficiently dry to remove into the barn. 
The clover may be housed in a much greener state by spread- 
ing evenly over it in the mow from ten to twenty quarts of salt 
per ton, A mixture of alternate layers of dry grass hay, or 
straw with the clover, by absorbing its juices, answers a better 
purpose, while it materially improves the flavor of the straw 
for fodder. 

Harvesting clover seed may be done generally after taking 
off one crop, or pasturing the field till June. Early mowing 
removes the first weeds, and the second growth of the clover is 
so rapid as to smother them and prevent their seeding, and the 
clover is thus saved comparatively clean. It is then mown and 
raked into very small cocks, and when dried at the top they 
are turned completely over without breaking, and as soon as 
throughly dried they may be carried to the threshing floor 
and the seeds beaten out with sticks, light flails, or, much bet- 
ter, with a threshing machine. An instrument, with closely set 
teeth and drawn by a horse, is sometimes used for collecting 
the clover heads from the standing stalks from which the seed 
is afterwards separated. A fan or clover machine may be used 
for cleaning the seed for market. The produce is from three 
to six bushels per acre, which is worth to the farmer from $5 
to $8 per bushel of sixty pounds. 

Pastures. — Every pasture should, if possible, be provided 
with running water and shade trees, or other ample protection 
against a summer's sun. The last can at all times be secured 
by a few boards supported on a light, temporary frame. Ex- 
cessive heat exhausts and sometimes sickens animals, and con- 
sequently it materially diminishes the effects of food in pro- 
moting their secretion of milk, the growth of wool, flesh, etc. 
Pastures ought to be protected against poaching, or treading 
up in the spring or late in the autumn. All grounds, immedi- 
ately after long and late rains in the fall, or the winter's frosts. 



THE FARM. 47 

are liable to this when exposed to the hoofs of cattle, particu- 
larly clay lands and such as have been recently seeded. 

Wheat. — Preparation of the Land for Sowing. — 
Wheat is partial to a well prepared clay or heavy loam, and 
this is improved when it contains either naturally or artificially 
a large proportion of lime. Lime is an important aid to the 
full and certain growth of wheat, checking its exuberance of 
straw and its liability to rust, and steadily aiding to fill out the 
grain. A rich mellow turf or clover lay is a good bed for it ; 
or land which has been well manured and cleanly cultivated 
with roots or corn the preceding season. Fresh barn-yard 
manure applied directly to the wheat crop is objectionable 
not only from its containing many foreign seeds, but from its 
tendency to excite a rapid growth of weak straw, thus causing 
the grain both to lodge and rust. The same objection lies 
against sowing it on rich alluvial or vegetable soils ; and in 
each, the addition of lime or ashes, or both, will correct these 
evils. A dressing of charcoal has in many instances been 
found an adequate preventive ; and so beneficial has it proved 
in France that it has been extensively introduced there for the 
wheat crop. 

Quantity of Seed and Time of Sowing. — On well 
pulverized, ordinary wheat soils, about five pecks of seed is 
sown to the acre, while rough land, clay soils, and such as are 
very fertile, require from six to eight. In Maryland but three 
pecks are frequently sown to the acre, and some of the best 
crops have been raised from only two pecks of seed on a finely 
pulverized soil. It takes more seed when full and plump than 
when shrunken, as there may be two of the latter to one of the 
former in the same measure. A difference is to be observed 
according to the kind of wheat, some needing more than 
others. 

After Culture. — Harrowing in the spring by loosening 
the soil, adds to the growth of the crop, and the loss of the few 
plants is much more than compensated by the rapid tillering 
and vigor of those which remain. Sowing in drills and hoeing 
between them is much practiced in Europe. The additional 
amount thus frequently raised would seem to justify the adop- 
tion of this mode of cultivation in this country ; and it shcMil<* 



48 THE FARM. 

at least be done so far as to give it a fair trial. On light soils 
rolling the wheat both in fall and spring is highly advantage- 
ous. When the growth is luxuriant, decided benefit has at- 
tended feeding off the wheat on the field in the fall or spring, 
taking care to permit the animals to go on only when the 
ground is firm. This, however, should be cautiously done, and 
then only by light animals, as calves, or sheep. 

Harvesting. — The grain should be cut immediately after 
the lower part of the stalk becomes yellow, while the grain is 
yet in the dough state, and is easily compressible between the 
thumb and finger. Repeated experiments have demonstrated 
that wheat cut then will yield more in measure, of heavier 
weight, and a larger quantity of sweet, white flour. If early 
cut, a longer time is required for curing before threshing or 
storing. 

Mowing or Stacking. — When stored in the straw, the 
grain should be so placed as to prevent heating or molding. 
This can only be avoided, unless very dry before carrying into 
the barn, by laying it on scaffolds where there is a free circula- 
tion of air around and partially through it. If placed in a 
stack, it should be well elevated from the ground ; and, if the 
stacks are large, a chimney of lattice or open work should be 
left from the bottom, running through the center to the top ; 
or a large bundle may be kept at the surface in the center, and 
drawn upwards as the stack rises, thus leaving an opening from 
the bottom to the roof. Additional security would be afforded 
by similar openings horizontally, at suitable intervals, so as to 
admit the air from one side to the other. 

Rye. — The: preparation of the soil for rye is similar to that 
for wheat ; and it may be advantageously sown upon a rich 
old turf or clover lay, or after corn or roots where the land 
has been well manured and thoroughly cleansed from weeds. 
There is not an equal necessity for using a brine-steep frr rye 
as for wheat, yet, if allowed to remain a few hours in a weak 
solution of saltpeter or some of the other salts, it promotes 
speedy germination and subsequent growth. 

Sowing. — There is but one species of rye, but to this culti- 
vation has given two varieties, the spring and winter. Like 



THE FARM. 49 

wheat, they are easily transformed into each other by sowing 
the winter continually later through successive generations to 
change it into spring again, and the opposite for its re-conver- 
sion into winter grain. The last should be sown from the 
twentieth of August to the twentieth of September, the earliest 
requiring less seed, as it has a longer time to tiller and fill up 
the ground. Five pecks is the usual quantity sown, but it 
varies from one to two bushels, according to the quality of the 
soil, the richest lands demanding most. It is a practice among 
many farmers to sow rye among their standing corn on light 
lands, hoeing or cultivating it in and leaving the ground as 
level as possible. On such lands this is attended with several 
advantages, as it gives the grain an early start, and a moist, 
sheltered position, at a time when drought and a hot sun 
would check or prevent vegetation. As soon as the corn is 
sufficiently matured, it should be cut up by the roots and 
placed in compact shocks, or removed to one side of the field, 
when the rye should be thoroughly rolled. When sown on a 
fresh plowed field, it should be harrowed in before rolling. 

Oats. — Cultivation. — Oats are sown at the rate of two to 
four bushels per acre during all the spring months, and some- 
times, though rarely, in June. The earliest sown are usually 
the heaviest and most productive. They may occupy a turf, 
or follow any of the well manured hoed crops, as mentioned 
in the preceding grain. Sowing salt broadcast over the land, 
at the rate of two to six bushels per acre, has been found of 
use to the crop, both in furnishing it with a necessary manure 
and by killing insects. The seed should be well harrowed in 
and rolled, and no after attention is required except to destroy 
the prominent weeds. 

Harvesting. — Oats frequently ripen unevenly, and, if 
there is a large proportion of such as are backward, the proper 
time for cutting will be as soon as the grain in the latest may 
be rul/bcH out of the straw by hand. The oat is sufficiently 
matured for harvesting after it has passed the milk state, and 
is easily compressed between the thumb and finger. The 
lower part of the stalk will then have assumed a yellow color, 
and it ceases to draw nutriment from the soil. If cut at this 
time, the straw is better for fodder and for other uses ; the 

2 



50 THE FARM. 

grain is fuller ; the husk lighter ; and the loss from shelling, 
which is frequently a great item when left too late, is avoided. 

Indian Corn. — The soil for com must be dry, rich and well 
pulverized. Neither strong clay, wet, nor poor lands will yield 
good crops of corn. Land can scarcely be too rich for it, and 
the fresher and less fermented the manure applied to it is, un- 
less on light, sandy soils, the better it wilfbe for the crop. A 
great error is committed in raising corn as with most of our 
tillage crops, from not having the soil sufficiently enriched ; 
though this error is diminished in the case of such as will not 
bear an excess of manure. 

Preparation of Seed. — Repeated experiments have de 
monstrated the great utility of steeping corn for twenty-four to 
forty-eight hours before planting, in a solution of saltpeter. 
This accelerates the growth of the plant, and is a protectioi 
against birds, squirrels and mice, and for a while it will keep 
off worms. An effectual remedy against these depredations is 
to add half a pint of boiling tar to a peck of seed, stirring the 
corn briskly for several minutes as the tar is added, till every 
kernel is thinly coated with it. This supercedes the necessity 
of the worse than absurd remedy of scarecrows. 

Planting. — Corn may be planted in hills from three to 
four and one-half feet asunder, and with from three to five 
stalks well spread in each hill, according to the kind of seed, 
quality of land, etc. Thick planting gives fewer ears upon a 
stalk, and those of a less size. The time of planting at the 
North is usually within the three first weeks of May, depend- 
ing much on the season. 

Harvesting. — If there be no danger of early frost, the 
corn may be suffered to stand until fully ripe ; though, if the 
stalks are designed for fodder, they are better to be cut when 
the grain is well glazed, and this should be done in all cases 
where frost is expected. Scarcely any injury occurs either to 
the leaf or grain if the corn be stocked, when both would be 
seriously damaged from the same exposure if standing. The 
stalks of corn should never be cut above the ear, but always 
near the ground, and for this obvious reason : If the stalk be 
cut above the ear, nourishment is at an end. It may then be- 
come firm and dry, but is not increased in quantity, while, if 



THE FARM. 51 

cut near the root, it not only appropriates the sap already in 
the plant, but it also absorbs additional matter from the atmos- 
phere, which contributes to its weight and perfection. It 
must be perfectly dried in the field, and after this husked and 
carried into an airy loft or stored in latticed or open barracks. 
The stalks may be housed or carefully stacked for fodder. 

Buckwheat. — It grows freely on light soils, but yields a 
remunerating crop only on those which are fertile. Fresh 
manure is injurious to this grain. Sandy loams are its favorite 
soils, especially such as have lain long in pasture, and these 
should be well plowed and harrowed. It may be sown from 
the first of May to the tenth of August, but in the northern 
states this ought to be done as early as June or July, or it may 
be injured by early frosts, which are fatal to it. It is sown 
broadcast at the rate of two to four pecks per acre, and 
harvested when the earliest seed is fully ripe. The plant often 
continues flowering after this, and, when the early seed is 
blighted, as is often the case, the plant may be left till these 
last have matured. As it is liable to heat, it should be placed 
in little stooks, of the size of a two-bushel basket, over the 
field, and as soon as dry, taken in and threshed out. If not 
perfectly dry, the straw may be stacked with layers of other 
straw, and, when well cured, it will be a valuable fodder for 
cattle. Sheep and young horses will feed and thrive as well 
on this as on ordinary hay. 

Fruit Trees. — Planting. — The tree to be planted should 
be as young as circumstances will allow. The season is just 
when the leaves become yellow, or as early as possible in the 
spring. The ground being prepared, and the tree taken up, 
prune the roots with a sharp knife so as to leave none more 
than about a foot long ; and, if any have been torn off near to 
the stem, prune the part, so that no bruises or ragged parts re- 
main. Cut off all the fibers close to the roots ; for they never 
live, and they mould, and do great injury. If cut off, their 
place is supplied by other fibers more quickly. Dig the 
hole to plant in three times as wide, and six inches deeper, 
than the roots actually need as mere room. And now, besides 
the fine earth generally, have some good mould sifted. Lay 
some of this six inches deep at the bottom of the hole. 



52 THE FARM. 

Place the roots upon this in their natural order, and hold the 
tree perfectly upright, while you put more sifted earth on the 
roots. Sway the tree backward and forward a little, and give 
it a gentle lift and shake, so that the fine earth may find its 
way amongst the roots and leave not the smallest cavity. Every 
root should be closely touched by the earth in every part. 
When you have covered all the roots with the sifted earth, and 
have seen that your tree stands just as high with regard to the 
level of the ground as it did in the place where it stood before, 
allowing about three inches for sinking, fill up the rest of the 
hole with the common earth of the plat, and when you have 
about half filled it, tread the earth that you put in, but not 
very hard. Put on the rest of the earth, and leave the surface 
perfectly smooth. Do not water by any means. Water, 
poured on, in this case, sinks rapidly down, and makes cavities 
amongst the roots, lets in air, mould and canker follow ; and 
great injury is done. 

Cultivation. — In the first place, the ground is always to 
be kept clear of weeds ; for, whatever they take is just so much 
taken from the fruit, either in quantity, or in quality, or in 
both. It is true that very fine orchards have grass covering 
all the ground beneath the trees ; but those orchards would be 
still finer if the ground were kept clear from all plants what- 
ever except the trees. Such a piece of ground is, at once, an 
orchard and a pasture ; what is lost one way is, probably, 
gained the other. But, if we come to fine and choice fruits, 
there can be nothing that can grow beneath to balance against 
the injury done to the trees. 

The roots of trees go deep ; but the principal part of their 
nourishment comes from the top-soil. The ground should be 
loose to a good depth, which is the certain cause of constant 
moisture ; but trees draw downwards as well as upwards, and 
draw more nourishment in the former than in the latter direc- 
tion. 

If crops be grown under trees in orchards, they should be 
of wheat, rye, winter barley, or something that does not de- 
mand a plowing of the ground in the spring. In the garden, 
dig the ground well and clean, with a fork, late in November, 
Go close to the stems of the trees ; but do not bruise the large 



THE FARM. 53 

roots. Clean and clear all well close round the stem. Make 
the ground smooth just there. Ascertain whether there be in- 
sects there of any sort. And, if there be, take care to destroy 
them. Pull, or scrape, off all rough bark at the bottom of the 
stem. If you even peel off the bark a foot or two up, in case 
there be insects, it will be the better. Wash the stems with 
water, in which tobacco has been soaked ; and do this whether 
you find insects or not. Put the tobacco into hot water, and 
let it soak 24 hours, before you use the water. This will de- 
stroy or drive away all insects. 

But, though, for the purpose of removing all harbor for 
insects, you make the ground smooth just around the stem of 
the tree, let the rest of the ground lay as rough as you can ; 
for the rougher it lies the more it will be broken by the frost, 
which is a great enricher of all land. When the spring comes, 
and the ground is dry at the top, give the whole of the ground 
a good deep hoeing, which will make it level and smooth 
enough. Then go on again hoeing throughout the summer, 
and watching well all attempts of insects on the stems and 
bark of the trees. 

Apples. — Apples are usually grafted on crab-stocks, but, 
when you do not want the trees to grow tall and large, it is 
better to raise stocks from the seed of some apple not much 
given to produce large wood. Perhaps the fall-pippin seed 
may be as good as any. When you have planted the tree, and 
when the time comes for shortening the head, cut it off so as 
to leave only five or six joints or buds. These will send out 
shoots, which will become limbs. The tree will be what they 
call a dwarf standard. The sorts of apples are numerous, 
and everybody knows pretty well which are the best. 

Cherry. — Cherries are budded or grafted upon stocks 
raised from cherry-stones of any sort. If you want the tree 
tall and large, the stock should come from the small black 
cherry i,tree that grows wild in 'the woods. If you want it 
dwarf, sow the stones of a morello or a May-duke. 

Currant. — There are red, white and black, all well known. 
Some persons like one best and some another. The propaga- 
tion and cultivation of all the sorts are the same. The currant 
tree is propagated from cuttings. When the tree has stood 



54 THE FARM. 

two years in the nursery, plant it where it is to stand ; and 
take care that it has only one stem. Let no limbs come out 
to grow nearer than six inches of the ground. Prune the tree 
every year. Keep it thin of wood. Keep the middle open 
and the limbs extended ; and, when these get to about three 
feet in lengthy cut off, every winter, all the last year's shoots. 
If you do not attend to this, the tree will be nothing but a 
great bunch of twigs, and you will have very little fruit. Culti- 
vate and manure the ground as for othe-r fruit trees. In this 
country the currant requires shade in summer. If exposed to 
the full sun, the fruit is apt to become too sour. Plant it, 
therefore, in the south border. 

Grapes. — In Europe " grape-cures " are established, to 
which all sorts of debilitated, blood-poisoned people go, to live 
— aside from a little bread — entirely upon grapes, sunlight, 
and pure air for weeks at a time. It is one of the "regula- 
tions " that these happy invalids must pick their own grapes, 
and, as their appetites rapidly increase, it is no doubt a fact 
that they owe, in part, their recoveries, which are generally 
certain, to the almost constant sunlight and the invigorating 
mountain air in which they pass their waking hours. 

Grape-cures, or almost any kind of fruit-cures, might be 
established in our own gardens and on our own hillsides. The 
prescription is a very simple one ; enough of sound, ripe fruit 
(eaten at regular intervals) to satisfy hunger, the fruit to be 
picked by the invalids themselves, thus insuring pure air, sun- 
light, and mild exercise. The grape is one of the best and 
purest of tonics, and eaten, as it is in such instances, almost 
exclusively, a cleansed and purified system is the result, with 
all its happy manifestations in brightened eyes, clear and ruddy 
complexions, tranquil nerves, and active mental and physical 
powers. 

Cultivation. — The grape-vine is raised from cuttings, or 
from layers. As to the first, you cut off, as early as the ground 
is open in the spring, a piece of the last year's wood ; that is 
to say, a piece of a shoot, which grew during the last summer. 
This cutting should, if convenient, have an inch or two of the 
former year's wood at the bottom of it ; but this is by no 
means absolutely necessary. The cutting should have four or 



THE FARM. 55 

five buds or joints. Make the ground rich, move it deep, and 
make it fine. Then put in the cutting with a setting-stick, 
leaving only two buds, or joints, above ground ; kee^Ding it 
cool and moist. Layers from grape-vines are obtained with 
great ease. You have only to lay a shoot, or limb, however 
young or old, upon the ground, and cover any part of it with 
earth, it will strike roots the first summer, and will become 
a vine, to be carried and planted in any other place. But, ob- 
serve, vines do not transplant well. For this reason, both cut- 
tings and layers, if intended to be removed, are usually set, or 
layed, in flower pots, out of which they are turned, with the 
ball of earth along with them, into the earth where they are 
intended to grow and produce their fruit. 

Soil. — Any good soil, well drained, artificially, if not so in 
its own formation, and in a fair exposure, from a stiff clay to 
almost a drifting sand, will produce the grape of approved 
varieties (when they are such as will ripen between its spring 
and autumn frosts,) in perfection. In culture they are not 
difficult, needing only to be kept free from weeds and other 
herbage, properly trained on stakes, or trellises, and well 
pruned. 

Peach. — Soil. — A light, warm, sandy or gravelly loam, m a 
sunny exposure, protected from severe bleak winds. Thus 
situated, and in favorable latitudes, it often flourishes in luxu- 
riance, and produces the most luscious fruit. In portions of 
western New York, and on the southern borders of Lake Erie, 
and the east shore of Lake Michigan, south of latitude 42 o, 
the peach grows more vigorously, and lives longer, than in any 
other sections of the United States, frequently lasting twenty 
or thirty years, and bearing constantly and in abundance. 
Peaches are produced in immense quantities in the State of 
New Jersey and Delaware, on the light soils near the Atlantic 
coast, for the large city markets, and in those states the crop of 
a single proprietor often amounts to $5,000, and sometimes ex- 
ceeds $2o,coo, annually. None but the choicest kinds are 
cultivated, and these are inoculated into the seedling when a 
year old. They are transplanted at two and three, and are 
worn out, cut down and burned at the age of from six to 
twelve years. The proper distance at which they should be 



6C THE FARM. 

planted is sixteen to twenty feet apart, according to situa- 
tion, soil and exposure. Constant cultivation of the ground, 
without cropping, is necessary for their best growth and 
bearing. 

Diseases. — It is liable to many diseases and to the depre- 
dations of numerous enemies. The yellows is the most fatal 
disease, and this can only be checked by the immediate removal 
of the diseased tree from the orchard. Of the insects, the 
grub or peach worm is the most destructive. It punctures the 
bark, and lays its egg beneath it at the surface of the earth, 
and when discovered it should be killed with a penknife or 
pointed wire. A good preventitive is to form a cone of earth 
a foot high around the trunk about the first of June; or if made 
of leached ashes it would be better. Remove this heap in 
October, and the bark will harden below the reach of the fly 
the following year. 

Pear. — Pears are grafted on pear-stocks, on 'quince-stocks, 
or on those of white-thorn. The last is best, because most 
durable, and, for dwarf trees, much the best, because they do 
not throw up wood so "big and so lofty. For orchards, pear- 
stock are best ; but not from suckers on any account. They 
are sure to fill the orchard with suckers. The pruning for 
your pear trees in the garden should be that of the peach. 
The pears will grow higher ; but they may be made to spread 
at bottom, and that will keep them from towering too much. 

Diseases. — The pear is seldom subject to more than one 
formidable disease, the fire blight, and to this some localities 
are more subject than others. The disease manifests itself 
generally in midsummer, in the sudden withering of the leaves 
on one or more branches. The only effectual remedy is to 
cut off and burn the diseased limb immediately on its dis- 
covery. The causes are imperfectly known, but it has been 
variously ascribed to the presence of minute insects, to the 
abundant flow of sap, and to the severity of winter, yet with 
an entire uncertainty of any truth in the supposition. 

Raspberry. — They are raised from suckers, though they 
may be raised from cuttings. The suckers of this yeai are 
planted out in rows, six feet apart, and the plants two feet 
apart in rows. This is done in the fall, or early in the sprmg. 



THE FARM. 57 

At the time of planting they should be cut down to within 
a foot of the ground. They will bear a little, and they will 
send out several suckers which will bear the next year. 
About four are enough to leave, and those of the strongest. 
These should be cut oif in the fall, or early in the spring, 
to within four feet of the ground, and should be tied to a small 
stake. A straight branch of locust is best, and then the 
stake lasts a life-time at least, let the life be as long as it 
may. The next year more suckers come up, which are 
treated in the same way. Fifty clumps are enough, if well 
managed. There are white and red; some like one best and 
some the other. To have them fine, you must dig in manure 
in the autumn, and keep the ground clean during the summer 
by hoeing. 

Strawberry. — They are propagated from young plants that 
grow out of the old ones. In the summer the plant sends forth 
runners. Where these touch the ground, at a certain distance 
from the plant, come roots, and from these roots a plant 
springs up. This plant is put out early in the fall. It takes 
root before winter ; and the next year it will bear a little; and 
send out runners of its own. To make a strawberry bed, plant 
three rows a foot apart, and at eight inches apart in the rows. 
Keep the ground clean, and the new plants, coming from run- 
ners, will fill up the whole of the ground, and will extend the 
bed on the sides. Cut off the runners at six inches distance 
from the sides, and then you have a bed three feet wide, 
covering all the ground, and this is the best way, for the fruit 
then lodges on the stems and leaves, and is not beaten into 
the dirt by heavy rains, which it is if the plants stand in clumps 
with clear ground between them. 

Cranberries. — They are generally planted on low, moist 
meadows, which are prepared by thoroughly taking out all 
aquatic or other shrubs or trees, filling it with gravel where 
needing it, and plowing and harro'ving. They are then set in 
drills by slips and roots, usually in the spring, but sometimes 
in autumn, about twenty inches apart, and at distances of about 
three inches. They require to have the weeds kept out and the 
ground stirred with a light cultivator or hoe, and they will 
soon overrun and occupy the whole ground. An occasional 



58 THE FARM. 

top dressing of swamp muck is beneficial. Cultivators have 
in this way produced at the rate of three hundred bushels per 
acre, which were worth in the market from two to four dollars 
per bushel. 

An Ice House. — Select or make a level space of ground 
near the house, where least exposed to the summer sun, and 
cover it with any kind of cheap boarding ; leave spaces be- 
tween the boards for drainage. Place stout posts at each cor- 
ner, the two at the front being two feet higher than those at 
the back to support the slanting roof. Nail rough boards all 
round to the height of two and a half feet, and then nail simi- 
lar ones on the inside; fill up this space on all sides with saw- 
dust or tan-bark, and cover the floor to the depth of ten inches 
with the same. Select a freezing day, when the ice is in its 
best condition for storing this summer luxury. Have the ice 
cut in as large squares as can be handled, and pack it as 
closely and evenly as possible, filling up all gaps with pounded 
ice, and turning water over each layer. Nail on more boards 
when the space is filled, and put in more layers of ice until 
enough is stored for a summer's use, then cover the top two 
feet deep with the tan or sawdust, and build over it a 
roof of boards covered with slabs. When ice is removed from ' 
it, care must be taken to replace the covering as completely as 
possible. 

Refrigerator. — A good refrigerator from the shops costs 
anywhere from ^i8 to $50, according to the size and finish. 
Every house-keeper may not be able to possess one, and so it 
is worth while to see what can be done in the way of a decent 
subsitute. Secure two dry-goods boxes, the more "substantial 
the better, one of them to be three or four inches smaller than 
the other on all sides, and fix the tops to open on hinges of 
iron, or stout leather. The larger the boxes, of course, the 
more convenience and comfort is afforded. Place an inch or 
two of sawdust over the bottom of the larger box, and set the 
smaller one into it. Bore three-quarter inch holes through 
both boxes, at either end, near the top, and insert a roll of 
stiff pasteboard in each to act as ventilators. Then fill in all 
the space between the boxes with sawdust. Put in shelves at 
either end, leaving space in the center for the large deep pan 



THE FARM. 59 

or pail that is to hold the ice. There can also be two or three 
pegs on which to hang pails of milk or fruit. A large tin 
pail, with a thin round board at the bottom to prevent its 
being bruised, would be the most convenient thing for holding 
the ice. Such a refrigerator, placed in the pantry, or some 
cool room, and covered in the hottest days with a folded blan- 
ket over the top, which is not protected with sawdust, would 
keep ice for twenty-four hours ; and, in half a dozen such 
days, pay for its slight cost many times over in the amount 
of food it would help to preserve. 

A Water Filter. — Serious sickness would often be averted 
from the household if, among other sanitary regulations, none 
but filtered water was drank by its members. 

A good and efficient filter can be made in this way : Take 
a cask, remove one end and set it upright, the open end at the 
top. At one-third of the distance from the bottom place a 
round partition, pierced with small holes. On this arrange a 
layer of clean, small pebbles, and over them a layer of char- 
coal and another of sand, topping it over with more pebbles. 
Over this put another partition with holes in it, or a layer of 
good-sized stones, to prevent the pebbles from being disturbed 
when water is poured in. A faucet is to be placed in the bot- 
tom to draw off the water. A pail of water and a lump of ice, 
placed in the top of the cask and closely covered, supplies the 
perfection of drinking water for twenty-four hours. 

Grapes and Pears for the Holidays.— Select the choicest 
and soundest specimens, and lay them on shelves in a cool 
dark, and well ventilated closet, or darkened upper room 
where there will be no danger of freezing, and where they 
can have plenty of space so as not to touch each other. 
Clusters of grapes should have the ends of their stems dipped 
in melted wax, and will keep best if hung up on slats, to pre- 
vent any contact with the wall. Choice fall apples and pears, 
that otherwise might not appear at Christmas, should be wiped 
and placed on white paper. The cooler the room is, without 
freezing, the better the fruit will keep; and good ventilation is 
strictly necessary. The Concords, Isabellas, and other late- 
ripening grapes, are excellent for such storing, and when frcez- 



60 THE FARM. 

ing weather arrives can be packed in sawdust, and kept nearly 
all winter. 

The Garden. — The ground should be nearly on a level as 
possible, because, if the slope be considerable, the heavy rains 
do great injury by washing away the soil. However, it is not 
always in our power to choose a level spot; but, if there be a 
slope in the ground, it ought, if possible, to be towards the 
south. For, though such a direction adds to the heat in sum- 
mer, this is more than counterbalanced by the earliness which 
it causes in the spring. By all means avoid an inclination to- 
wards the north, or west, and towards any of the points 
between north and west. 

From a kitchen garden all large trees ought to be kept at a 
distance of thirty or forty yards. For the shade of them is 
injurious, and their roots a great deal more injurious, to every 
plant growing within the influence of those roots. Grass, 
which matts the ground all over with its roots, and does not 
demand much food from any depth, does not suffer much 
from the roots of trees; but every other plant does. A kitchen 
garden should, therefore, have no large trees near it. In the 
spring and fall tall trees do great harm even by their shade, 
which robs the garden of the early and the parting rays of the 
sun. It is, therefore, on all accounts, desirable to keep all such 
trees at a distance. 

If it be practicable, make a garden near to running water, 
and especially to water that may be turned into the garden, 
the advantage ought to be profited of ; but, as to watering with 
a watering pot, it is seldom of much use, and it cannot be 
practiced upon a large scale. It is better to trust to judicious 
tillage and to the dews and rains. The moisture which these 
do not supply cannot be furnished, to any extent, by the water- 
ing pot. A man will raise more moisture with a hoe or spade, 
in a day, than he can pour on the earth out of a watering pot 
in a month. 

Soil. — The plants, which grow in a garden, prefer the best 
soil that is to be found. The best is loam of several feet deep 
with a bed of lime-stone, sand-stone, or sand, below. But we 
must take what we find, or, rather, what we happen to have. If 
we have a choice, we ought to take that which comes nearest to 



THE FARM. 61 

perfection, and, if we possibly can, we ought to reject clay 
and gravel, not only as a top soil, but as a bottom soil, how- 
ever great their distance from the surface. 

Oak trees love clay, and the finest and heaviest wheat 
grows in land with a bottom of clay ; but if there be clay 
within even six feet of the surface, there will be a coldness in 
the land, which will, in spite of all you can do, keep your 
spring crops a week or ten days behind those upon land 
which has not a bottom of clay. 

If the land, where you like to have a garden, has rocks, 
great or small, they, of course, are to be carried off ; but, if you 
have a stony soil, that is to say, little short of gravel to the 
very surface, and, if you can get no other spot, you must e'en 
hammer your tools to pieces amongst the stones ; for it has 
been amply proved by experience that to carry away stones of 
the flint or gravel kind impoverishes the land. 

Having fixed upon the spot for the garden, the next thing 
is to prepare the ground. This may be done by ploughing and 
harrowing, until the ground at top be perfectly clean ; and 
then by double ploughing ; that is to say, by going with a 
strong plough that turns a large furrow and turns it cleanly, 
twice in the same place, and thus moving the ground to the 
depth of fourteen to sixteen inches, for the advantage of 
deeply moving the ground is very great indeed. When this 
has been done in one direction, it ought to be done across, 
and then the ground will have been well and truly moved. 
The ploughing ought to be done with four oxen, and the 
plough ought to be held by a strong and careful ploughman. 

But this is not all that ought to be done, and it is proper 
to give directions for the [best way of doing this and every 
thing else. The best way is then to trench the ground, 
which is performed in this manner : At one end of the piece 
of ground, intended for the garden, you make with a spade a 
trench all along, two feet wide and two feet deep. You throw 
the earth out on the side away from the garden that is to be. 
You shovel out the bottom clean, and make the sides of the 
trench as nearly perpendicular as possible. Thus [you have a 
clean, open trench, running all along one end of your garden 
ground. You then take another piece all along, two feet wide, 



62 THE FARM. 

and put the earth that this new piece contains into the trench, 
taking off the top of the new two feet wide, and turning that 
top down into the bottom of the trench, and then taking the 
remainder of the earth of the new two feet, and placing it on 
the top of the earth just turned into the bottom of the trench. 
Thus, when you have again shoveled out the bottom, and put 
it on the top of the whole that you have put into the trench, 
you have another clean trench two feet wide and two feet deep, 
You thus proceed till the whole of the garden ground be 
trenched ; and then it will have been cleanly turned over to 
the depth of two feet. 

As to the expense of this'preparatory operation, a man that 
knows how to use a spade will trench four rods in a day very 
easily in the month of October, or in the month of November 
if the ground be not frozen. Supposing the garden to contain 
an acre, and the laborer to earn a dollar a day, the cost of 
this operation will, of course, be forty dollars^; which, perhaps, 
would be twenty dollars above the expense of the various 
ploughings and harrowings necessary in the other way ; but 
the difference in the value of the two operations is beyond all 
calculation. There is no point of greater importance than 
this. Poor ground deeply moved is preferable, in many cases, 
to rich ground with shallow tillage ; and, when the ground has 
been deeply moved once, it feels the benefit for ever after. A 
garden is made to last for ages ; what, then, in such a case, 
is the amount of twenty dollars ? It is well known, to all who 
have had experience on the subject, that of two plants of 
almost any kind that stand for the space of three months in 
top soil of the same quality, one being on ground deeply 
moved, and the other on ground moved no deeper than is 
usual, the former will exceed the latter one-half in bulk. And, 
as to trees of all descriptions, from the pear tree down to the 
currant bush, the difference is so great that there is no room 
room for comparison. It is a notion with some persons that 
it is of no use to move the ground deeper than the roots of 
the plant penetrate. But, in the first place, the roots go much 
deeper than Ave generally suppose. When we pull up a cab- 
bage, for instance, we see no roots more than a foot long ; but, 
if we were careful to pursue the roots to their utmost point, 



THE FARM. 63 

even as far as our eye would assist us, we should find the roots 
a great deal longer, and the extremities of the roots are much 
too fine to be seen by the naked eye. Upon pulling up a com- 
mon turnip, who would imagine that the side, or horizontal 
roots, extend to several feet ? 

It is, therefore, of the greatest importance that the ground 
be moved to a good depth, and he who is about to make a 
garden should remember that he is about to do that, the effects 
of which are to be felt for ages. There is, however, one ob- 
jection to trenching in certain cases. The soil may not only 
not be good to the depth of two feet, but it may be bad long 
before you come to that depth, and, in this case, the trenching, 
in putting the good soil at bottom, might bring a hungry sand, 
or even a gravel or clay, to the top, which must not be done by 
any means ; for, even in the case of trees, they would perish, 
or become stunted, because their roots would not find their 
way from the bad soil to the good. 

The ground being trenched, in October, ought to be well 
manured at top with good, well-rotted dung, or with soap- 
boilers' ashes, or some other good manure ; and this might be 
ploughed or dug in shallowly. Before the frost is gone in the 
spring, another good coat of manure should be put on ; well- 
rotted manure from the yard ; ashes, or, rather, if ready, from 
a good compost. Then, when the frost is gone, the ground 
will be instantly fit for digging and planting ; and it will bear 
almost any thing that can be put into it. 

A Hot Bed. — If it can be so arranged, it should be built 
against a shed or board fence, with its face to the south-east 
or to the south. Horse manure is the best to use for this pur- 
pose. Make a frame of boards or plank as large as desired, . 
and a foot and a half higher at the back than in front, so as to 
furnish a slanting support for the glass to rest upon. It should 
be two feet high in front. Place the manure in the bottom to 
the depth of a foot and a half. It should be well fermented 
and warm. Over it spread a few inches of good garden soil, 
in which is a fair mixture of sand. Cover the bed with the win- 
dow sash and let the sun blaze in upon it through two or three 
bright days, having taken the precaution to bank the bed on the 
outside with soil and manure. Plant the seeds in rows with 



64 THE FARM. 

labeled sticks between each kind. Sprinkle over warm water 
with a rose-sprinkler, and adjust the sashes. Give the bed 
fresh air at noon every fair day, and see that the young plants 
do not suffer for water. 

When the plants come up tney will soon tell you all about 
air ; for, if they have not enough, they will draw up long- 
legged, and will have small seed leaves, and, indeed, if too 
much deprived of air, will droop down and die. Take care 
in time to prevent this. Let them grow strong rather than 
tall. Short stems, broad seed leaves, very green ; these are 
the signs of good plants and proper management. 

It will be necessary to water. Take off a light at a time, 
and water with a watering pot that does not pour out heavily. 
Water just about sun-set ; and then shut down the lights ; 
and the heat will then rise, and make the plants grow pro- 
digiously. 

Saving and Preserving Seed. — This is the most important 
branch of the gardener's business. 

As to the saving of seed, the truest plants should be 
selected ; that is to say, such as one of the most perfect shape 
and quality. In the cabbage, seek small stem, well formed 
loaf, few spare or loose leaves ; in the turnip, large bulk, sm.all 
neck, slender stalked leaves, solid flesh or pulp ; in the radish, 
high color, (if red or scarlet,) small neck, few and short leaves 
and long top, the marks of perfection are well known and 
none but perfect plants should be saved for seed. The case is 
somewhat different as to plants, which are some male and 
others female. 

Of plants, the early coming of which is a circumstance ot 
importance, the very earliest should be chosen for seed ; for 
they will almost always be found to include the highest degree 
of perfection in other respects. 

They should stand till perfectly ripe, if possible. They 
should be cut, or pulled, or gathered, when it is dry ; and they 
should, if possible, be dry as dry can be before they are 
threshed out. If, when threshed, any moisture remains about 
them, they should be placed in the sun, or near a fire in a dry 
room, and when quite dry should be put into bags and hung 
up against a very dry wall, or boards, where they will by 



THE FARM. 



65 



no accident get damp. The best place is some room, or place, 
where there is occasionally, at leasts a fire kept in winter. 

Thus preserved, kept from open air and from damp, the 
seeds of vegetables will keep sound and good for sowing for 
the number of years stated in the following list, to which the 
reader will particularly attend. Some of the seeds in this list 
will keep, sometimes, a year longer, if very well saved and very 
well preserved, and especially if closely kept from exposure to 
the open air. But, to lose a crop from unsoundness of seed is 
a sad thing, and it is, indeed, negligence wholly inexcusable to 
sow seed of the soundness of which we are not certain. 



Years. 

Aeparagus 4 

Bean 1 

Bean (Kidney) 1 

Beet .... 10 

Burnet 6 

Cabbage 4 

Camomile 2 

Capsicum 2 

Caraway 4 

Carrot 1 

Cauliflower ... 4 

Celery 10 

Marigold 3 

Melon 10 

Mint 4 

Mustard 4 

Onion 2 

Parsley 6 

Parsnip 1 

Pea 1 

Pennyroyal 2 

Potato 3 

Pumpkin 10 

Purslane 2 

Radish i.. 2 

Rape j^. 4 

Rhubarb. 1 

Rosemary 8 



Years. 

Corn 3 

Corn Salad 2 

Cress 2 

Cucumber 10 

Dandelion 10 

Dock 1 

Fennel 5 

Garlick 3 

Gourd 10 

Hop 2 

Horse-Radish 4 

Hyssop 6 

Jerusalem Artichoke 3 

Lavender 2 

Leek 2 

Lettuce 3 

Mangle Wurzel 10 

Ruta-Baga 4 

Savory 2 

Sorrel 7 

Spinach 4 

Squash... , 10 

Tansey.... 3 

Thyme ,. 2 

Tomatum 2 

Turnip 4 

Wormwood... 8 



Sowing". — The first thing relating to sowing is the prepara- 
tion of the ground. It may be more or less fine according to 
the sort of seed to be sown. Peas and beans do not, of course, 
require the earth so fine as small seeds do. But, still the finer 
the better for everything ; for it is best if the seed be actually 
pressed by the earth in every part ; and many seeds, if not all, 
are best situated when the earth is trodden down upon them. 

Never sow when the ground is wet ; nor, indeed, if it can 
be avoided, perform any other act with or on the ground of a 
garden. It is even desirable that wet should not come for 
some days after ground has been moved ; for, if the wet come 
before the ground be dry at the top, the earth will run tp- 
3 



66 THE FARM. 

gether, and will become bound at top. Sow, therefore, if pos- 
sible, in dry weather, but in freshly moved ground. 

The season for sowing differs, of course, with the respec- 
tive plants. 

However, it is necessary to observe that some, and even 
many, things, which are usually sown in the spring, would be 
better sown in the fall ; and especially when we consider how 
little time there is for doing all things in the spring. Parsnips, 
carrots, beets, onions, and many other things, may be safely 
sown in the fall. The seed will not perish if covered by the 
earth. But, then, care must be taken to sow early enough in 
the fall for the plants to come up before the frost sets in. The 
seed of all plants will lie safe in this way all the winter, though 
the frost penetrate to the distance of three feet beneath them, 
except the seeds of such plants as a slight frost will cut down. 
The seed of kidney beans, for instance, will rot, if the ground 
be not warm enough to bring it up. So will the seeds of 
cucumbers, melons, and Indian corn, unless buried beyond the 
reach of the influence of the atmosphere. 

Transplanting. — The weather for transplanting, whether 
of table vegetables, or of trees, is the same as that for sowing. 
If you do this work in wet weather, or when the ground is wet, 
the work cannot be well done. It is no matter what the plant 
is, whether it be a cucumber plant, or an oak tree. It has 
been observed, as to seeds, that they like the earth to touch 
them in every part, and to lie close about them. It is the same 
with roots. One half of the bad growth that we see in orch- 
ards arises from negligence in planting ; from tumbling the 
earth carelessly in upon the roots. The earth should be fine 
as possible; for, if it be not, part of the roots will remain un- 
touched by the earth. If ground be wet, it cannot be fine. 

If possible, therefore, transplant when the ground is not 
wet; but, here again, as in the case of sowing, let it be dug or 
deeply moved, and well broken, immediately before you trans- 
plant into it. 

If you transplant in hot weather, the leaves of the plants 
will be scorched; but the hearts will live; and the heat, assist- 
ing the fermentation, will produce new roots in twenty-four 



» THE FARM. 67 

hours, and new leaves in a few days. Then it is that you see 
fine vegetation come on. 

Cultivation. — If the subject be from seed, the first thing 
is to see that the plants stand at a proper distance from each 
other; because, if left too close, they cannot come to good. 
Let them also be thinned early; for, even while in seed leaf, 
they injure each other. Carrots, parsnips, lettuces, everything 
ought to be thinned in the seed leaf. 

Hoe, or weed, immediately ; weeds never ought to be 
suffered to get any size, either in field or garden, and es- 
pecially in the latter. 

But, besides the act of killing weeds, cultivation means 
moving the earth between the plants while growing. This 
assists them in their growth ; it feeds them ; it raises food for 
their roots to live upon. A mere flat hoeing does nothing but 
keep down the weeds. The hoeing, when the plants are be- 
come stout, should be deep. Deep hoeing is enough in some 
cases, but in others, digging is necessary to produce a fine 
and full crop. If anybody will have a piece of cabbages, and 
will dig between the rows of one half of them, twice during 
their growth, and let the other half of the piece have nothing 
but a flat hoeing, that person will find that the half which has 
been digged between, will, when the crop is ripe, weigh nearly, 
if not quite, twice as much as the other half. But, why need 
this be said in an Indian corn country, where it is so well 
known, that without being ploughed between, the corn will 
produce next to nothing ? 

It may appear that to dig thus amongst growing plants is 
to cut off, or tear off, their roots, of which the ground is full. 
This is really the case^ and this does great good; for the roots 
thus cut asunder shoot again from the plant side, find new 
food, and send instantly fresh vigor to the plant. The effect 
of this tillage is quite surprising. We are hardly aware of its 
power of producing vegetation; and we are still less aware of 
the distance to which the roots of plants extend in every 
direction. 

INJURIOUS INSECTS AND THE REMEDIES FOR THEM. 

Colorado Potato Beetle.— The history of this beetle, that 



68 THE FARM. 

it is a native of Colorado, where it was discovered, named 
and described, many years ago, is well known. 

It comes forth out of the earth as a beetle just as the potato 
vines are peering from the ground. With the coming of warm 
days the female lays her cluster of orange eggs, sometimes to 
the number of a thousand, either on the under side of the 
leaves of the potato vines, or on the blades of grass or other 
vegetables near by. 

These soon hatch, when the young, or larvce, are found to 
eat quite as voraciously as the mature beetle. In about fifteen 
days the young become fully developed, when they pass into 
the ground to pupate. After about ten days of such quiet they 
come forth in the beetle state. 

These beetles, with their bright bands of yellow and black, 
mate, deposit eggs, and soon die, behaving in all respects as 
before. So to, the larvse and pupae. These again are followed 
by a third brood, which completes the ruinous work of the 
season. 

Remedies. — Inasmuch as Paris green is so practical, so 
efficient, and so cheap a remedy for this pest, every farmer 
better ignore all other means, such as hand picking, ma- 
chinery, etc., as too expensive, and not sufficiently thorough. 
With a little care, Paris green, the genuine article, of course 
is entirely safe. 

The two methods which have been tried with the best suc- 
cess as to economy are, either to mix the green with water, a 
heaping tablespoonful to ten quarts of the fluid, and sprinkle 
on with a common sprinkler, or an old broom; or to mix the 
green with flour in the proportion of one part of green to six 
of flour, sifted on when there is no dew on the vines, either 
through a muslin bag suspended to a convenient handle, that it 
may be carried and shaken over the vines, the person making 
the application walking upright, or with a pail, the bottom be- 
ing of fine wire gauze, or finely perforated tin. Where these 
methods are used, the whole expense per acre, for both ma- 
terial and cost of application, will not exceed five dollars for 
the season. 

The advantages of the water mixture are ease, safety, even 
with the careless, and rapidity of application, and that, too, 
even if the day is windy. Its disadvantages arc waste of ma- 
terial, as nearly one-third of the water does not touch the vines, 
and, of course, are lost; danger of not stirring the mixture suf- 
ficiently often, wheu the green being only held in suspension, 
not dissolved, settles to the bottom, and the preparation be- 
comes too dilute ; ease with which the green when thus 
applied is washed off by heavy rains; and the danger of not 
applying evenly,as the powder suspended in the water is amassed 



THE FARM. 69 

wherever the drops of water settle. Yet, from its convenience 
and the ease with which the application may be made, this will 
quite likely be the favorite method. 

The flour mixture is preferable to all other preparations. 
The flour makes the green adhere to the vines so that the 
heaviest rain is powerless to remove it. No second application 
is needed till enlarged growth of vines demands it. Make the 
mixture strong, one of powder to six of flour. The danger of 
using the flour mixture consists in the fact that unless used 
sparingly, the paste will destroy the vines. But it is perfectly 
easy and entirely safe to use it if the least possible amount be 
used. Add only enough that it may be seen. 

Some prefer to use plaster instead of flour, using forty or 
fifty parts of plaster by measure to one of the green. This 
does not form a paste, and can be added in quantity without 
danger to the vines — indeed the plaster may be useful — but 
the first heavy rain will wash it off. 

Cut- Worms. — Little, if any, inferior to the potato beetle 
in its destruction to our field crops, is the cut-worm. The 
cut-worms (for there are several species which claim tribute 
from the grain grower,) are not confined in their operations to 
a single staple, for nearly all our cereals, grasses, and 
especially our corn crops, are made to contribute to their 
support. 

The cut-worms are so named from their prodigal habits of 
cutting off plants; not taking their fill on a single plant, leav- 
ing all uneaten undisturbed; but, as if totally depraved, they 
simply cut the plants asunder, thus ruining every plant that 
they attack. 

The young cut-worms, perhaps from their small size and 
abundant food, seem to attract little attention because of their 
injuries till the succeeding May, when the full grown larvae, 
not over an inch in length, greasy, and in sober garb of gray, 
brown, or striped with light and dark, depending on the species, 
come forth to nip our crops and blast our hopes. 

Remedies. — There is no more sure way to ward off cut- 
worm injuries than to enter into partnership with the birds, in 
which it shall be the duty of the party ot the first part to plow 
the land early in the fall, so that bluebird, robin, and grakle 
may have a cut-worm feast before leaving for more genial 
climes. Deep harrowing will aid the party of the second part, 
while a repetition of the same, as early in the spring as the 
season will permit, will insure a thanksgiving repast of the 
same nature. 

Early spring birds are much put to it to gain sufficient food 



70 THE FARM. 

for themselves and brood, and with the opportunity will be- 
come chief abettors in cut-worm destruction. 

The only method to supplement the above measures when 
they are not adequate to remove the evil, with our field crops, 
is digging out by hand and destroying. This is by no means 
so tedious a procedure as would be thought at first, as, by pass- 
ing along the cornfield early in the morning, the cut stock will 
reveal the whereabouts of the night-marauder, which, by dig- 
ging around the stub, may soon be found and crushed. 

The May Beetle. — Few farmers will need a description of 
that sleek old culprit, the white grub — still less to be assured 
of its destructive powers, as the damage to our meadows and 
other products are becoming yearly more alarming. 

In May and June the beetles, all brown and plump, come 
forth from the ground, and at early twilight, and on into the 
night, fly forth in such numbers as to sound like the swarming 
of bees, often annoying us by thumpinp^ at windows or lumber- 
ing into our rooms, to be felled by bumping the walls ; hence 
the name dor-beetle, and the expressions " beetle-headed " and 
"blind as a beetle." These beetles often do no inconsiderable 
damage by eating the foilage from fruit trees. Would that 
they might rest content with the completion of such mischief! 
After pairing, the females lay their eggs, fifty or more, probably 
in the ground, near the roots of grass or other plants. 

The grub, white, wrinkled, with a brown head, feeds on the 
roots of grass, wheat, corn, and other plants, for three years, 
when it becomes full-grown, having attained nearly one and 
one-half inches in length. In the third autumn it forms a 
cocoon of earth, in which it pupates. The next May or June 
the beetles come forth to enjoy a brief riot, and prepare for 
another round of mischief under ground. 

Remedies. — As the number of these beetles and grubs are 
frequently so alarmingly great, and their mischief so wide 
spread and extensive, we can only hope to ward off the ravages 
in our pastures and meadows by wholesale remedies. So soon 
as the meadow turns sear, and we have the further evidence 
that the white grub is the culprit in the grass, now rootless, 
freely yielding to the hand or rake ; or, still better, finding the 
sleek old gormand beneath by a little digging ; if this state of 
things is so extensive as to create uneasiness, the field better 
be given over at once to the swine, and the more swine the 
better. It may be as profitable to turn the giass into pork, 
indirectly through the aid of the white grub, as to change it 
directly into beef or mutton ; besides, we then are sure to 
destroy a grievous pest. If the meadow is the seat of the evil, 
it may pay best to cut the hay first. Early fall plowing will 



THE FARM. 71 

enable the birds to aid the swine, and possibly kill the grubs 
by destroying their food. Frequent harrowing will give the 
birds a still better chance. 

In protecting wheat and corn, the same remedies would 
apply as those recommended to destroy the cut-worm. 

Wire-Worm. — Within a few years these insects have be- 
come quite destructive. 

Wire-worms, larvae of elater, or spring beetles, usually feed 
on rotten wood, so that we can hardly raise a piece of bark on 
a decaying log, or turn over a rotten log, without finding them. 
Would that all were content with such a diet ! but not so, for, 
as too many know by disheartening experience, some of them 
attack the newly planted potatoes in a perfectly ruinous man- 
ner, so that to have a crop demands a second planting. Nor 
do they behave better toward the fresh corn plants. These 
wire-worms are well named, as they much resemble in form 
both a worm and a wire. They have the six usual jointed 
legs, and thus may be easily told from the myriapods, which 
they somewhat resemble, but which have many legs. They 
work for several years and pupate in an earthen cocoon. The 
beetles which come from these grubs are the well known ela- 
ters, or spring beetles, which possess such a power of springing 
up, if perchance they fall on their back. This habit, less than 
their peculiar form, will serve to distinguish them wherever 
seen. 

Remedies. — The same course as that recommended for cut- 
worms and the white grub — fall plowing and frequent harrow- 
ing, to give the fall and spring birds a good chance — will also 
serve here. In England, where they are greatly troubled with 
these same or similar insects, it is common to bury potatoes 
with a long stick stuck through them to mark their where- 
abouts. This is done early — some time before planting. The 
grubs collect on these to feed, when they are gathered and 
destroyed. Gas-lime and salt are also highly recommended by 
experienced gardeners in Europe. These are placed with the 
seed in planting. 

Pea Weevil. — This little insect, though doing little damage 
to garden peas, for in green peas it is not only too small to 
essentially change the flavor, but even to attract the eye, but 
in field crops, where peas are raised to feed after they are fully 
matured, there is very serious injury, for this little weevil, so 
generally distributed, and so persistent in its yearly attacks, 
consumes, while yet a larvag, all the nutritious material of the 
pea, leaving only the germ and a mere shell outside. Hence, 
affected peas will grow, but, of course, with bated vigor ; as 
the needed starch pabulum is wanting in those early days, the 



{'2 THE FARM. 

precarious time with all life 3 but to feed they are almost en- 
tirely useless. 

Remedies. — As these insects are in the peas in the winter 
and in the spring, if the same be kept over one year, in per- 
fectly close barrels, bags, cans, or bottles, of course, the insects 
thus confined will all die. Hence, if these pea weevils are 
sufficiently annoying to cause disturbance, there can be a 
most effectual estoppel put upon their mischief by thus put- 
ting all our peas in close vessels, any time in the winter, 
and keeping them close for one season. 

The Squash Bug". — This old-time enemy is so well known 
that the name is all that is necessary to bring his image and evil 
doings to mind. 

Remedies. — The habit that these squash bugs have of con- 
cealment suggests a very practical means to capture them. It is 
similar to the Ransom process for capturing the plum curculio, 
and consists simply in placing small pieces, boards, chips, or 
even green leaves, on the ground, close around the vines. 
We may then go around each morning, early in the season, 
before the eggs are laid, and gather and destroy the bugs 
thus concealed, and soon extirpate the cause of the evil. 
These morning visits must be so early that the insects will 
not have yet left their hiding places. If the eggs are 
laid before we capture the bugs, we should either gather the 
eggs from beneath the leaves [or continue the same process 
narrated above to get rid of the young. 

Tomato Worm. — All who grow that beautiful and savory 
vegetable, the tomato, are acquainted with the formidable 
pest which, unless prevented, too often brings all hopes of 
satisfied tomato appetites to naught. 

Remedies. — Hand-picking is a quick, easy and sure pre- 
ventive. The only objection to this is that it is disagree- 
able and sometimes prevented by timidity. Yet a good pair 
of gloves will insure the temerity necessary to its successful, 
practice. As before intimated, the fear is entirely ground- 
less, for there are no more harmless creatures in existence. 
To be sure, they can give quite^ a pinch with their strong 
jaws, which they will attempt to do if held, but this is al- 
most painless and entirely harmless. They never use their 
caudal horn, the supposed weapon of immemorial dread. So 
hand-picking, with or Avithout gloves, is entirely safe, and aa 
effectual as safe. Of course, the disfigured leaves will guide 
us in our search. 

Skunks are powerful aids in this fight, as they feed ex- 
tensively on the pupae. 



THE FARM. n 

Cabbage Cut-Worms. — The larvae generally lie concealed 
by day just beneath the soil, and come forth, cloaked in 
darkness, to do their evil work. This is not strictly true, 
as frequently on cloudy days their eager appetites, or else 
an innate longing for destruction (for these cut-worms do 
seem the most totally depraved of all insects), impel them 
forth to work havoc. 

Sandy gardens, and those near meadows, pastures or lawns, 
where the insects have commenced, and nearly completed, 
their growth by feeding on the grass, or its roots, are by 
far the most liable to attack. 

Remedies. — After the ground is well fitted for the plants, 
great advantage will result from placing newly mown grass, 
fresh cornstalks, etc., in heaps about the plat. Coming to 
these by night, the larvse will feed and crawl beneath, and 
may be captured and destroyed every morning. 

Sized paper, such as we usually write on, wound closely 
about the plants, and held in place by banking slightly about 
the base with earth, is a sure preventive, as the larvae can- 
not pass up its smooth surface. Care is only necessary that 
the paper may closely encircle the plant, and that the bank- 
ing be so efficient as to surely hold it in place. 

The striped Cucumber Beetle. — This beautiful little beetle, 
yellow with black stripes, which seems suddenly to • fairly 
swarm on the cucumber and melon vines, is often the cause 
of great vexation to the gardener. 

Remedies. — Boxes covered with glass, or millinet, and 
placed over the vines, are sure protection, providing the 
beetles do not get inside. If glass is used, care must be taken 
to shade from the hot sunshine, or the plants may be ruined. 
These will form miniature hot-beds, and will hasten growth if 
rightly managed. 

Paris green is a certain preventive, and, in careful hands, is 
harmless to the vines. Put one part green to six parts flour, 
apply when the vines are dry, and add just as little as possible 
and see it on the vines. Add a little too much, and the vines 
are sure to be killed. 

The Codling Moth.— All will concede that this insect holds 
first rank among our insect pests. 

The little gray moths come forth in May and June, are 
wholly nocturnal, and, therefore, seldom seen. As soon as the 
fruit forms, a single egg is laid on the blossom end of the fruit, 
and as soon as the egg hatches the larvae enters the apple. All 
know the subsequent history of the larvae in the fruit, for who 
has not seen the tiny white caterpillar, with its black head, 
mining away at the rich pulp, which it replaces with filth ? 



74 THE FARM. 

Remedies. — Place around the trunk of every bearing tree, 
midway between the ground and branches, a woolen cloth 
about five inches wide and sufficiently long to pass around and 
lap enough to tack. This may be fastened with one or two 
tacks. Usually one placed in the middle is quite sufficient. 
The tack should not be driven quite up to the head. Before 
the cloth band is adjusted the loose bark should be scraped 
off. This may be done early in the season, when time will 
first permit. The band should be adjusted by June 20. Under 
the bands the " worm " will secrete themselves. By July 7 the 
bands around the earliest apple trees should be unwound and 
examined and the larvae destroyed. This can be done by 
passing the bands through a wringer, or by unwinding and 
crushing with the thumb. Every ten days after the first round 
— every nine days if the weather is dry and warm — this work 
should be repeated, till the last week of August, and again at 
the close of the season after the fruit is gathered. A common 
carpet-tack hammer, with a good claw, suspended around the 
neck by a cord, will be found an advantage. 

Many apples will be carried to the cellar with the larvae 
still in them. These larvae, unless destroyed, will go through 
their changes. Hence all barrels, bins and boxes in the cellar 
should be examined. Fires and jars of sweetened water will 
have no effect in destroying these moths. Hogs turned into 
the orchard are but a partial remedy, as at least half of the 
larvae never go the ground at all. 

Old Apple Tree Borer. — This pest, which has been so long 
in our country, is widely distributed. Very few, if any, or- 
chards are exempt from its attacks. Not that it always or 
generally, totally destroys the trees ; still, those suffering from 
its attacks are always lessened in vitality, and it not unfre- 
quently happens that the trunks become so riddled with their 
tunnels that the tree becomes a prey to the hard winds which 
are sure to come with each returning year. 

Remedies. — Soapy mixtures are found to be obnoxious to 
these beetles, so that in their egg-laying they are found to avoid 
trees to which such an application has been made. Thus we 
may hope to escape all danger by washing the smooth trunks 
of our trees early in June, and again early in July, with sof* 
soap or a very strong solution of the same. 

We should always examine the trees carefully in Septem- 
ber, and, whenever we find this pernicious grub's sawdust shingle 
out, we should give him a call. Perhaps we may reach him 
with a wire thrust into the hole, and, by a vigorous ramming, 
crush the culprit. If we have doubts as to the crushing, we 
should follow him with a knife ; but, in cutting out the borers, 
too great care cannot be taken to wound the tree just as little 



THE FARM. 75 

as possible. This heroic method is sure, and requires very- 
little time, and no person who takes pride in his orchard, oi 
looks to it as a source of profit, can afford to neglect the Sep- 
tember examination, nor the previous application of soap to 
which it is supplementary. 

Canker Worm. — Remedies. — The old method so long prac- 
ticed in New England is to closely surround the tree with pa- 
per bands, say eight inches wide, and besmear the bands with 
tar or printer's ink. This gives the trees a forbidding appear- 
ance, and necessitates renewed application of the adhesive sub- 
stances so frequently as to be sure that we entrap the moth as 
she attempts to pass up the tree. Dr. Le Baron suggests a 
neater and, he says, an effectual remedy. He would place an 
inch rope closely around the tree, letting it lap a little so as to 
be sure to entirely surround the tree. Then tack the rope to 
the tree at each end. Now take a strip of tin, say five inches 
wide, place it around over the rope so that the rope shall be 
just in the middle of the tin ; lap this a little and tack to the 
rope. It is said that the female moths, coming up to the rope, 
and being unable to crawl through under the tin, will crawl 
around and get on to the tin, but that they will never get from 
the tin to the tree again. Upon reaching the top of the tin 
they pass round and round, not knowing that they can pass 
down and thus gain the desired end. Like turkeys entrapped 
in a pen, whose exit is only through a hole beneath the earth's 
level, they are balked through sheer stupidity. In this case the 
moths will doubtless lay eggs around and below the tins. 
These can be destroyed by using kerosene oil. This turned 
upon the eggs destroys them. Eggs laid in close proximity to 
the trees, or wherever seen, can be destroyed in the same way. 

If the moths once gain access to the tree, and the larvae 
commence their work of despoliation, we can take advantage 
of their dropping propensity and destroy them. Place a little 
straw under the tree, not sufficient to injure it when burned. 
Then jar the tree, and, as the larvae swing down by their 
threads, bring them upon the straw by sweeping the threads 
with a pole, then set fire to the straw, and we are rid of the 
pests. The only trouble will be to be sure to make them 
drop. To be complete, this will need cautious pains. During 
the past year syringing the tree with a mixture of Paris green 
and water was tried with marked success in Illinois, and is 
highly recommended by those who used it. 

Though the neighbors of people with affected orchards 
may take satisfaction in the prospect of a speedy leave-taking 
of this terrible scourge, still those who have orchards attacked 
will find that persistent effort in the line marked out above will 
be the price of their orchards, as two or three years at most 
will utterly ruin the trees. 



% THE FARM. 

Plum Curculio. — This little beetle, though so small, cei 
tainly ranks very high as an orchard pest. It is he that ruin* 
our cherries, often by wholesale. It is he that has a tooth foi 
luscious peach ; and, unless prevented, materially lessens the 
profits. And even our king of fruits, the apple, is frequently 
made to contribute to the support of the little Turk. 

Remedies. — Of late the Ransom process has been largely 
practiced, and has given great satisfaction. It takes advantage 
of the habit of the insect, early in the season to hide by day, 
and consists in keeping the ground beneath and around the 
trees perfectly clean, and so thoroughly cultivated that it will 
be perfectly smooth, and placing chips or boards on the ground 
close about the tree. Mr. Ransom preferred oak bark ; pieces 
of shingles would do. If bark is used, the outside should be 
placed up, and, whatever is used, the lower side should be 
entirely smooth. Three pieces, each the size of the hand, will 
be quite sufficient for each tree, and may be placed equally 
distant from each other, close about the base of the trunk. 
Early in May the bettles will commence to hide under these 
pieces. So soon as they are found to collect they should be 
gathered daily, and thence on so long as they are found, even 
to July. 

Later in the season, it will be remembered, the insects do 
not go down to hide. Yet Mr. Ransom claims that the chip 
trap can still be made effectual, and cheaper than any other 
plan, by the following additional labor : Early in the day, pass 
through the orchard with a mallet, and give each bearing tree a 
smart blow. This will cause the insects to drop to the ground, 
when they will hide as before, and can be gathered into the 
bottles as before. The taking the insects from under the chips 
should not be delayed too long. 

Pear or Cherry Tree Slugs. — The destructive proclivities 
of these slimy " worms " are far too well known. Few insects 
are so easily overcome ; ' so, with knowledge, vigilance, and 
promptness, we may expect to soon be rid of a grievous pest. 

Remedies. — The slime of these insects makes them peculi- 
arly susceptible to any application like ashes, road-dust (some 
deny that road-dust is effectual), or lime. Hence, throwing 
any of the above substances into the tree where these insects 
are at work is sure to check their ravages. Such treatment 
goes to the root of the matter by destroying the source of the 
evil. 

Plant Lice. — All fruit men are familiar with plant lice, as 
hardly a plant but su/fers from the attack of some species. 
Yet, doubtless owing to the many natural enemies, and not- 
withstanding their wonderfully prolific tendencies, they are 



THE FARM. 77 

rarely very destructive. Sometimes thsy will attack a tree and 
seem to draw heavily upon its vitality, and the very next year 
not a single louse will be found on the tree. 

Remedies. — Syringing the plants with tobacco water is sure 
destruction to these insects. If limbs of small trees are alone 
attacked, they may be dipped in the fluid. Whale oil soap 
solution, and even common soap-suds, are beneficial, while 
many gardeners think that frequent syringing with pure water 
is not without benefit. 

It has been recommended to brush the eggs off of young 
trees and small plants in the spring with a hand-brush, — advice 
of doubtful practicability. 

Bee-Keeping — Swarm. — Every prosperous swarm of bees 
must contain one queen, several thousand workers, and a 
portion of the year a few hundred, or even thousand, drones. 

The Queen. — The queen is the only perfect female bee in 
the colony, and hence the name of queen or mother bee. In 
form she is longer than either of the other species. She is 
usually of a dark color, except the under side of the. abdo- 
men, which bears somewhat on the golden shade. All her 
colors are bright and glossy, and she has but little of the down 
or hair seen on the drones or workers. Her wings are short, 
reaching a little more than half way back. Her posterior is 
more pointed and has the appearance of curving under niore 
than that of the workers. She has a sting, but never uses it, 
except in combat with a rival queen. 

The average age of the queen is about three years. None 
should be allowed to become older than that, as after that age 
they often become barren, or deposit eggs which produce only 
drones, and the colony soon wastes away without being replen- 
ished with worker broods. 

Like the drone, the queen never goes to gather honey, her 
only duty being to deposit the eggs, both male and female. 
She is as dependent on the workers as they are upon her, and 
both are dependent upon the drones, notwithstanding they are 
the acknowledged idlers of the colony. 

The Egg. — In all well populated hives young broods may 
be found in different stages of development, every month in 
the year, with few exceptions. The queen carefully examines 
each cell by thrusting her head in, before depositing the egg, 
to see if it contains bee bread or honey, as she never uses a 
cell partly filled. If she finds the cell clear, she immediately 
curves her abdomen and inserts it. She remains but a second 
or two and then leaves the cell, when an egg about a sixteenth 
of an inch long may be seen attached to the base of the cell, 
usually a little to one side. 



78 THE FARM. 

Hatching. — The eggs remain unchanged for three or fou; 
days. They are then hatched, the bottom of each cell con- 
taining a small white worm, which floats in a whitish transparent 
fluid, which is deposited by the nursing bees, and by which it 
is probably nourished. It gradually enlarges until its two ex- 
tremities touch, which forms a ring. It continues to increase 
during five or six days, until it occupies the whole breadth and 
nearly the length of the cell. The nursing bees now seal over 
the cell with a light brown cover. As soon as the larvae is per- 
fectly enclosed, it begins to line the cell by spinning around 
itself a silky cocoon. When this is finished it undergoes a 
great change, from the grub to the nymph or pupa state, and 
does not bear a vestige of its previous form. It has now at- 
tained its full growth, and the large amount of nutriment taken 
serves as a store for developing the perfect insect. The time 
required to raise a queen is three days in the egg, and five days 
as a worm, and on the sixteenth day she has attained the per- 
fect state of a queen bee. The working bee comes forth per- 
fected in twenty-one days from the time the egg is deposited. 
The drone takes twenty-four or twenty-five days. 

Worker Bee. — They constitute the mass of the colony, and 
upon them devolve all the labors of the hive. They gather 
the honey and pollen — the food for the young. They 
nurse and feed the young brood, and defend their house 
against invasion of enemies. The care which the workers be- 
stow upon their nurslings is wonderful, and they manifest the 
most tender attachment for them. The slightest movement of 
these nurses approaching to administer to the young brood is 
sufficient to attract them to their food, which they devour vora- 
ciously, and it is unsparingly administered. After the cells 
have been sealed up they seem to cease from anything like at- 
tention, although, if the brood comb is meddled with, their 
utmost ire is kindled. Bees reared in the spring and early 
summer are shorter lived than those reared later in the season. 
Each worker is armed with a formidable sting, and, when dis- 
turbed, does not hesitate to use it. The extremity being barbed, 
the bee can rarely withdraw it, and in losing her sting she 
loses her life and dies in defending her home and sacred 
treasures. 

Drones. — They differ from the queen and worker in form 
and structure, and are of a darker color and less active. They 
have no proboscis for gathering honey ; no basket for pollen ; 
no sack for wax ; and no sting to defend themselves with. 
Yet without them the brood would soon become extinct. They 
are the males of the bee family, and, in the performance of the 
functions appointed to them, they invariably yield up their 
life. The duties devolving upon them are to accompany 



THE FARM. 79 

the young queens upon their bridal tour. In the performance 
of the same their hfe becomes the sacrifice. 

The Italian Bees. — These are conceded by all to be far 
superior to the black bee above described, although they do 
not differ essentially in conformation ; yet for profit and amia- 
bility are a great improvement. In color, they are a beautiful 
golden hue. The worker, when pure, has three distinct bands 
about the body ; the color and bands being the test of purity. 
The queens are more fertile and prolific, depositing their eggs 
earlier in the season ; swarm oftener and earlier when not in- 
terfered with ; protect themselves from robber bees and moths 
more effectually ; carry in more honey, gathering from the 
small variety of red clover and some other plants whose cells 
are so deep that the common bee cannot reach the nectar dis- 
tilled in the bottom of the flower cups ; will not sting upon as 
slight provocation, and can be handled more easily. They 
are stronger and more hardy, and live longer, although perform- 
ing more labor. They are also more industrious, often going 
to the fields in very unfavorable weather. 

The Hive. — A good hive should possess the following 
points, viz : cheapness ; simplicity ; durability ; as good for 
winter as summer ; that the combs may be removed without 
injuring or irritating the bees ; that the bees may have free ac- 
cess to the surplus honey arrangement ; that the surplus honey 
may be removed without injuring or irritating the bees and be 
in a marketable condition ; that the bees may be able to store 
every ounce of honey they can collect ; completely ventilated 
that the bees may not suffocate, and thousands of them hang 
on the outside of the hive for air in a hot day ; that all the 
heat from the hive may enter the surplus honey boxes or 
chamber, to enable the bees to elaborate wax and make comb; 
that, in case the bees are carrying in honey very rapidly, one 
set of boxes may be raised and another set placed under them; 
that there be no place in the hive where the miller moth can 
conceal itself ; that there be no space between the top of the 
combs and bottom of the honey boxes, except a single quarter 
of an inch ; that the bees may enter the surplus honey boxes 
from any part of the hive without creeping through a hole in 
the honey board ; that all openings of the hive be guarded 
with a slide or button ; that the boxes be covered with a light 
cap to exclude the chilly air at night as well as the excessive 
heat of the noonday sun, with a ventilation at each end to be 
opened on hot days and allow a current of air to pass over the 
honey boxes, permitting the excessive heat of the hive to es- 
cape in summer, and in winter to carry off the moisture gen- 
erated by the bees. 



80 THE FARM. 

The Apiary. — The next thing in importance is the location 
of the apiary. Select, if possible, a sheltered place, shaded 
somewhat by trees, with an eastern or southern aspect, where 
they can be easily seen or heard from the house during swarm- 
ing season. As regards the distance between the stands, it 
should be as great as circumstances will admit — two feet being 
the nearest they should be placed. 

Stands for Hives — Is a subject to which too much attention 
cannot be given. Placing them several feet above the ground 
makes an unnecessary labor for the bees returning weary and 
heavy laden, with barely strength to reach the hive, they alight 
upon the ground, and, if toward evening when cool and damp, 
often perish. Others have no projection from the entrance 
upon which to alight, but expect them to fly direct from the 
field into the hive without making a pause. 

Swarming. — The swarming season in this latitude some- 
times commences as early as the 15 th of May, and at other 
times as late as the ist of July. It usually commences about 
ten or twenty days after white clover comes into bloom. As a 
general rule, bees swarm for lack of room or want of thorough 
.ventilation inside the hive, 

AiviNG Bees. — It makes but little difference how they are 
put into the hives, provided they are all made to enter. One 
essential thing is to have your hive in readiness. The hives 
should be stored in a cool place, as bees will enter a cool hive 
much quicker than one that has stood in the hot sun all day. 
Place upon the ground, under the swarm cluster, the hive, with 
a large piece of board just in front of it, upon which the bees 
can be poured. If they are to be hived in a box hive, one side 
should be raised one inch by placing under the front corner 
two sticks or blocks to hold it up from the bottom board. If 
in a movable comb hive, raise the front, if on a movable 
bottom board ; if not, raise the entrance as wide as possible. 
If the swarm has clustered on a small branch or limb, it may 
be cut off, if not detrimental to the tree, and brought down 
and the bees shaken off in front of the hive. A knowledge 
that a new home is found is at once apparent. If any large 
number linger around the entrance, nearly closing it, you can 
expedite their progress by gently disturbing them with a small 
twig. If gentle means do not induce them to enter in a rea- 
sonable time, and they seem obstinate, a little water sprinkled 
on them will facilitate operations. Too much water must not 
be used, or they will become so wet that they will not move at 
all. If you do not wish to cut the limb they cluster on, they 
may be shaken mto a basket. In this event it is well to sprinkle 
the cluster with a pailful of cold water (ice water not objec- 



THE FARM. 81 

tionable), which will cause them to cluster closer, and hardly- 
one will leave the basket. If you get nearly all the bees the 
first effort, shaking the limb will prevent the remainder from 
alighting, and will turn their attention to those who have found 
a home, and are loudly calling them to come. 

Loss OF Queen. — Every bee-keeper should understand 
how to detect the loss of the queen. The following 
morning after a loss of this kind has occurred, and occasion- 
ally in the evening, the bees may be seen running to and fro 
in wild consternation. Towards the middle of the day the 
confusion will be less marked, but the next morning will be 
again enacted, and, after the third or fourth day, will cease 
entirely, and apparently they become reconciled to their fate. 
They continue their labors, although they do not manifest the 
energy or agility seen in a prosperous colony. 

Wintering Bees. — More bees are lost by wintering than by 
all other troubles combined. To winter them successfully, each 
stock should contain a sufficient amount of honey, bee-bread, 
and bees. For out-door wintering, each hive should contain 
from 30 to 35 lbs. of honey ; in-door, 5 to 10 lbs. less. Each 
hive should have an upward ventilation — it is absolutely 
necessary. 

Diseases of Bees. — Bees are subject to but few diseases 
which deserve especial notice. There appear to be but two 
distinct types to which they are subject in this country, viz.: 
Dysentery and Foul Brood. The former of these generally 
makes its appearance in the spring, and may be known by the 
bees discharging their excrements over the comb, the interior 
of the hive, and especially around the entrance ; the color,, 
instead of being yellow, is of a dark muddy appearance, and. 
has a sickening, offensive odor, which becomes intolerable. 
The cause may be ascribed to the moisture in the hive condens- 
ing and mixing with the honey in the cells. Colonies affected 
by dysentery are usually lost, unless warm weather timely in- 
tervenes or they are removed to a warm room, so that the 
water in the honey may be evaporated, which will generally 
terminate the trouble. 

Foul Brood. — In the destruction of the nymph or pupae from 
some derangement which causes it to undergo decomposition 
in the cell, arises a disease known as Foul Brood. Some say it 
is caused by the brood being chilled in the cell ; others, that it- 
is caused by the fermentation of bee-bread and honey. Some 
recommend that it be summarily dealt with, and the way to 
exterminate it entirely is to bury it, hive, bees and all, beyond 
any possibility of resurrection. 
4 



82 THE FARM. 

Feeding Bees. — Few things in bee-keeping are more im- 
portant, and require a more thorough knowledge, than the feed- 
ing of bees. In attempting to winter too small colonies, thou- 
sands often perish in winter and early spring. Colonies in the 
common box hive, containing few combs and but little honey, 
should be fed in the latter part of September, or in October, a 
sufficient amount to carry them safely through the winter. If 
feeding is neglected until winter, it may then be done by placing 
the hive in a cellar or moderately warm room. 

In the spring the prudent bee-keeper will no more neglect 
to feed his destitute colonies than to provide for his own table. 
There is one point certain in bee-keeping : that, if a colony is 
stimulated carefully in the spring, they and their first swarm 
will have honey sufficient in the fall to winter them through, 
unless a very unfavorable season occurs. Water is indispensa- 
ble to bees when building comb or raising brood. Every pru- 
dent bee-keeper will see that his bees are supplied with water, 
by placing shallow wooden troughs filled with straws or floats, 
that they may drink without danger of drowning. A location 
near small bodies of water will be sufficient for a supply, but 
locations near large bodies are injurious. 

Transferring. — Transferring is changing ^ colony of bees 
and all the contents of a hive from one to another. It should 
be done in the spring or summer, to be successful. Transfer- 
ring may be done at any time of the day, if pleasant. The 
best place to make the transfer is in some shaded locality or 
clean building. It will be necessary to have a few things in 
readiness, such as a box the size of the hive and a foot deep, 
for a driving-box ; an axe, a saw, a large knife, some goose- 
quills, some twine, a dish of water to wash the honey from 
your hands, and a few dishes to put the honey and pieces 
of comb in ; also some kind of bench should be arranged 
to lay the comb on. 

The swarm to be treated should have tobacco smoke blown 
in among them to drive the bees among the comb, and also to 
subdue them. The hives should be removed to the place 
of transfer, placing another as near like it as possible on the 
old stand, that the returning bees may not join other hives and 
be killed. Invert the hive, and place over it the driving-box. 
Wrap a piece of cloth around where the two join, to prevent 
escape. Get two round sticks, fifteen inches long and one inch 
in diameter, and commence beating the hive a few minutes, 
then stop about five minutes to allow the bees to fill themselves 
with honey, then beat again for ten minutes, by which time 
nearly all will have left and clustered in the box. The sheet 
or cloth is then taken off, spread upon the ground, and the 
driving-box placed upon it, the same side up as before, and a 



THE FARM. 83 

small stick placed under one side to allow the air to enter. 
Loosen the comb from two sides of the hive, and with an axe 
split the sides off, that the comb may be taken out whole. Lay 
the comb upon the table, and place over it the frame. Cut the 
comb a trifle larger than the frame, so it will fit closely, having 
it the same side up in the new hive that it was in the old. 
After the comb is fitted in it may be secured in its place 
by tying around the frame a piece of cotton twine. The bees 
will fasten it with wax in a day or two. Now hang the frame 
in the new hive. Do in the same manner until all good worker 
comb is secured, leaving out all drone comb. Now put in the 
bees, the same as hiving a natural swarm. Place upon the old 
stand, with the entrance contracted, and the ventilator left open 
during the heat of the day. In about two days the bees 
will have the comb fastened, when the strings can be cut and 
d<*wn out, and the boxes p(^i on. 



THE HORSE. 




POINTS OF THE HORSE. 



The above diagram represents the d 
r^of a, horse, about some of which 
made. 



body. 



ifferent points of the 
frequent errors are 



1. Lipi. 


iS.TVIthera. 


8. MiiBzle. 


an. Back. 


3 Nose. ' 


21. Lniiie. 


4 ' Forobead. 


22. Sido of chest. 


B. Hollow over eye. 


2.1. Cioup. 


6. Forelock. 


24. A bdomen or belly. 


7. KftM. 


2ft. Flunk. 


8. Branches of lower ikn- 


20. Hip bone. 


9. Cheek. 


27. Tail. 


10. Kostrils 


S8. TBiich. 


n. Poll. 


29. BiittocK. 


12. Parotid ^land. 


30 Stille joint; 
:)l. Sheittli. 


18. L«r.vnx oi- Voice-hox. 


14. Left jii!;n1ar vein. 


31. Scrotum or pnrse. 


15. Side of-neck. 


32 Lower thleU (i;aBBlD.) 


IS Mane. 


33. Hork. 


17. Breast. 


34. Hind- cannon bone 


<1H. ShoiiMvr. 


anil back teudone. 


aa SboiiMnr-poInt. 





35. ITinrt fetlock Joint. 

86. Pastern. 

37. Coron«t 

SR. Hoof. 

3'j. Hindcbeetaat 

40. Arm. 

40. Elbow 

41. Fore- arm 

42. Knee. 

43. Forn cheetnnt. 

41. Fore cannon bone Uld 

hiick tnndona. 
4.'». Fore fetlock joint. 
4ii. Fort) pastern. 
47. Fore i;oronet. 
48..F"ro hoof. 
49. Fetlock, fore snd bind. 
90. Duck, coveriSK Anns. 



86 THE HORSE. 

In judging of the merits of a horse for the plow, the car- 
riage, or the saddle, the characteristic indicati ns of the head 
and adjacent parts are very important. There are, > f course, 
numerous differences of conformation characteristic of differ- 
ent breeds rather than of merits or defects, but there are also 
certain beauties which should be sought for in all breeds. Of 
these, smallness of the head is one, for a small head is always 
preferable to a large one in the same breed. The eyes, too, 
should be large and wide open, indicative of good sight. A 
large forehead is a desirable beauty, and large, well opened 
nostrils show the nasal and respiratory organs are in good con- 
dition. The lips should be firm, not flabby and the lower jaw 
should be set easily in the larynx to permit the head to move 
freely from the neck. The accompanying diagrams will illus- 
trate various points in this connection. 

The head is well set in a draft horse when it makes an angle 
of about 45 degrees with the horizon, as in Fig. i, while for a 
saddle horse it should be more vertical, as in Fig. 2. When 
the head approaches the shoulders too closely, the defect is 
known by the name of rain-bow neck, as in Fig. 3. On the 
other hand, when the head is carried more horizonally, as in 
Fig. 4, the defect is greater, as the rider has less control of his 
horse, for the bit rests on his teeth, and there is danger of his 
" taking it between them." Fig. 5 illustrates a sheep-faced 
head, whose curved and prominent outline is found very often 
in pictures and sculptures of former days. The opposite of 
this is the flat-nosed head shown at Fig. 6, in which, instead of 
a concave curve between the nose and the brow, there is a de- 
pression. When the depression is in the middle of the nose, 
where the nose-band rests, the conformation is known as a 
rhinoceros head. Small ears set straight on the head and par- 
allel to each other, are a beauty, while long, divergent ears, 
which hang more or less flabbily, are a defect, showing un- 
soundness and exhaustion. These, as shown at Fig. 8, are 
called pig's ears, and the bearer of them is lop-eared. 



THE HORSE. 



87 




DRAFT horse's HEAD, WELL SET. FIG. 1. 



SADDLE horse's HEAD. FIQ. 2. 




SHEEP-PACED HEAD. Pia. 5. 



FLAT-NOSE HEAD. FIG. 6. 




RHINOCEROS HEAD. FIG. 7. 




LOP-BABED. FIG. 



8S THE HORSE. 

The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. 
No better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or 
brown, with black mane, tail and legs. Chestnut is also an 
admirable color. But most of the other colors are frequently 
with the best horses. Hard-mouthed horses, when accom- 
panied with great spirits, are objectionable, as they require 
peculiar bitting and the utniost vigilance. The paces and 
action of a horse are important, for, if good, they give a much 
greater capacity for performance. Some of these depend on 
form and structure, and are unchangeable ; others are the 
result of breaking. All horses should be taught to walk fast, 
as it is their easiest and most economical pace, and it will help 
them over a great deal of ground in a day, even with a heavy 
load, and with comparatively little effort. A horse that steps 
short, and digs his toes into the ground, is worthless as a trav- 
eler, and suited only to a ferry-boat or bark-mill. It is import- 
ant that a horse be good tempered. If inclined to viciousness 
he should be gently yet firmly managed when it is first appar- 
ent. A resort to great severity will be justified if necessary to 
conquer him ; for, if once allowed to become a habit, it will 
oe difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous stable boys 
frequently do much injury by their idk tricks with horses, and, 
when detected, they should be discharged at once. Some 
horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every unusual 
noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and ever 
anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild, 
treatment, by which their motions and will are at all times 
controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only remedies. 
Others are inclined to sluggishness. These should have stimu- 
lating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and then 
kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of per- 
forming can in this way only be got out of them. Habit has 
great influence with animals, as with man ; and, when within 
the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any 
reasonable physical exertion. More horses are ruined by 
unskillful breaking and overwork when under six years old, 
than in any other way. A horse ought never to be put to full 
work before seven years old. 



THE HORSE. 89 

Breeding. — Agreeably to the general principles well under- 
stood, such animals should be selected as most eminently 
possess those points which it is desired to propagate, and these 
they should not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit 
as far as possible from a long line of ancestry. For the 
perpetuation of particular points in progeny, it would be safer 
to rely on the latter quality than the former. The selection of 
a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is an important rule in 
breeding, and it is believed that much of the success of Arabian 
and other Eastern horses as stock-getters, has resulted from 
the application of this principle. They possess valuable traits, 
but condensed within too small a compass. When such an 
animal is put to a well-bred, larger mare, the foetus has abun- 
dance 01 room and nourishment to develop and peifect the cir- 
cumscribed outlines of the male parent, and acquire for itself 
increased volume and character. The horse ought not to be 
less than four or five, and the mare one year older, before being 
put to breeding. It would be still better to defer it for two 
or three years, or till the frame is fully matured. A mare 
intended for breeding should never be highly fed on grain, nor 
overworked ; or, if they have been so, a previous run of some 
months on grass, or hay without grain, should be allowed 
tc" put them into natural condition. 

The gestation of the mare sometimes varies from forty-four 
to fifty-six weeks, but she usually goes with young from forty- 
seven to fifty ; and it is advisable she should take the horse at 
a time which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled, 
and there is a fresh growth of grass. She will be the better for 
light working till near the time of foaling, if well, but not too 
abundantly fed. In a few days after this she may resume 
moderate labor ; and, if not in the way or troublesome, the foal 
may run with her ; but, if she is exposed to heating, it should 
be confined till she cools, as suckling then is decidedly 
injurious to it. The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from 
blows and over exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or 
offensive objects of smell ; and, when this has once occurred, 
which happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should 
afterwards be generously fed at that period, and only moder- 
ately worked. When liable to slinking, the mare should be 



90 THE HORSE. 

removed from others in foal, lest a peculiar sympathy should 
excite an epidemic. The mare comes in heat from nine to 
eleven days after foaling, when she should be put to the horse, 
if it be desirable to have a colt the following season. She 
comes round at intervals of about nine days each. 

The Colt. — The colt may be weaned when five to seven 
months old, and preparatory to this, while with the mare, may 
be taught to feed on fine hay, meal or oats. When taken away, 
he should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, 
and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermaths, hay, mashed 
or ground oats, or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a 
warm shelter through the inclement season for all animals, and 
especially for colts, which, with all other young, should have 
an abundance of nutritious food. They will thus growe venly 
and rapidly, and attain a size and stamina at two years old 
they would not otherwise have acquired at three. Every colt 
should be thoroughly halter broken during the winter before 
a year old. He will be all the easier managed afterwards. 

Castrating. — The colt should be altered at about one or 
one and a half years old, but, if thin in the neck and light 
before, the operation may be deferred to a year later. Few of 
the French diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the 
Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more 
hardy and enduring ; but the slight advantage they may possi- 
bly possess in this respect would illy compensate for the trouble 
and inconvenience arising from their management. The oper- 
ation should be performed late in the spring or early in autumn, 
while the v/eather is mild. If in high condition, the animal 
should be well physicked. The easiest, safest and most con- 
venient way is to cast him by ropes on his legs. The scrotum 
should be opened on both sides, and the testicles cut, or rather 
the cord scraped off, and tied, which prevents much bleeding. 
The wound may be dressed with a little lard ; then turn him 
loose in a pasture which has a shelter from sun, wind or rain. 
Docking is practiced by many, but merely to gratify an absurd 
and cruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal 
is better in every respect with the tail unniutilated. 

Breaking. — While feeding in the stable, the colt should be 



THE HORSE. 91 

gently treated, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which 
prepares him for breaking. If permitted to run with the others 
while at work, he becomes familiarized to it, and, when har- 
nessed by the side of some of his well-trained mates, he 
considers his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The 
colt may be taken in hand for breaking at three, and thoroughly 
broken to light worh at four, but should not be put to hard 
service till six or seven. A due regard to humanity and sound 
judgment, in thus limiting the burden in his early years, will 
save much disease and suffering to the animal, and profit the 
owner by his unimpaired strength and prolonged life. The 
annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enormous, which 
might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to grasp the 
substance, while as yet the shadow only is within reach. 
Many animals are thus broken down at twelve, and are in their 
dotage at fifteen, while others of good constitution, if well 
treated, perform hard service till thirty. 

How to Tell the Age. — The age of the horse is usually 
determined by the appearance of the teeth ; of these there are 
two sets : first, the milk teeth, which come before the age of 
one year ; second, the " permanent set," which come soon 
after the falling out of the former. This change is completed 
at the age of five years. 

The teeth which are most uniform in their progression are 
the nippers or incisors, those on the lower jaw being 
ordinarily referred to. Of these nippers there are six — those 
farthest from the centre are called "corner teeth." 

These corner teeth, and, indeed, all of the nippers, are 
composed of a bony substance which is inclosed in the enamel, 
.which gives hardness to the teeth. Their form is somewhat 
conical, though irregularly so. (Fig. i.) The top of a newly- 
formed tooth, say the corner tooth of a five-years-old horse, is 
long from side to side, while, a little farther down, the form 
becomes more triangular ; and near the bottom — that part of 
the tooth which is below the gums in early life — it is long from 
front to rear, and narrow from side to side. This is shown 
in fig. 2,which represents a tooth cut across at various distances 
from the top of the crown, and in which the different forms of 



d-z 



THE HORSE. 




Fig. 1. 

coats the 



Fig. 2. 

outer portion 




-^% 



Fig. .i. 



the different Darts of the tooth are plainly represented. Now, 

suppose the tooth to be split down 
the middle, from one end to the 
other, on a line passing across the 
,„^ top of the tooth, from the outer 
side to the in- 
ner side, as the 
tooth stands in 
the jaw. This 
will give a sec- 
* tional appearance 
like that in fig. 3, 
the concave side 
being the inner 
side. The hard 
enamel which 
of the tooth folds 
inward and passes down, forming a cavity, nearly to the 
bottom of the tooth, and then returns near the inner edge, until 
it joins the exterior coating of enamel on that side. The 
cavity thus formed is filled with a dark-colored matter, and it 
is closed, or nearly closed, at the top by a dishing cover of 
enamel. We are now prepared to understand how the appear- 
ance of the teeth becomes changed with age. The corner 

tooth, at five years of 
age, is long from side 
to side, and has, at 
its summit, a deep 
cavity called a "mark," 
which is represented at 
the top of figures 2 and 
3, and their general 
^'**" **• appearance is similar 

to that represented in figure 4. 

As the horse becomes older, his teeth are worn away by 
use, and it is to this cause only are due the changes by which 
we determine his age. The effect of this wearing down is the 
same as would be that of cutting or sawing off a portion of the 
teeth. They are supposed to be worn down about one-twelfth 




THE HORSE. 



98 




of an inch per year, though the precise amount must depend 
very much on circumstances, such as crib-biting, vigorous 
feeding, etc. If we look at the mouth of a horse eight or nine 
years old, we shall see that his corner teeth have been so worn 
down that the mark, or su- 
perficial cavity, is entirely 
destroyed, and that the sur- 
face has descended to the 
point marked by the lines a, 
a., figures i and 3 ; still 
later the upper surface of Fm. 5. 

the tooth descends to the point marked by the lines b. b., 
figures 2 and 3. The folding in of the enamel has now almost 
entirely disappeared, leaving very little discoloration on the 
teeth, while the upper surface of the teeth is almost triangular, 
instead of being long from side to side, as was the original 
surface. The teeth of the lower jaw now present the appear- 
ance shown in figure 5. 

At the age of twenty-one years, the teeth of the lower 

jaw become very long from 
front to rear ; this having 
always been the shape of 
that part of the tooth which 
has never until now been 
made apparent. The teeth 
j7jQ g_ at this age are represented 

in figure 6. 

The experience of horsemen has established the following 
rules for determining the age from the appearance of the teeth : 
At birth the teeth have not appeared ; six or eight days there- 
after the two middle nippers of the 
set of milk teeth ire cut ; the pair 
next to them are cut at thirty or 
forty days ; and the corner teeth at 
six to ten months. These teeth 
have all the mark, or superficial 
cavity, when first cut ; this, how- ^^^- '^• 

ever, disappears in the teeth of the lower jaw, in the middle 





94 THE HORSE. 

nippers, m ten months ; in the next pair at one year ; in the 
corner teeth at from fifteen months to two years. 

The milk teeth give place to the permanent set as follows : 
The middle nippers at two and a half to three years ; the next 
pair at three and a half to four years ; the corner teeth at four 
and a half to five years. These periods may be hastened three 
or four months by pulling or knocking out the milk teeth. 

At five years, the corners are up even with the other teeth, 
the mark is entirely worn out from the middle nippers, and 
partly worn from the next pair (fig. 4). At six years, the mark 
is almost gone from the second pair, and the outer edge of the 
corner teeth is worn down. At seven years, the mark is 
entirely gone from the second pair, the edges of the corner teeth 
are worn somewhat flat, though there is still a slight cavity in 
the centre. At eight years, the teeth of the lower jaw are worn 
entirely flat, the mark having disappeared from all of them. 
The form of the surface of the tooth has become oval, and the 
central enamel is long from side to side, and is near to the front 
of the tooth. At nine years, the middle nippers are rounded 
on the inner side, the oval of the second pair and of the cor- 
ner teeth becomes broader, the central enamel is nearer to the 
inner side, and the marks have disappeared from the teeth 
of the upper jaw (fig. 5). At ten years, the second pair are 
rounded on the inner side, and the central enamel is very near 
to the inner side. At eleven years, the corner teeth are rounded, 
and the central enamel becomes very narrow. At twelve years, 
the nippers are all rounded, and the central enamel has entirely 
disappeared from the lower jaw, but it may still be seen in the 
upper jaw. At thirteen years, the middle nippers commence to 
assume a triangular form in the lower jaw, and the central 
enamel has entirely disappeared from the corner teeth of the 
upper jaw. At fourteen years, the middle nippers have become 
triangular, and the second pair are assuming that form. The 
central enamel has diminished in the middle nippers of the 
upper jaw. At fifteen years, the second pair have become tri- 
angular ; the central enamel is still visible in the upper jaw. 
At sixteen years, all of the teeth in the lower jaw have become 
triangular, and the central enamel is entirely removed from the 
second pair in the upper jaw. At seventeen years, the sides of 



THE HORSE. 95 

the triangle of the middle nippers are all of the same length ; 
the central enamel has entirely disappeared from the upper 
teeth. At eighteen years, the sides of the triangle of the mid- 
dle nippers are longer at the sides of the teeth than in front. 
At nineteen years, the middle nippers become flattened from 
side to side, and long from front to rear. At twenty years, the 
second pair assume the same form. At twenty-one years, all 
of the teeth of the lower jaw have become flattened from side 
to side, their greatest diameter being exactly the reverse of 
what it was in youth. 

Feeding. — The vigor and duration of the horse depend 
much on proper feeding. Like the cow and sheep, his natural 
and proper aliment is the grasses, grain and roots. In the 
middle and northern sections of the country, his dry forage is 
almost invariably good meadow hay, generally timothy, which 
is the richest of the cultivated grasses. At the South, this is 
often supplied by the blades of Indian corn. But in all the 
States, a great variety of the grasses and clover are used. When 
put to hard labor, grain ought always to accompany hay in 
some form. Of the different kinds of grain, oats are peculiarly 
the horse's food, and they are always safe, digestible and nutri- 
tive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat and Indian 
corn are sometimes given, but either, alone, are unsuitable ; 
the first is too concentrated, and the latter too heating. They 
ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground. The offal 
of wheat, as shorts or bran, is excellent, particularly when 
mixed with about one-third Indian corn meal. Grain is always 
more advantageously fed when ground or crushed, and wet 
some time previous to eating, and it is still better when cooked. 
On both sides of the Mediterranean, in the Barbary States, in 
Spain, France and Italy, much of the food is given in small 
baked cakes, and the saving in this way is much greater than 
the expense of preparing it. When confined to dry food, roots 
or apples fed once a day are always beneficial. They keep 
the bowels open, the appetite and general health good, and 
contribute largely to the nutriment of the animal. Carrots 
are the best of the roots, as, besides giving muscle and working 
power, they, more than any other, improve the wind and i^e- 
move all tendency to heaves. They have even been found 



96 THE HORSE. 

effectual in curing an obstinate cough. By many of the keep- 
ers of livery stables they are always used, for which purpose 
they command the same price as oats. Potatoes, parsnips, 
beets and Swedes turnips, in the order mentioned, are next to 
be preferred. Potatoes are improved by cooking. Mixtures 
of food are best, as of cut hay, meal and roots. Old horses, 
or such as are put to hard labor, will do much better if their 
food be given in the form easiest of digestion. No inconsid- 
erable part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of 
dry, raw food. Horses ought to be fed, and, if possible, exer- 
cised or worked regularly, but never on a full stomach. This 
is a frequent cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. 
If their food is given at the proper time, and the horse be 
allowed to finish it at once, without expecting more, he will 
lie down quietly and digest it. This will be much more re- 
freshing to him than to stand at the rack or trough nibbling 
continually at his hay or oats. What remains after he has 
done feeding should be at once withdrawn. They should 
have water, in summer three times, and in winter twice, a day. 
Soft or running water is much the best. While working, and 
they are not too warm, they may have it as often as they de- 
sire. Neither should they be fed when heated, as the stomach 
is then fatigued and slighly inflamed, and is not prepared for 
digestion till the animal is again cool. Salt should always be 
within reach, and we have found an occasional handful of clean 
wood ashes a preventive of disease and an assistance to the 
bowels and appetite. 

Shoeing. — With a poor hoof an otherwise valuable horse 
becomes almost worthless, so that the common saying, " no 
foot, no horse," is practically correct ; for this reason, the sub- 
ject of horse shoeing is one which should receive much atten- 
tion, as it is by poor shoeing that so many horses are rendered 
almost valueless for life. 

For want of space we can only give some of the more 
important points which should be observed in order to pre- 
serve the hoof in a natural and healthy condition. 

The hoof, in its natural state, is adapted only to a grassy 
surface ; so that, when we wish to bring the horse into practi' 
cal use upon our hard and stony roads, it becomes necessary to 




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THE HORSE. 97 

protect the hoof, by shoeing, from the unnatural wear and tear 
which it is subject to. 

It is greatly to be regretted that so large a share of the men 
who are permitted to do this very important work, of shoeing 
the horse, are so ignorant of the nature and structure of the 
foot, and the principal rules which should guide them in doing 
this very important branch of work. 

It is a great fault of nearly all shoers that they cut and 
pare with the idea of improving the foot, when their aim 
should be, mainly, to let nature have her course as much as 
possible, or in other words, to imitate the natural condition 
of the foot, and only pare away such parts as have become 
useless. The shoe should always be fitted to the foot and not 
the foot to the shoe, as is often practiced. That part of the 
hoof which should not have pressure is the portion between 
the bar and the quarter, commonly known as ^^^q seat of 
corns. 

The greatest pressure should be around the outside of the 
foot, for about half an inch. 

The frog should be allowed to come to the ground, which 
will prevent, to a certain extent, the concussion which v/ould 
oti.rwise take place. The frog should not be cut down, as is 
frequenily practiced, nor should it be touched, when healthy,, 
except for the purpose of cleansing. 

In paring the foot be very careful not to cut down the out- 
side, so as to allow the entire weight to rest on the inside of 
the shoe upon the sole, but only cut away the dead portion of 
horn on the sole, and cut down the wall from heel to toe until 
the bearing is natural, leaving it even and as near its natural 
state as possible. A red hot shoe should not be allowed to be 
burned into the foot to fit it. 

The shoe to be selected should depend upon the condition 
of the foot and the condition of the roads, etc. The flat shoe, 
when properly applied, leaves the foot nearest its natural*- 
shape, by allowing the horse a good, even foundation to stand 
upon, and is most likely to give satisfaction for all ordinary 
purposes. At some seasons of the year it will be necessary to 
have calks upon the shoes, but, ordinarily, the foot should be 
allowed to come as near the ground as possible. 
6 



98 THE HORSE. 

What we mean by the flat shoe is flat upon its superior sur- 
face, which comes in direct contact with the hoof, the under 
surface being partially concave, so as to assist the horse in 
grasping the ground, to prevent slipping, and to assist in pro- 
gressing. 

The shoe should be as big as the foot, so as not to require 
any cutting down the hoof to make it fit the shoe, and the 
heels of the shoe should not be permitted to project back- 
wards beyond the heel of the hoof more than about one-eighth 
of an inch. 

The outward margin of the shoe should just correspond 
with the shape of the foot, except at the head, where the shoe 
should be a little wider from quarter to heel, especially on the 
outside. 

Many persons are not aware of the thinness of the hoof, 
which makes it quite necessary that the nail holes should be 
near the edge, and quite well forward in the toe, so as to avoid 
driving the nails into the quick, which would cause serious 
lameness and injury. 

Do not rasp under the nail clinches, nor over them ; and 
do not use the rasp at all on the outside of the hoof, not even 
below the clinches, except ]ust enough near the shoe to round 
the edge, and do not cut down the hoof if you have used a 
shoe which is too small. 

A nail for a horse's foot differs materially from every other 
kind of nail, not only in shape, but in quality of iron from 
which it should be made; it is important that it should be 
made from the very best of iron, free from flaws, seams, liabil- 
ity to sliver, and all sulphurous gases in the process of manu- 
facture. It is presumed that every shoer knows that a nail 
forged hot, from the end of a rod, needs no argument to con- 
vince any one that a better nail is thus obtained than by 
punching, rolling and shearing them from a cold plate. The 
numerous and well authenticated cases where valuable horses 
have been ruined by using cold rolled nails are enough to de- 
ter any first-class shoer from driving anything but a hot-forged 
nail, even if their cost should be double that of the cold rolled 
nail, because no shoer can take the risk of injuring his custo- 
mer's horse. 



THE HORSE. 



99 



Use only the very best of nails ; drive as' small and as few 
■nails as will hold, the shoe firmly and securely to its place. See 
that the nails fit the holes, and the heads the crease^'l'toving 
little, if any, to project beyond the ground surface when fin- 
ished, thus preventing the clinch from rising when brought in' 
contact with stones, and saving the injury of the ankle. 

• I'oUeviZ 



Jlipjotnt 

tamentss 




JRinj/bvne^. 



A horse is a hardly worked animal at the best." It ia a will- 
ing servant and exerts its utmost force at the instigation of the 
driver, instinctively and cheerfully, A vicious, stubborn horse 
is made so ; it is not a natural product, but its natural docility, 
and willingness to work are destroyed by abuse and misman- 
agement. But how many horses are overworked, which are 
forced by fear of the whip tO' over-exert the muscles and 
sinews, and so incur injury and disease ! 

We give here^yith a representation of the skeleton of a 
horse, showing the wonderful mechanism of its limbs and joints, 
and the perfect combination of levers by which the. contrac- 
tile force of its muscles and sinews is increased and multiplied 



XOO THE HORSE. 

either in the drawing of loads or in swift movements. One 
cannot study the anatomy of this complicated machine without 
surprise that the noble animal built around it should escape, as 
it does, from more frequent strains and injuries to the delicate 
parts, nor that it should suffer, as it does, from the inconsider- 
ate or ignorant usage of so many owners. In fact, there is 
not a disease here marked down which is not directly or in- 
directly brought about by misuse or careless management, 
directly in the animal itself, or indirectly by injury to its pro- 
genitors, by which the disease has become constitutional and 
hereditary. This may be shown by tabulating the various dis- 
eases pointed out, together with their usual causes, as follows : 

DISEASES. CAUSES. 

iofatSae'sfSeX'r' ^^^^^^ ^''°"' ^^^ i Blows, bruises and falls. 
Big head, laminitis or fouader. [ Inmitritious or excessive feed- 

" Sweeny," or wasting of the ehoiilder muscle, ■) Sprains, wrenches or con- 
shoulder joint lameness, elbow joint lameness, thor- fcnssions by over-work, over- 
ough-pin, splint, laminitis, ring-bone, navicular die- )• driving, running down hill, 
ease, side-bones, stifled, luxations of patella, or /over-loading, and over-exer- 
sprain of the joint, curb and spasm. J tion. 

Big-head, splints, curb, spavins, thorough-pin I Constitutional and heredi- 
ring bone. (^tary. 

All the above are preventable, and it may no doubt help 
greatly in the very easy prevention of them, to point out in 
this clear and expressive manner the original sources of these 
various diseases, adding to this a few remarks upon the ana- 
tomical structure of the bones and joints. 

Bones are formed of a cellular and fibrous mineral struc- 
ture, filled in and strengthened with gelatine. The mineral 
matter consists chiefly of phosphate of lime, with some little 
carbonate of lime and other mineral salts^ in all to the extent 
of about 55 per cent, in dry bone ; the gelatinous and fatty 
matter amount to about 45 per cent. During life the bone of 
an animal contains about 25 per cent, of water. Bones are 
perforated by numerous canals through which blood vessels 
and nerves penetrate in every direction. They are furnished 
at their ends, where they come in contact with other bones, as 
at the joints, with a hard, tough, fibrous, matter, known as 
cartilage, which is more abundant in young animals than in 
old ones, and they are covered all over with a delicate and 
most sensitive fibrous and vascular tissue, known as the perios- 
teum or covering membrane of the bone. Joints are formed 



THE HORSE. 101 

by articulations of the bones, contrived so that one bone may 
move upon another, as in a hinge ; sor^e joints have a motion 
in but one direction, as a knuckle joint, a true hinge ; and some 
have a more or less rotary motion, as tAe hip joint, the com- 
monly called whirl-bone. The joints are provided with a 
slippery serum, known as the synovial fluid, which serves to 
lubricate them, and ease their motions, and to prevent friction 
of the tender, sensitive membranes which cover them. The 
sinews and tendons which connect the joints with the muscles 
by which they are set in motion, are also provided with the 
same synovial fluid and a covering membrane similar to the 
periosteum. When a limb is moved, the joint is bent by a 
drawing of the tendon attached to it, and the tendon is drawn 
by the contraction of the muscle of which it is the prolonga- 
tion. The tendons act directly or over pulleys, which may be 
bones or bands of other tendons. In short, the whole struc- 
ture of the muscular system is a most complicated system of 
springs, bands, pulleys and cords, by which the levers and 
hinges of the bones are brought into action. The voluntary 
nerves, all of which proceed from the brain, or are connected 
with it, are the intelligent agents of the will of the animal to 
put into action the mechanism of the muscles and bones. 

Now, if the food of the animal does not supply an ade- 
quate quantity of mineral matter required by i':e bones, they 
become soft and porous ; there is an excess of vascular struc- 
ture, which causes enlargement, and this oxccrs of matter pro- 
duces disease and decay of the structure, as we fi 'd in the 
diseases known as big-head and rickets ; or the bo:iies become 
weak and malformed or bent in an irregulr: s'l.'pe. V/hen 
the sensitive membrane is bruised, it becomes '.•v'^.i.mc^. and 
may suppurate and the inflammation may attacl: 'he bone, as in 
poll evil, fistula of the withers, and abcesses on the :aw3 or on 
the face ; or it may produce an excessive growth of cartilage 
or bone, as in spavins, ring-bone, and splints ; or, when the 
tendons are involved with the joints, an excess of synovial 
fluid may be secreted, and bog-spavins, thorcuoh-j in, or curb, 
may be produced. When by a sudden force a or ten- 

don is stretched or strained beyond its natural extension, it is 
sprained, and perhaps some of the fibers may be ruptured. 



108 THE HORSE. 

when inflammation occurs, as in hip joint or shoulder lame- 
ness. When by reason of the consequent pain the muscle is 
not used — as well as he wasting by the inflammation — the 
musci: shrinks, and ^'.rophy or loss of substnnc:, the so-called 
sweeny, occurs. So, too, in stifle joint lameness, the loose bone, 
the knee-cap or patella, becomes so loosely held by the mus- 
cles that it slips out of place, or it may be drav/n out of place, 
and the leg rendered wholly useless for the time being. Lastly, 
the construction of the hip may be pointed cut vith its pecu- 
liar combination of bones, so easily disturbed by cislocation 
or by fracture by a sudden fall or slip, as is far too common, 
not only with horses, but more so with cows, diiven recklessly 
upon slippery floors or icy ground. But, without going further 
into it, this interesting subject is submitted in the hope that 
it may lead our readers to give it the attention it deserves, and 
to study it out more completely for themselves. 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES, BY AN ENGLISH FARRIER. 

BotSi — The stomach seems to be the natural nursery for 
the protection and the preparation of the stomach bot. When 
the eggs have remained in the stomach for a year, they be- 
come a perfect chrysalis, (that is, the form of a butterfly be- 
fore it reaches the winged state,) and then they release their 
hold of the stomach and are expelled w^ith the dung. It will 
be provided with wings in a short time, and will fly about 
commencing the propagation of its species, which passes 
through the same period of incubation. 

They are of two kinds, stomach and fundament bots. The 
stomach bots are the result of turning horses Into pasture in 
summer months^ and are produced from the eggs laid on the 
fore legs of the horse by the bot fly. 

Symptoms are an unthrifty coat, and loss of [flesh after 
running out to pasture. 

All horses which run out to grass are quite sure to have bots 
in their stomachs, and, as there is so much misconception about 
bots and their destructiveness to horses, we copy the result of 
a series of experiments with bots three-fourths grown. 

When immersed in rum they live 25 hours ; decoction of 
tobacco, II hour- strong oil of vitrol, 2 hours iC minutes ; 
essentirl oil of mint, 2 hours 5 minutes. Were immersed, 
without apparent injury, in spirits of camphor, 10 hours ; fish 
oil, 49 hours * tincture aloes, 10 hours ; solution indigo, 12 
hours. A number o. small bots, with one that was full grown, 
were immersed in a strong solution of corrosive sublimate, one 



THE HORSE. 103 

of the most powerful poisons ; the small ones died in one hour, 
but the full grown one was taken out of the solution six hours 
after its immersion, apparently unhurt. 

It will be seen by the above experiments that no medicine 
can be given which will affect the bot, that will not destroy the 
coating of the stomach and injure or kill the horse. No 
veterinary surgeon can distinguish the symptoms of bots from 
those of colic. In fact there is but little doubt that ninety-nine 
out of every hundred cases of belly ache are no more nor less 
than colic and not bots, and should be treated as we direct in 
the treatment of colic. 

Fundament Box. — Like the stomach Dot, this is also the 
result of running out to grass. Instead of the eggs being 
deposited on the legs, they are deposited on the lips of the 
horse. They are found in the rectum, and often seen about the 
anus and under the tail. 

Treatment. — The general condition of the horse should 
be improved, so that the debilitating effects of the bots may 
not interfere with the general health of the horse. It is gener- 
ally considered impossible to expel or destroy the bots. Give 
the following tonic medicines to improve the general condition: 
pulv. gentian, 1-4 lb.; puJv. copperas, 1-4 lb.; pulv. fenu- 
greek, 1-4 lb.; pulv. elecampane, 1-4 lb. Mix well and give 
a large tablespoonful once a day. 

Another Remedy. — When a horse is attacked with bots, 
it may be known by the occasional nipping at their own sides, 
and by red pimples or projections on the inner surface of the 
upper lip, which may be seen plainly by turning up the lip. 

First, then, take new milk, 2 qts.; molasses, i qt., and give 
the horse the whole amount. Second, 15 minutes afterwards, 
give very warm sage tea, 2 qts. Lastly, 30 minutes after the 
tea, you will give of currier's oil, 3 pts., (or enough to operate 
as physic). Lard has been used, when the oil could not be 
obtained, with the same success. 

The cure v/ill be complete, as the milk and molasses cause 
the bots to let go their hold, the tea puckers them up, and the 
oil carries them entirely away. If you have any doubt, one 
trial will satisfy you perfectly. In places where the currier's 
oil cannot be obtained, substitute the lard, adding three or four 
ounces of salt with it ; if no lard, dissolve a double handful of 
salt in warm water, three pints, and give all. 

Bowels, inflammaQOn of. — The symptoms are very severe 
pain in the belly, varying from those of colic in being a 
continuous pain (while in colic there are intervals of rest from 
pain), rolling, pawing, sweating, rapid breathing, with an incli- 
nation to shift about, with great fever and excitement. The 



104 THE HORSE. 

disease comes on more gradually than colic (w'-.ich see), legs 
and ears cold, belly tender and painful on pres5':re. 

Causes. — Constipation, exposure to cold, drinking cold 
water, in large quantities, when hot, hard driving, diarrhoea, 
and a. a sequel to colic. 

The .,Dove named causes, when occurring in a horse predis- 
posed to the disease, are quite liable to bring it on. 

Treatment. — If the cause is constipation, give a quart ot 
raw linseed oil, and if necessary add from 4 to 6 drops croton 
oil. If the cause is over-purging, give an ounce and a half of 
tincture of opium in a half pint of water. 

If the cause should be other than costiveness or diarrhoea, 
give 30 drops of the tincture of aconite root, and repeat it 
in two hours. Apply blankets, wrung out of hot water, to the 
bell^, and renew them every 15 minutes. Give injections of 
warm (not hot) water, castile soap, and a handful of table salt 
every half hour until the bowels move some. There is a diver- 
sity of opinion in regard to bleeding. It is my opinion that it 
is of doubtful utility in this disease. 

Bronchitis. — This disease consists in an inflammation of the 
air passages of the lungs. It is a very common disease among 
horses, and is sometimes confounded with inflammation of 
the lungs (or lung fever), distempers and colds. 

Symptoms. — Begins with a chill, fever, harsh cough, 
labored breathing, mouth hot and dry, with loss of appetite, 
and in one or two days a discharge from the nostrils will be 
observed. 

Treatment. — Give the horse a good, comfortable place 
(not too close nor the reverse). Give 15 to 20 drops tincture 
of aconite root, and repeat every six hours until four doses 
have been given, which will probably relieve the fever. Let 
the horse have plenty of cold water to drink. We would dis- 
courage the idea of bleeding, as it would be more likely to do 
harm than good. 

After the fever has subsided, (which will probably be about 
the second day,) give a few powders of the following: Mix 
pulv. licorice root, pulv. fenugreek and pulv. gentian, two 
ounces of each, and divide into six powders, and give in feed 
two or three times a day. 

Chronic bronchitis is the result of bad treatment of acute 
bronchitis, and when the attack has been prolonged for some 
time. 

Symptoms. — A cough, which seems to be confinned, with 
discharge from the nostrils, and cough worse after drinking 
and in the morning. 



THE HORSE. 105 

Treatment. — Take of pulv, gentian and p^alv. sulphate of 
iron, eight ounces each. Mix thoroughly and divide into 
thirty-five powders and feed twice a day until all has been 
given ; then make an ointment of red iodide ot mercury, one 
drachm; lard, one ounce, thoroughly mixed together. Apply 
the above named ointment down the course of the windpipe, 
and the next day apply sweet oil or lard to keep the skin from 
cracking. Repeat tne application of the ointment in one week. 

Burns and Scalds. — When the burn is so deep as to destroy 
the skin and superficial tissues, we would recommend raw 
linseed oil, applied with bandages, to protect the parts from 
the air, and allowed to remain for several days. 

Remedy for a Cold. — People not much accustomed to 
study the diseases of horses, look upon a cold as a trivial 
matter. But they should bear in mind that nearly the whole 
of the disorders to which the noble animal is liable, derive 
their origin from a cold. The causes of colds are various, but 
the most usual one is riding the horse till he is hot, and then 
suffering him to stand still exposed to the cold air ; removing 
him from a hot stable to a cold one. If the horse has been 
high fed and clothed, the cold contracted in this manner often 
proves very violent ; and this is the reason why horses often 
catch a severe cold on their first coming out of the dealer's 
hands ; neglecting to rub him down properly, and to rub the 
sweat carefully off when he comes in from a journey ; and I 
have known grievous disorders brought on by removing horses 
into a new stable before the walls and plastering were dry. 
Workmen are often in fault for not leaving air-holes above ; as, 
when a horse comes into a new stable, and gathers heat, it will 
cause the wdls and plastering to sweat very much, especially 
if there are no air-holes left. Many a horse has lost his eyes, 
and some their lives, by being put into new stables before they 
were dry. 

Symptoms. — When a horse has caught a cold, a cough will 
follow, r.nd he will be heavy and dull in proportion to the 
severity of the disease ; his eyes will be watery ; the kernels 
about his ears and under his jaws will swell, and a thin 
mucous gleet will run from his nose. If the cold be violent, 
the hors^ will be feverish, his flanks will heave, and he will re- 
fuse his food. The owners should be very careful to observe 
these last symptoms, because, when they appear, and are at- 
tended with a slimy mouth, cold ears and feet, moist eyes, and 
a great inward soreness, there is danger of a fever, and gen- 
erally of a malignant kind. But when the horse coughs 
strongly, and snorts after it, eats scalded bran, and drinks 
warm water, moves briskly in his stall, dungs and stales freely. 



106 THE HORSE. 

and without pain, his skin feels kindly, and his coat does not 
stare, there is no danger, nor any occasion for medicine. You 
should, however, bleed him, keep him warm, give him some 
feeds of scalded bran, and let him drink warm water. 

The Cure. — If the horse feels hot and refuses his meat, it 
will be necessary to bleed him plentifully, and to give the fol- 
lowing drink : 

2 ounces of juice of liquorice. 
2 ounces of salt of tartar. 
2 drachms of saffron. 
2 ounces of honey. 

Cut the juice small, dissolve all together in hot water, and 
give it nearly cold. This drink may be repeated as occasion 
requires, but let twenty-four hours elapse first. Or give 

4 ounces of aniseeds. 
2 ounces of liquorice root. 
1 ounce of gum scammony. 
1 ounce of iiitre. 

Boil these together in three pints of water, for ten or twelve 
minutes ; strain the liquor through a cloth ; and add two 
ounce of honey to it, when you give it to the horse. 

The following ball, commonly called the cordial ball, is one 
of the best yet found out for coughs and colds. Be careful to 
get your drugs good, for this ball is of great worth in many 
diseases ; and few things will remove a cough or cold, or clear 
a horse's wind, cooner or better : 

Take 4 ounces of aniseeds powder. 
4 ounces ot fenugreek. 
4 ounces of liquorice powder. 
4 ounces of elecampane powder. 
4 ounces of flour of brimstone. 

4 ounces of liquorice, cut small, and dissolved in white wire. 
1 ounce of saffrou, pounded smell. 
1 ounce of oil of aniseeds. 
8 ounces of olive oil. 
8 ounces of honey. 

Bray them all well together till they come into paste, and if 
they should be too dry, add a little more olive oil and honey. 
The dose is about two ounces, and may be given three or four 
times a day if needful. These balls, consisting of warm, open- 
ing ingredients, are of great use ; and given in small quanti- 
ties, about the size of a pullet's egg, will encourage a free 
perspiration ; but in case of a fever, they should be given with 
the greatest caution. 

It will be of great use to put scalding-hot bran into the 
manger, that the horse may hold his head over it, and receive 
the steam up his nostrils, which will cause a running from ihem 
and relieve him very much. I have known asarabacca, dried 
and rubbed to powder, and blown up the nostrils, to cause a 
discharge ; for, when a horse has caught a violent cold, he is 
often troubled with a pain in his head, which a good discharge 
of the nose is very likely to cure. For the same purpose the 
horse should be warmly clothed, especially about the head, 



THE HORSE. 107 

neck and throat, as it has a tendency to promote a running at 
the nostrils. 

By this simple method, with proper care, hot mashes and 
warm water, most colds may be cured ; and, as soon as the 
horse begins to "feel heartily, and snorts after coughing, an 
hour's exercise every day will greatly hasten the cure. If the 
legs swell, and the horse be full of flesh, rowels are necessary. 

A Cough and Asthma. — Among all diseases to which this 
noble creature is subject, none has given more perplexity to 
farriers than a settled cough ; indeed it too often defies all the 
attempts of art, and the horse frequently becomes asthmatical, 
or broken winded. 

Causes. — The causes are various. Sometimes it is owing 
to colds imperfectly cured ; sometimes to pleurisies, or malig- 
nant fevers, which have left a taint upon the lungs or other 
vessels ; sometimes to small eruptions in the glands, which 
cause the lungs to be much larger than they ought to be, and a 
quantity of phlegm, and mucilaginous juices, which stuff up 
the glands and branches of the windpipe ; and sometimes to 
fleshy substances engendered in the large blood vessels ; for 
all these things hinder a free respiration, and excite a cough. 
It is of the utm.ost importance to distinguish one kind of cough 
from another, and this makes the disorder so hard to cure ; for 
it cannot be cured till the seat of the complaint be found out. 

If the cough be of long standing, attended with a loss of 
appetite, wasting of flesh and weakness, it denotes a consump- 
tion ; and that the lungs ar-e full of knotty, hard substances, 
called tubercles. When a cough proceeds from phlegm, and 
mucilaginous matter, stuffing up the vessels of the lungs, the 
flanks have a sudden, quick motion ; the horse breathes quick, 
but not with his nostrils distended like one that is broken 
winded ; his cough is sometimes moist, and sometimes dry and 
husky ; before he coughs he wheezes, and sometimes throws 
out of his nose or mouth large pieces of white phlegm, espe- 
cially after drinking, and this discharge generally gives very 
great relief. 

Cure. — If the horse be full of flesh, take from him a mod- 
erate quantity of blood. The next day give him scalded bran, 
and in the evening the following ball : 

1 ounce of powder of aniseeds. 

1 ounce of liquorice powder. 

1 drachm of calomel, 8 drams. to an ounce. 

Work them into a ball with Barbadoes tar. Give this bali 
the last thing at night, and be careful to keep the horse out of 
wet, and from cold water the next day. On the second morn- 
ing give the following purge • 

1 ounce o^ Tarbadoes aloes. 
1 ounce of castile Boap. 



108 THE HORSE. 

14 ounce of powdered ginger. 
1 drachm of oil of aniseeds. 

Bray them together in a mortar, with a little syrup of buck- 
thorn, to make them into a ball, which is to be given in the 
morning, and plenty of warm water and walking exercise, till 
it be wrought off. It will not work the first day. In three 
days after, give six ounces of the cordial ball, in a little warm 
ale, fasting, and to fast two hours after. Repeat the calomel 
ball, physic, and cordial ball, six days after, in the same man- 
ner as before. Let the horse's hay be sweet, and his manger- 
meat scalded bran, with a spoonful of honey in each feed ; let 
him have walking exercise in the open air, but be careful of 
wet and of cold water. 

When this course has been pursued two or three times, give 
two or three ounces of the cordial ball every morning. The 
above method will remove most coughs, but if it fail, try the 
following : 

1 ounce of gum ammonlacum, in fine powder. 
1/4 ounce of gum galbanum, in powder. 

2 drachms of eafEron, brayed. 

2 drachms of assafoetida, in powder. 

Work them up with honey, or Barbadoes tar, into one ball ; 
roll it in liquorice powder, and give it fasting, and to fast two 
hours after. This ball must be given every morning, for six or 
seven times, before it can have a fair trial. In the cure of this 
disease, the diet should be very moderate, the usual quantity 
of hay should be abridged and sprinkled with water, and the 
usual allowance of grain and water divided into several por- 
tions ; for, with these regulations in diet, thf^; disease will soon 
be cured ; and, where it is incurable, the horse will be so far 
recovered as to be able to do £, great deal of work. 

It may not be improper here to add that som^ young horses 
are subject to coughs when cutting their teeth, and their eyes 
are also affected from the "ame cause. In these cases always 
bleed, and, if the cough be obstinate, repeat it, and give warm 
mashes, which are often sufficient alone to remove the com- 
plaint. When young horses have a cough that b caused by 
worms, as is often the case, such medicines must be given as 
are proper to destroy those vermin. 

The Colic, or GripeSo — The colic proceeds from various 
causes ; therefore, the method of cure varies ; otherwise the 
medicines intended to cure it may increase it, and perhaps 
render it fatal. We shall, therefore, divide this disorder into 
three different species, and endeavor to give such plain direc- 
tions for managing each, as cannot fail to prove very beneficial. 
The three species are these : i. The Flatulent, or Windy Colic , 
2. Bilious, or Inflammatory Colic ; 3. The Dry Gripes. 

The Flatulent, or Windy Colic. — Symptoms. — The horse 
is very restless, lying down and starting up again. He strikes 



THE HORSE. " 109 

his belly vnth. his hind feet, stamps with his fore feet, and 
refuses his meat. When the pain is violent, he has convulsive 
twitches ; his eyes are turned up, and his limbs stretched out, 
as if dying ; and his ears and feet alternately cold ; he falls 
into profuse sweats, and then into cold damps ; often tries to 
^ stale, and turns his head frequently to his flanks ; he then falls 
'down, rolls about, and often turns on his back. This last 
symptom proceeds from a stoppage of urine, which generally 
attends this species of colic, and may be increased by a load of 
dung pressing upon the neck of the bladder. 

Causes. — This disease o ten proceeds from catching cold 
by drinking cold water when hot, and the perspirable matter 
is by that means thrown upon the bowels, which causes them 
to distend violently, and sometimes brings on an inflammation 
in the small intestines, when the body begins to swell, and the 
cure is despaired of. 

Cure. — The first thing to be done is to empty the straight 
gut with a small hand dipped in oil. This frequently gives 
room for the wind, before confined in the bowels, to discharge 
itself ; and, by taking off the weight which pressed upon the 
neck of the bladder, the suppression of urine is removed, upon 
which the horse immediately stales, and becomes much easier. 
If the horse be y ang, and full of blood, it will be proper to 
take a sufficient quantity of blood from the neck. 

When these purcrative operations have been performed, the 
following may be given, as it seldom fails to give relief; 

4 ounces of tincture of senno. 

6 drachms of tincture of opium. 

] drachm of oil of juniper. 

8 ounces of juniper berries, bruised. 

Put one quart of boiling water on the juniper berries, let 
them stand a few minutes, strain it off, put all together, and give 
them to the horse. 

If he does not find relief soon after taking this dose, both 
by staling and breaking wind, it is doubtful whether he will 
receive any benefit from it ; so you must prepare the following 
clyster for him as soon as you can : 

Take 4 ounces of camomile flowers ; 

2 ounces each of aniseeds, fennel and coriander. 

Boil them ir cne quart of water, and add 2 ounces of Cas- 
tile soap, cut small, while the water is hot, that the soap may 
dissolve. Give it blood warm. During the fit the horse may 
be walked about, or trotted a little, but should by no means be 
harrassed, or driven about till he is jaded. If no bei'jer, give 
the following : 

2 drachms of camphor. 

1 drachm of pellitory of Spain. 

2 ounces of ginger powder. 
8 gills of Holland gin. 



110 THE HORSE. 

If the horse sweats much at times, and then falls into cold 
sweats, give four ounces of mithridate, in three gills of Holland 
gin, and repeat the clyster. If the disorder continues three or 
four hours, give one ounce of the tincture of opium, in three 
gills of Holland gin. When the horse begins to recover, he 
will lie quiet, without starting and trembling ; and, if he con- 
tinues in this quiet state an hour, you may conclude that the 
danger is over. Dress him down well, and give him a small 
quantity of warm water, if he will drink it ; bed him down 
well, cover him to keep him warm, and then leave him to get a 
little rest. You must consider that the disorder has left a little 
soreness on him, both withm and without ; therefore, make him 
a little gruel, with a pint of red wine in it ; and, if any skin be 
knocked off about his eyes or his huck-bones, rub it with the 
wash recommended for bruises. 

Sometimes the colic is received into the stomach, and does 
not act so violently, nor cause the horse's pain to be so strong. 
You may best judge of this by his motions. He will draw his 
four feet together, lay himself down, stretch out his feet and 
head, throw his head back, and often put his nose to his chest ; 
after standing a little, he will lie down again as before. When 
the colic is easier, he will lie for an hour or more together, 
with his feet stretched out and his head thrown back, or with 
his nose upon his ribs. This is caused by bad feed, or bad 
water, or both ; sometimes by drinking hard water when hot, 
or by a change from soft grit water to limestone or iron water, 
or by the break of a storm. I have had five or six horses 
under my care in this disorder in one day, at the break of 
a frost, by drinking ice or snow water. Sour grain, sour grass, 
dry meal, dust, bad hay, and many other things cause this 
disorder. Give the following, which is almost a certain cure in 
two hours : 

1 ounce of spirits of sweet nitre. 
1 ounce of spirits of nitre. 
1 ounce of tincture of opium. 
1 c unce of sweet oil. 

All to be given together in a gill of warm ale. Bed the horse 
well down, and leave him that he may get a little sleep, after 
which he will get up and feed. This is one of the best medi- 
cines that has yet been found out. It has saved hundreds of 
horses, and will save hundreds more, if rightly applied. 

The Bilious or Inflammatory Colic. — Symptoms. — This 
kind of colic, besides most of the symptoms of the former, is 
attended with a fever, great heat, panting, and dryness of the 
mouth. The horse also generally parts witn a little loose dung, 
and a little scalding hot water, which, when it appears blackish, 
or reddish, indicates an approaching mortification. 



THE HORSE. IIJ 

Take 3 ounces of senna. 

1 ounce of salt of tartar. Infuse them in a quart of boiling water an 

nour — strain, and add 

2 ounces of lenitive electuary. 

4 ounces of Glauber's salt. Mis when hot. 

If the disorder be not removed by the above medicine, but, 
on the contrary, the fever and inflammation continue to increase, 
attended with a discharge of flesh-colored matter, the event 
will probably be fatal ; and the only medicine likely to prevent 
it is a strong decoction of Jesuit's bark, a pint of which may 
be given every three hours, mixed with a gill of red port wine; 
or you may give one ounce of the powder of bark with the 
wine. Or, if these cannot be got easily, give four ounces 
of tincture of rhubarb in three gills of red port wine. Also 
give a clyster every two hours, made of two new-laid eggs, 
well broken, and two ounces of molasses, in one quart of milk. 
Give it warm. 

If the horse recover, it will be proper to give him a gentle 
purge or two in a week after. 

Take 1 ounce of rhubarb in powder. 
14 ounce of jalap, do. 

Work them up into a ball with syrup of buckthorn, and give 
it to the horse, with warm water to work it off. 

The Dry Gripes. — Symptoms. — This disorder mostly pro- 
ceeds from costiveness, and is discovered by the horse's 
frequent and fruitless attempts to dung, the blackness and 
hardness of the dung, the frequent motion of his tail, the high 
color of his urine, and his great uneasiness. 

Cure. — The first thing to be done is to draw the dung out 
of the fundament, with a small hand, as far as you can reach, 
and then give the following : 

4 ounces of castor oil. 

4 ounces of tincture of senna. 

1(4 ounces of oil of jumper. 

Give them altogether, and then the following clyster : 

Boil in a quart of water a handful each of 
Camomile flowers and 
Marshmallows. Strain off and add 
2 ounces of linseed oil, or pale oil. 

If the horse do not mend, repeat both the drink and the 
clyster. During this disorder the horse must not have any dry 
food ; but boiled linseed and scalded bran, with warm water to 
drink. Gentle walking exercise is a great means to cause the 
physic to work ; but be careful of cold. 

From the account that I have given of the different species 
of the colic, th^ reader will be abundantly convinced how nec- 
essary it is to be acquainted with each, that he may be able to 
give proper medicine, and to relieve the creature's excruciating 
pains. He should carefully avoid all hot, violent medicines. 



112 THE HORSE. 

which always prove hurtful in every species of this disorder, 
and frequently fatal. Nor is it any wonder that horses treated 
in that manner should die, for such medicines stimulate the 
neck of the bladder, augment the heat of the blood, before 
much too great, and inflame the bowels, by which a mortifica- 
tion is brought on and the horse is lost by the very means used 
for his recovery. 

The Yellows, or Jaundice„ — This disorder is very common 
in horses, and sometimes it is either unknown, or overlooked, 
till it gets much worse to cure. A young horse is easily cured, 
but an old horse is bad to cure. 

Symptoms. — The white of the eye is yellow, also the 
inside of the mouth, the tongue and the bars in the mouth are 
of a dusky yellow ; the horse is dull, and refuses all kinds of 
food ; a slow fever is perceived, which increases with the yel- 
lows ; the dung is often hard and dry, and of a pale yellow 
color ; the urine is generally of a dark dirty brown, and 
when it has settled, sometimes looks like blood ; the horse 
stales with pain and difficulty ; and, if the disorder is not 
checked, becomes in a short time unable to stir about. When 
this disease gees strong hold of a horse before proper medicines 
are applied, it is often fatal, or it brings on some other disorder 
as bad, or worse, than itself. 

Cure. — Bleed plentifully, and, as this disease is always 
attended by a costive habit of body, it will be proper to give a 
clyster or two before you give the physic. A clyster may be 
made of one ounce of camomile flowers, boiled in a quart of 
water with two ounces of Castile soap. Then give the follow- 
ing ball '. 

4 drachms of Indian rhubarb, 
2 drachms of saffron. 
6 drachms of Socotrine aloes. 
1 ounce of Castile soap. 

To be brayed in a mortar with a little syrup of buckthorn, 
and made into two balls ; one to be given the last thing at 
night, and the other the first thing in the morning ; and give 
plenty of warm water to work them off. If the disease is obsti- 
nate, and will not yield to the above, give the following ball : 

1 drachm of calomel, 8 drachms to an ounce. 

1 ounce of Barbadoes aloes. 

1 ounce of Venice soap. 

1 ounce of turmeric. 

1 drachm of oil of juniper. 

All to be brayed in a morter with a little syrup of buck- 
thorn, and made into two balls ; one to be given at night, and 
the other in the morning, with plenty of warm water, and 
walking exercise till wrought off. 

If the horse is better after the first medicine, repeat it, for 




(3 



O 
Q_ 

< 

U 



THE HORSE 113 

it is much safer than the last ; but, if not, the last may be 
given, and repeated as need requires ; but be careful not to 
give it in less than six days distance. 

If, after giving one dose of the last ball, you give the fol- 
lowing powders every day in celantine tea, if it can be got, or 
in warm ale, you will find them very useful in removing the 
complaint. 

2 ounces of salts of tartar. 
2 ounces of turmeric. 

These powders are proper to be given after either of the 
former doses. 

The Staggers. — This disease is caused by the liver making 
blood' so fast that the cavity of the heart is overloaded and the 
blood flies up the neck vein till the head is overloaded too ; 
and, if relief cannot be obtained, the horse soon dies. 

Symptoms. — The most common are drowsiness, watery 
and somewhat full and inflamed eyes, a disposition to reel, 
feebleness, a bad appetite, the head generally hanging down, 
or resting on the manger. There is little or no fever, and the 
dung and urine are very little altered. The horse soon begins 
to reel and falls down, and sometimes is so outrageous as to 
bite everything in his way. 

Cure. — In the first place, bleed him well as soon as you 
possibly can, by striking the veins in several places at once, and 
take away four or five quarts at one time , and, in order to 
raise up his head and shoulders, support them with plenty of 
straw. If he survive the first fit, cut several rowels, give him 
clysters at night and morning, made of barley-water and a 
little sweet oil and salt ; and blowup his nostrils a little cayenne 
pepper or white hellebore. Also give him 

4 drachms of bark. 

16 };rains of turpeth mineral. 

Vz ounce of camphor. 

Give it in a little warm ale. When ale cannot be conveni- 
ently had, any other beverage to disguise the taste will answer. 
If the horse be outrageous, give him 

1 ounce of tincture of opium. 
1 gill of syrnp of poppies. 
1 ounce of tincture giiaiacum. 

Be careful not to let him knock his head, for it will increase 
the disorder. If he gets through the first fit, give him two 
ounces of crocus metalorum every day, to thin his blood for 
fear of a relapse. It will be proper to give him the following 
ball once a month for some time after : 

1 ounce of rhubarb, in powder. 

1/2 ounce of jalap. 

1 drachm of calomel, 8 drachms to the ounce. 



114 THE HORSE. 

To be made into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. This ball 
will be of great use in thinning the blood, and preventing a 
return of the disorder ; for when a horse has had one fit of it, 
he is very likely to have another, if care be not taken to pre- 
vent it. 

Convulsions, or the Stag Evil. — Of all disorders to which 
horses are subject, this is the worst, and is scarcely discover- 
able till the horse falls down raging mad. It seizes him all at 
once, without any previous warning. He raises his head, with 
his nose toward the rack, pricks up his ears, and cocks his 
tail. In this posture he continues, and those who do not 
understand the disorder never suppose that he ails anything 
of consequence. But other symptoms soon convince them of 
their mistake ; for his neck grows stiff, cramped and almost 
immovable ; his jaws are locked, and every tendon' in is body 
becomes stiff. If he can get his mouth open he will bite any- 
thingthat comes in his way ; and, if he lives a few days in this 
condition, several knots will arise on the tendinous parts of it. 
Every muscle is so much cramped and extended that the 
horse looks as if he were fastened to the place, with his legs 
stiff, wide, and staggering, and the skin drawn so tight over 
every part of his body that it is almost impossible for him to 
move ; and if you attempt to make him walk, he will be ready 
to fall at every step, unless he be well supported. At the same 
time his eyes are so fixed by the contraction of the muscles as 
to give him a dead look. He snorts and sneezes often, pants 
continually, and his shortness of breath increases till the dis- 
distemper takes a favorable turn, or the horse falls down and 
dies. 

Cure. — In the first place, bleed plentifully, unless the horse 
be old and low in flesh, or taken from some hard duty, and 
then you must not take so much blood. After bleeding, give 
the following ball, if you can get it in, but the horse is very 
often jaw-locked, till nothing can be got in but by clysterpipe 
put between his fore and axle teeth. 

14 ounce of assafoetida. 

Yz ounce of gum guaiacum. 

Yi ounce of gum camphor. 

Make them up into a ball with honey, and give one of these 
balls every twelve hours, for two days, if you can get them in; 
and, if not, dissolve them in a little hot beer, and give them 
with the clyster-pipe. Be careful to powder the gums. Then 
make an ointment or lotion of the following : 

1 ounce of oil of spike. 
1 ounce of oil of amber. 
1 ounce of spirits of sal ammoniac. 

Shake them well together, and rub the jaws just below the 



THE HORSE. 115 

ears, where they lock in the upper chap ; also rub the small of 
the back well, where the cross bones join the back bone. 

In this, as in most other disorders, the body should be kept 
gently open with laxative purges and emollient clysters. When 
the jaws are so locked that you cannot get anything in, do not 
open them by force, for that would increase the disorder 
instead of relieving it. 

Sheep-skins, newly taken off, and laid with the flesh side to 
the horse, will sweat him greatly, and by that means draw a 
quantity of water from the blood ; indeed, there are few things 
that will relieve a locked jaw more; but, if they be laid on the 
loins, they must not lie above three hours at a time before they 
are turned with the wool side to the horse. You may keep the 
skins on twenty-four hours, if you change sides every two or 
three hours. 

If the horse can not take either food or water in at his 
mouth, he must be supported by clysters, made of barley-water 
and milk, and given both at the mouth and fundament. 

Fevers. — Horses are subject to few disorders which are not 
attended with more or less fever. 

Causes. — Fevers are often brought on by sudden heats and 
colds ; by going out of warm stables into cold ones ; by 
being clothed and then having the clothes stripped off ; and 
by being turned out to grass ; for many people turn their horses 
out to grass in the morning, and letting them lay out, which is 
quite wrong ; for when they are turned out to grass, to be 
there night and day, it is best to turn them out at night, for 
then they will graze all night; but, if you turn them out in the 
morning, they will fill themselves in the day time, and lie still 
all night, which is the way to catch cold. Most fevers are 
brought on by colds, therefore, be careful to keep your horses 
as much as possible from catching cold. 

Symptoms. — The horse is remarkably restless, ranging from 
one end of his rack to the other ; his flanks work ; his eyes 
appear red and inflamed; his tongue is parched, and his breath 
hot and of a strong smell. He often smells at the ground: he 
loses his appetite, and though he will take hay into his mouth, 
he does not chew it; his whole body is hotter than usual, but 
not parched ; he dungs often, but little at a time, and it is 
generally hard, and in small pieces ; his urine is high-colored, 
and he generally stales with pain and difficulty ; he is always 
craving for water, but drinks very little at a time ; and his pulse 
is much quicker than usual. 

Cure. — Whenever a fever takes place, the first part of a 
cure is bleeding. And, if the horse be strong and in good con- 
dition, the quantity should be two or three quarts. When this 



116 THE HORSE. 

has been done, give him a pint at a tune of . the following 
infusion, three or four times a day : 

4 ounces of juice of licorice 
4 ounces of licorice root. 
2 ounces of saltpeter. 
4 ounces of salt of tartar. 
8 ounces of good raisins. 

1 ounce of aniseeds. 

2 drachms of saffron. 

Boil all these together in six quarts of water, for ten 
minutes ; let it stand till cold, and then strain it off. It is one 
of the best medicines for colds, coughs, hoarseness, or fevers, 
in either horse or man ; and, if it were more known, and 
more used, it would give greater relief in violent colds than 
anything yet found out. It is kind in its operations, opening 
to the lungs, works gently by stool and urine, is free in its 
passage, and opening in its nature. 

The horse should scarcely eat anything but mashes made 
of linseed and bran, and given in small quantities. If he 
refuses them, let him have dry bran sprinkled with water, and 
put a little hay into his rack, as a small quantity of it will not 
hurt him, and a horse will often eat hay when he will not eat 
anything else. His water should be rather warm, and given 
often, but in small quantities ; and his clothing moderate, too 
much heat being pernicious in a fever. If he refuses his meat, 
do not let it lie before him, but take it away, and clean his 
rack and manger. If he be able to go about, a little walking 
exercise in the open air will be very proper, but you must 
be careful not to get him wet. 

This method, wnth good nursing, will often be sufficient to 
restore the horse to health ; but, if he refuse his meat, more 
blood should be taken from him, and the drink continued ; 
and, if his dung be hard and knotty, a clyster should be given : 

Take Marshmallows and 

Cauiouiile flowers, a handful each: 
Boil one-third away in tliree (juarts of water, strain, and add 

4 ounces of Venice treacle. 

1 pint of pale rape oil. 

The above will make three clysters, to be given at four 
hours' distance. If his pulse continue high and quick, give 
the following : 

2 ounces of nitre. 
2 ounces of cream of tartar. 
4 ounces of (ilanher"s salt. 
2 ounces of lenitive electuary. 

Dissolve them in hot water, give one-half and the other 
half the day following. If the horse be very open in his body, 
you need not give the above ; but if dry, be sure to give it 
him. If he be very open, give him four drachms of bark in a 
gill of red port. By pursuing this method, the horse will 
begin to recover, and will relish his hay, though his flanks will 



THE HORSE. 11^ 

continue to heave for a fortnight. Nothing more will be 
requisite to complete the cure than walking him abroad in the 
air, and giving him plenty of clean litter to rest on in the stable. 

A Broken Wind. — This disorder may sometimes be prevented 
but cannot be cured ; and it has hitherto been as little under- 
stood as any to which a horse is subject. People have had 
various opinions respecting its cause, and why some horses are 
more subject to it than others; but, of all the opinions hitherto 
delivered^ this seems the best founded : That it is frequently 
owing to the hasty or injudicious feeding of young horses for 
sale, by which means the growth of the lungs is rapidly 
increased, and all the contents of the chest so much enlarged 
that in a few years the cavity of the chest is not sufficient to 
contain them when they are expanded to perform their proper 
functions. Nor is this opinion founded on bare conjecture, for 
horses that have died broken-winded have been opened and the 
lungs and other parts found too large for the chest. But 
although hasty feeding is often the cause of this disorder, yet 
it is not always, for a narrow chest may cause it. It has been 
observed that horses rising eight years old are most subject to 
it. The reason is this : Because a horse arrives at his full 
strength and maturity at that age. At six he generally finishes 
his growth in height ; then he lets down his belly, and spreads, 
and all his parts gain their full size ; so that the pressure on 
the lungs and the midriff is now increased. 

From observations, it abundantly appears that the enormous 
size of the lungs and other contents of the chest, by hindering 
the free action of the midriff, is the principal cause of this 
disorder; and, as the lungs are found much more fleshy than 
usual, they must consequently have lost a great part of their 
spring and tone. 

Therefore, as this disorder is caused by the largeness of the 
lungs, we may conclude that it is one of those diseases which 
cannot be cured by art ; and that the boastings of those who 
pretend to cure it are built on a sandy foundation. They 
may, indeed, relieve the complaint, but will never cure it, for 
an absolute cure is not in the power of any human being. All 
that I can do is to lay down some rules which have a great 
tendency to prevent this disorder, if pursued in time ; and 
some remedies that will afford relief when it has taken place 
and render the horse capable of performing good service, 
notwithstanding his misfortune. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom of a broken wind is an 
obstinate dry cough, which is neither attended with sickness 
nor loss of appetite; but, on the contrary, with a disposition to 
foul feeding, eating the litter, and drinking large quantities 
of water. 



118 THE HORSE. 

Prevention. — When a horse is troubled with an ''/n^ivnate 
dry cough, and eats his litter, it will be necessary to bleed him, 
and to give him the mercurial physic already prescribed, repeat- 
ing it two or three times. Afterwards give the following balls 
for some time, which have been found of great service : 

4 ounces of gnm ammoniaciim. 
4 ounces of galbaninn. 
4 ounces of assaf(i>tiila. 
4 ounces of squills. 
'/^ ounce of saffron. 

Make the whole up into balls with honey and a little licor- 
ice powder, and give one about the size of a pullet's egg every 
other morning. Tliis is a very good ball for a dry cough. 

But it is not enough to give proper medicines ; the horse's 
diet should also be carefully attended to at the same time, if 
we would hope for success. In order to do this, the horse 
should eat very sparingly of hay, which, as v/ell as his grain, 
should be wetted with chamber-ley, which is much better than 
water. Chamber-ley is best for this purpose, because of the 
volatile salts which it contains, as they are the means of remov- 
ing the thirst. For the same reason, garlic is very efficacious 
in this disorder. Two or three cloves being given in each 
feed ; or three ounces bruised, and boiled in a quart of milk 
and water, and given every morning for a fortnight, has been 
found very serviceable. So easy a remedy should never be 
neglected ; for, by warming and stimulating the solids, and at 
the same time dissolving the tenacious juices which choke up 
the vessels of the lungs, it greatly relieves the complaint. 
Moderate exercise should never be omitted ; and, although 
broken-winded horses are not able to endure much labor the 
first sum.mer, yet many have been found less oppressed the 
second, and scarcely perceptibly affected the third, being then 
able to perform a long journey, and to endure great fatigue. 
A horse kept constantly in the field, when not in work, will be 
able to do good service for many years. 

It may not be improper to observe that those who hope to 
cure a broken-winded horse, or even one that is troubled with 
an obstinate cough, by putting him to grass, will find them- 
selves wretchedly mistaken ; for, on being taken into the stable 
and fed with dry meat, he will be much worse than before ; 
and some that had only a dry cough, when they were put to 
grass, have returned broken-vv^inded. Therefore, always re- 
member that if you cannot keep a horse of this description 
constantly abroad, it is best not to put him to grass at all, as, 
instead of curing, it will tend to augment the disorder. 

In short, the grand secret of managing horses of this kind, 
consists in having particular regard to their diet and exercise. 
A moderate quantity of hay or grain, and water, should be 



THE HORSE. 119 

given at a time, and the former constantly moistened, to pre- 
vent their wanting too much of the latter. They should have 
moderate exercise, but never any that is violent. By this 
method, and giving the following ball once every fortnight or 
three weeks, the horse will be able to do good service for many 
years: 

6 draclinis of Socotrine aloes. 

a drachms of myrrh. 

2 drachms of galbamim. 

2 drachma of ammoniaciim. 

2 ounces of bayberries, in powder. 

Make the whole into a ball, with a little oil of amber, and 
a sufficient quantity of syrup of buckthorn. This ball operates 
so gently that there is no need of confinement, except a little 
the day following that on which it is given. The horse must 
have warm mashes and warm water, and the utmost care must 
be taken to prevent his catching cold. 

Relief for Heaves. — Heaves, the common name for 
broken wind in the horse, is susceptible of great alleviation by 
attention to the character and quantity of food to be eaten by 
the animal, as every one knows. If a horse, suffering from this 
disease, is allowed to distend his stomach, at his pleasure, with 
dry food entirely, and then to drink cold water, ad libitum, he 
is nearly worthless. But, if his food be moistened, and he be 
allowed to drink a moderate quantity only at a time, the dis- 
ease is much less troublesome. 

A still farther alleviation may be obtained from the use of 
balsam of fir and balsam of copaiba, 4 oz. each, and mix with 
calcined magnesia, sufficiently thick to make it into balls, and 
give a middling sized ball night and morning for a week or ten 
days. This gives good satisfaction. 

Lobelia, wild turnip, elecampane, and skunk cabbage, equal 
parts of each. Make into balls of common size, and give one 
for a dose, or make a tincture, by putting 4 oz. of the mixture 
into 2 qts. of spirits ; and, after a week, put 2 tablespoonfuls 
in their feed, once a day for a month or two. This remedy is 
also good. 

A Consumption. — Symptoms. — A consumption is a want of 
nourishment and waste of flesh. The horse's eyes look dull, 
his ears and feet are commonly hot, he coughs violently by 
fits, sneezes often, and groans at the same time ; he gleets at 
the nose, and sometimes throws a yellowish matter, rather 
curdled, from his nose ; his flanks have a quick motion, and he 
has little appetite to hay, though he will eat grain, but he 
grows hot after it. 

Causes. — Damp stables are most likely to bring on this 
disorder, though it may be brought on by many other things. 



120 THE HORSE. 

In my lime I have known many horses suffer much by damp 
stables. 1 knew a gentleman, who had two valuable horses, 
and he built a brick stable for them, without any air-hole above 
their heads. He put the horses in as soon as the stable 
appeared dry, and their heat soon caused the walls of the place 
to sweat, and to run down with v/ater, by which means both 
the horses were thrown into a consumption and died. I men- 
tion this to caution others. 

Cure. — The first, and indeed one of the principal things to 
be done, is to bleed in small quantities. A pint, or at most a 
pint and a half, is sufficient at once, and the operation is to be 
repeated whenever the breath is more than commonly oppressed. 
We are assured, by dissection, that in a consumption both the 
glands of the lungs and the mesentery are swelled, and often 
indurated. The only medicine that can be depended upon are 
mercurial purges and ponderous alteratives. I have already 
given you examples of the former, and the following is a for- 
mula of the latter. Mix 

4 ounces of crocus metalorum. 

1 onnce of calomel pp. 

1 pound of gum Guaiacum, finely powdered. 

Give about an ounce every day in a mash of bran and lin- 
"seed. Iceland liverwort, a handful boiled in a gallon of water, 
IS much better to make mashes up with than water ; for it is a 
great helper of the blood. But it is to be observed that noth- 
ing will answer so good an end as spring grass ; so that if the 
horse be afflicted with this disease in spring-time, turn him out 
to grass as soon as you can ; and, if the night be cold, turn 
him out in the day-time, and take him in at night. Salt 
marshes are the most proper places, when they can be met 
with. When a horse has had this disorder, he can never more 
bear cold and hard service as before. 

A Scouring, and other Disorders of the Intestines. — You 

should consider well what the scouring proceeds from, whetlier 
it is caused by foul feeding, bad water, hard exercise, sudden 
heat or cold, or overflowing of bile, or a weakness of the intes- 
tines. 

If it is brought on by foul feeding, or bad water, it should 
not be stopped, but rather be promoted ; for it should be re- 
membered that nature by this means throws off the seeds of 
disease, and evacuates the morbid matter which would other- 
wise be retained to the great disadvantage, and, perhaps, to the 
destruction, of the animal. The great difficulty, therefore, con- 
sists in knowing when these discharges are critical and salu- 
tary, and when detrimental and noxious ; for the former must 
not be checked, but the aid of medicine must be called in to 
put a stop to the latter. 



THE HORSE. 121 

For instance, if a healthy horse, upon taking cold, or after 
hard riding, over feeding, or at the beginning of a slight fever, 
have a moderate purging, you must be careful not to stop it, 
but, on the contrary, to promote it, by an open diet, and plenty 
of warm gruel. But, if this purging continue a long time, with 
smart gripings, and the inner skin of the bowels come away 
with the dung, and the horse lose both his flesh and his appe- 
tite at the same time, recourse must immediately be had to 
proper medicines ; among which the following are very effec- 
tual. I do not wish any one to give medicines upon merely 
hearing the names of the drugs, but to know first in what man- 
ner the drugs will operate. 

Take 2 ounce of rhubarb, in powder. 
2 drachms of myrrh, in powder. 
2 drachms of saffron. 

Give altogether in warm ale and warm water, for two days 
after. This dose will not only work gently, but will be of 
great service to the horse, as it will bring away the slime which 
lodges in small intestines, and correct the bile of the stomach, 
and the horse's flesh keeps wasting away, recourse must be had 
to astringents. Tormentil root dried, and pounded in a mor- 
tar, and put through a sieve, is one of the best astringents yet 
found out, though very little known. The dose is from an 
ounce to an ounce and a half. I believe that this valuable root 
has done more good in my time, in stopping looseness and 
bowel complaints, than any thing else. When the purging is 
attended with fever, a different method of practice is necessary. 

Take '/a ounce of rhubarh, in powder. 
1 ounce of lenitive electuary. 
•/^ ounce of camphor, 
i ounce of powdered ginger. 

To be given in a pint of old ale. This is a very proper 
medicine when the horse is troubled with a fever • but if 
he have no fever upon him, give the following. 

1 ounce of tormentil root, in powder. 
Yi ounce of Japan earth, do. 

Give these in red wine, or if that be thought too expensive, 
in oak bark tea. Japan earth is a great healer of the bowels. 
Repeat this last medicine three or four times to allovv^ it a fair 
trial ; giving the horse at the same time but little exercise, for 
he cannot then bear much. Should this medicine fail, and the 
disorder increase instead of decreasing, which may be known by 
his flanks and belly being full and distended, and his appearing 
to suffer strong griping pains, give the following clyster : 

Yi ounce of isinslass, dissolved in a quart of warm milk. 
2 ounces of mithridate. 

Sometimes the flux is so violent as not to be overcome by 
the preceding medicine, when recourse must be had to the 



12)i ^ ^ THE HORSE. 

following: Boil a handful of oak bark in a quart of water, 
strain it off, and add 

2 ounces of tormentil root, in povA-der. 
2 ounces of bole. 

Give them all together. This should be repeated once a 
day for two or three days. 

The practitioner should carefully attend to the symptoms 
that accompany this disorder ; for if the discharge be attended 
with any acrid mucus, or slime, the griping pains being very 
severe, there is then a sure indication that the common lining 
of the bowels are wasted away ; and then it will be necessary 
frequently to inject the following clyster, warm, in order to 
prevent the fatal consequences which will otherwise soon 
ensue: 

4 ounces of starch, dissolved in a quart of water. 

Half a i)int of sweet oil. 

Yolks of three eggs, well broken. 

A little loaf sugar. 

This will do for twice, at four hours' distance. 

In treating this disease, be exceedingly careful to follow my 
directions, and to get good drugs, for your success will depend 
upon this and cautious watching of the symptoms. 

It is also necessary to observe that some horses, from 
having weak stomachs and bowels, throw out their aliment 
undigested, and their dung is habitually soft and of a pale 
color ; they also feed sparingly, and are always low in flesh. 
This complaint, which often proves fatal at last, may be 
removed by the following medicines : 

6 drachms of Socotorine aloes. 
3 draclims of rlnibarb, in powder. 
1 drachm of myrrh. 
1 drachm of saffron. 

Make all up into a ball with syrup of ginger. After the 
above stomachic purge shall have been given two or three 
times, a pint of the following infusion should be given every 
morning : 

Take 2 ounces of orris root. 
A handful each of 
Gentian, Columbia root, 

Winter bark, Aniseeds, 
Orange peel, Fennel seed, 
and camomile flowers. 

Boil all together in a gallon of strong ale, and when cold 
clear it off, and add one pint of spirits of wine. If this be 
thought too strong, two quarts more of ale may be added. This 
is an excellent cordial for both healing and strengthening the 
stomach and bowels. These are the best methods of treating 
the above disorders, to which horses are often subject, and in 
which they are often lost for lack of proper treatment. 



THE HORSE. 133 

Disorders of the Kidneys and Bladder. — Inflammation of 
the kidneys and bladder are sometimes brought on by other 
disorders, and often by sprains, hard exercise, catching cold 
when hot, or from want of proper care. 

Symptoms of a Hurt in the Kidneys. — The horse is 
very weak in the back and loins; he stales with difficulty, is faint, 
eats very little ; his eyes appear languid and of a dead color ; 
his urine is foul, thick, and often bloody, especially after a 
violent strain; he cannot move backwards without a great pain, 
which may be seen at every attempt. It is sometimes hard to 
distinguish an inflammation from a sprain, or what is called 
" tifled in the back." There is no method but observing the 
gait of the horse. If he have got tifled in the back, he will 
be hard put to it to keep from coming down behind, and, 
indeed, will often come down; his eyes will look rather red, 
but his urine the same as before. A tifle lies in the marrow, or 
pith of the back. 

Cure. — The principal remedy for a hurt in the kidneys is 
bleeding, which should be done pretty plentifully, as by this 
means an inflammation will be prevented ; and if you have 
reason to think that the inflammation has already begun, from 
the creature's being feverish and staling with great difficulty, 
the operation should be repeated ; for unless the inflammation 
be prevented, or immediately removed, the consequences will 
be fatal. But, although bleeding is the principal, it is not the 
only remedy, for rowelling is of great service. Put a rowel on 
each side of his belly, and give the following balls twice a day, 
in a pint of the decoction of marshmallows, having an ounce of 
gum arabic, and an ounce of honey, dissolved in it : 

1 ounce of salts of Prunella. 
6 ilraclinis of 8i)ei'niaceti. 

2 ounces of Castile soap. 

Add as much honey as will make a ball ; and if the urine 
be bloody, an ounce of Japan earth must be added. If the 
fever continue, you must repeat the bleeding and give emol- 
lient clysters, and the cooling, opening drink, before recom- 
mended for fevers, till it abate. These methods will often 
prove successful, but sometimes the disease is too obstinate to 
be overcome by them, and the urine still passes with pain and 
difficulty. Recourse must then be had to the following balls, 
and they must be prepared twice a day till the horse stales 
without pain, and his urine becomes clear, and without any 
purulent settlement : 

1 ounce of Venice turpentine. 

1 ounce of Castile soap. 

6 drachms of nitre. 

S drachms of myrrh, in powder. 

Make the whole into a ball with honey, and wash it down 
with a strong decoction of marshmallows. 



124 THE HORSE. 

These are the best methods of treatment in this disorder, 
and will in general prove successful. Sometimes, indeed, this 
malady is too strong for the power of medicine, and then the 
urine continues turbid, and daily becomes of a deeper color, 
with a foetid smell, a sure sign that the kidneys are ulcerated ; 
which generally terminates in a consumption, and the creature 
becomes absolutely incurable. 

In treating of the colic, I have recommended a method for 
removing the stranguary, when it proceeds from wind, or from 
dung pressing upon the neck of the bladder ; but sometimes it 
proceeds from an inflammation, and a retention of urine. 

Symptoms of an Inflammation of the Neck of the 
Bladder. — When a horse is seized with a stranguary from the 
above cause, it Avill make frequent motions to stale, standing 
wide, and straddling, his bladder being full of urine, and his 
flanks distended ; he will be uneasy, constantly shifting his 
hind feet, and often gi'-ing clicks in his motions ; he also some- 
times hangs his head, and then raises it suddenly. 

Cure. — First bleed largely, and then give the following: 

1 ounce of spirits of sweet nitre, 

2 ounces of syrup of marshmallowB 
1 ounce of Venice soap. 

Cut the soap small, dissolve it in a gill of hot water, put the 
above to it, and give it to the horse. Repeat it every eight 
hours. Also dissolve an ounce of gum arable and an ounce of 
nitre in a gallon of water, and let him drink plentifully of it. 
If he will drink of his own accord, it is best ; but if not, horn 
a little into him, for it will greatly tend to remove the cause of 
the disease, and consequently to terminate the eft'ects. 

There is a disease of the kidneys, viz.: a diabetes or pro- 
fuse staling, which produces effects directly opposite. This 
disorder is seldom cured in old horses, as their fibres are 
become rigid and unable to perform their office, a misfortune 
which all the power of medicine cannot remove. But in young 
horses this disease is often cured, and the following method 
will generally be attended with success : 

Cure of a Diabetes. — In order to cure this threatening dis- 
order, great care must be taken not to let the horse drink too 
much water, and never to give him any moist food. Attention 
to these particulars will go a great ways towards a cure ; and 
instead of giving him common water to drink, give him lime- 
water, to make which, take about three pounds of lime, pour 
six quarts of water into it ; let it stand three days, take the 
scum off the top, and give the horse the water to drink. Be 
careful not to stir the lime at the bottom of the vessel. This 
is very clear, wholesome water, and very good for many dis- 
orders. 



THE HORSE. 125 

Some farriers give strong alum possets two or three times 
a day ; but this kind of treatment cannot be proper, for the 
alum takes so fast hold of the juices of the stomach that if the 
horse were not ill, it would be enough to make it so. 

The Molten Grease. — This is so common a disorder that it 
ought to be well understood, but, alas ! like many others, it is 
often mistaken for something else. The disease is a melting 
down of the fat of the horse's body, caused by violent exer- 
cise in very hot weather ; or, if the horse be full of flesh, it 
may happen in cold weather. Hard riding, or sudden colds, 
will bring on this disorder. 

Symptoms. — It is always attended with a fever, heat, rest- 
lessness, starting and trembling, inward sickness, and shortness 
of breath. Also, the horse's dung is extremely greasy, and he 
often falls into a scouring. His blood, when cold, is covered 
with a thick scum of fat, of a white and yellow color, but gen- 
erally the latter. The congealed part, or sediment, appears 
like a mixture of size and grease, and is so extremely slippery 
that it will not adhere to the fingers ; and the small proportion 
of serum is also slippery and clammy. The horse soon loses 
his flesh and fat, the latter being probably dissolved into the 
blood. Such as have sufficient strength to sustain the first 
shock, commonly become hidebound, and their legs swell 
greatly ; and in this state they continue till the blood and 
juices are rectified ; and, if that is not done effectually, the 
Farcy, or an obstinate surfeit, is generally the consequence, 
which cannot be removed but with the utmost difficulty. 

Cure. — In the first place, bleed pretty plentifully, and re- 
peat the operation two or three days successively ; but take 
care that you take only a small quantity at a time after the first 
bleeding, as otherwise the creature would be rendered too 
weak to support himself, and his blood too poor to be easily 
recruited. As soon as he has been bled the first time, let two 
or three rowels be put in, and the emollient clysters pre- 
scribed for fevers be thrown up daily, to mitigate the fever, 
and to cleanse the intestines from the greasy matter. At the 
same time plenty of water-gruel should be given, and some- 
times a small quantity of water, with a little nitre dissolved in 
it. The latter will be of great service, as it will prevent the 
blood from running into grumous concretions, and proving 
the source of innumerable disorders, if not causing a total 
stagnation, and, consequently, the death of the animal. 

The horse must be treated in this manner till the fever be 
entirely gone, and he shall have recovered his appetite ; and 
then it will be necessary to give him three or four purges, a 
week distant from each other, which will make him stale and 



126 THE HORSE. 

perspire plentifully, and, at the same time, bring down the 
swellings of his legs. The following is well calculated for the 
purpose : 

6 draclims of Socotrine aloes. 

4 ounces of gum Guaiaciim, in powder. 

2 drachms of tiinSPr- 

2 drachms of jalap. 

2 drachms of oil of juniper. 

To be made into a ball with syrup of buckthorn. By pur- 
suing this method the horse will soon be recovered, for this 
purge will mend his appetite, and increase his flesh. If it be 
too weak, add a drachm more of aloes. It will bring down his 
swelled legs, and carry away all the superfluous matter that 
clogs the blood. When you give the physic, be careful to give 
plenty of warm water all the time. 

A Surfeit. — Some people pronounce every ill-thriven horse 
surfeited, whether he is so or not. A surfeit is nothing more 
than the effects of an ill-cured disease, and, therefore, what is 
called a surfeit in horses is very different to the disease which 
bears that name in the human body ; the latter being the be- 
ginning of a disease, and the former the remains of one. 

Symptoms. — The horse's coat will stare, look of a rusty 
color, and even appear dirty, although the greatest pains have 
been taken to keep him clean. His skin will be covered with 
scales and dandruff, which will appear like meal among the 
hair, and, when cleaned off, will be followed by a succession of 
the same matter, occasioned by the perspiration being ob- 
structed. Some horses will be covered with a kind of scab, 
sometimes moist, attended with heat and inflammation, and 
the humor so very sharp, and causing so violent an itching, 
that the creature is incessantly rubbing himself, and by that 
means making himself raw. in different parts of his body. 
Some horses have neither scales, dandruff nor scab ; but look 
dull, sluggish and lazy. Some are hidebound, and others 
afflicted with flying pains and temporary lameness. In short, 
the symptoms are very various, and almost as numerous as 
those of the scurvy itself. 

Causes. — The causes are as various as the symptoms. Some 
horses are surfeited by high feeding and want of proper exer- 
cise, which produce a bad digestion and generate ill humors. 
Some are surfeited by unwholesome food ; some by hard riding; 
some by bad or improper physic, and some by standing in 
stables through which the rain drops, or by lying wet. But 
as many also get surfeited by standing, when hot, at the doors 
of public houses, such bad practices should be guarded against. 

Cure. — If we duly consider the nature of surfeits, their 
cure will be much more easily performed. All allow that they 



THE HORSE. VZ7 

arise from a bad state of the blood ; but how is this to be 
remedied ? By bleeding and purging. But this must be done 
in a very gentle manner. Take about a quart of blood, and the 
next day give the following ball : 

1 ounce of Socotrine aloes. 

1 drachm of calomel, p]). 

2 drachms of oil of aniseeds. 

Add as much lenitive electuary as will make it into a ball. 
Give plenty of warm water to work it off. Repeat both bleed- 
ing and physic in eight days and when the last dose is wrought 
off, give him the six ounces of the cordial balls in a little warm 
ale. Also give a spoonful of the following powders every day 
in a mash : 

4 ounces of flour of hrimstone, 
4 ounces of crocus nietaloriim. 
4 ounces oi nitre, in powder. 

]\Iix all up well together. By persevering in the above 
method you may cure the most inveterate surfeit, and, if any 
scabs or runnings appear in the skin, rub them with the follow- 
ing : 

4 ounces of Bulj)luir vivum. 

2 ounces of vhite copperas. 

2 ounces of white hellebore, in powder. 

Mix these powders with churn-milk, rub the places affected 
well, and the grievance will soon disappear. . Sometimes a sur- 
feit settles in the legs, and they swell much, and then break 
out and run very much. When this is the case, two taps put 
into the lower belly will be of great use. Staling balls* should 
be given every third day, and plenty of warm water to work 
them off with. Make the staling balls as follows : 

1 ounce of white resin. 

4 drachms of Castile soap. 

2 drachms of oil of juniper. 
2 drachms ef camjjhor. 

4 drachms of saltpetre. 

Bray all well together in a paste, in a mortar, and form it 
into a ball. The above is only for one dose, but you may 
make as many as you think proper at once, and keep them for 
use. Give them at night, and they will work off the next day. 
These balls are of great service in many of the disorders of 
horses, and are some of the best staling balls yet found out. 

By following the foregoing directions, a cure will generally 
be performed. Sometimes in this disorder little knots break 
out, especially upon the hind parts of the horse, and these 
knots throw out a little matter. When this is the case, you 
must rub them with strong mercurial ointment. Sometimes 
these little tubes, or pustules, have living insects in them ; but. 
by rubbing them as I have just directed you, they will be de 
stroyed and the cure completed. 



128 THE HORSE. 

The Hidebound. — This disorder is too often brought on by 
the horse being worked too hard, and badly kept ; ahhough 
this is not always the case. When the skin of a horse sticks so 
close to his ribs that it appears immovable, the horse is said to 
be hidebound. But this is not properly a disease, but rather a 
symptom, being often caused by previous disorders, such as 
fevers, convulsions, surfeits, worms, or disorders of the kidneys 
or lungs. 

Cure. — As the hidebound may proceed from various causes, 
it is necessary to determine the cause, before such medicines 
can be applied as will remove it. If it owe its origin to hard 
labor and want of food, rest and plenty will soon remove it. 
If it be caused by worms, worm medicines must be applied ; 
or if it be left by any imperfectly cured disorder, the following 
drink must be given: 

2 ounces of aniseeds in powder. 
2 ounces of ginger, in powder. 
2 ounces of mustard. 
2 ounces of turmeric. 

All to be powdered, and to be given in warm ale, fasting, 
and to fast two hours after. Bleeding, tapping and physic are 
also necessary, when the hidebound is left by any disorder. 

The Mange. — This disorder is more shameful than danger- 
ous, for you cannot go abroad with a scabby horse without 
being hissed at, neither is it proper; for this disease is so 
infectious that every horse that may come near it will be in 
danger. 

The mange is too well known to need a long description, 
though some have been mistaken, and have taken a hot itching 
eruption for it. 

Symptoms. — At first it is confined to the skin, but, by long 
continuance, it vitiates and pollutes the blood. The skin is 
generally thick and full of wrinkles, especially about the mane, 
the loins and the tail; and the little hair remaining on those 
parts stands erect. The ears and eyebrows are commonly 
naked; and, when the limbs are affected, they have the same 
appearance; but, at the same time, the horse is net raw nor 
does the skin peel off as in a surfeit. 

Causes. — The mange is generally taken by mfection, for it 
is so very catching that if a horse be put into a stable where 
one with the mange has stood, before it is thoroughly cleansed, 
he will hardly fail being infected. But, though infection is the 
general, it is not the only cause, of the mange. Low feeding, 
and running long abroad in cold, pinching weather without 
sufficient provender, will cause a horse to have the mange. 

Cure. — When a horse has been infected by another, the 



THE HORSE. 129 

disorder is not so obstinate as when caused by starvation, for 
the blood will not be in so bad a state. When you think a 
horse has got the mange, apply the following, where you think 
it needful, and it will cure it at the beginning, without much 
trouble or expense: 

4 ounces of sulphur vivnm. 
4 ounces of white copperas. 
4 ounces of white hellebore root, in powder. 

Mix all together in two quarts of buttermilk, and rub the 
places well. By this method you can cure most scabs of short 
duration; but, when once the mange has got great hold, it will 
require sharper treatment. Make the following for one horse: 

4 ounces of sulphur vivuni. 

2 ounces of white hellebore root, in powder. 

2 ounces of blue stone vitriol, in powder. 
54 ounce of verdigris, in powder. 

4 ounces of Flanders oil of bays. 

3 gills of whale oil. 

Mix all well together, and rub the horse well with it all 
over — in the sun, if in summer, but before a fire if in the win- 
ter. In summer you must always turn him out to grass 
after rubbing, but in winter keep him warm in the house. You 
must be careful to wash your saddles and bridles, cart gears, 
stands, mangers, racks, et<t., well with quick-lime and chamber- 
ley; for, if you do not clean all that the horse may have used, 
the infection will remain. You will find the above a certain 
cure, if managed rightly, for I have cured hundreds with it, 
and I do not remember one instance of its failure. 

At the same time give freely of flour of sulphur and liver 
of antimony ; and, if you have a number of horses infected, be 
sure to rub them all together. 

The Farcy, or Farcin. — There have been many opinions 
respecting this disease. Some authors reckon five kinds; but 
although there are so many different branches, yet four of them 
have the same root. The water farcy is different from the 
others, and, therefore, I shall put it afterwards by itself. There 
is a scurvy which horses are subject to, and which is often 
called a farcy, but it is no such thing, for there are only the 
two kinds of farcy which I shall here treat upon. Horses are 
often said to have the farcy when they have not, for sometimes 
when people do not know the proper name of a disorder, they 
call it farcy. The true farcy is a disorder of the blood vessels, 
and generally follows the course of the veins, and, when invet- 
erate, thickens their coats and integuments in such a manner 
that they become like so many cords. 

Symptoms. — At the beginning of this disorder, a few small 
knobs or tumors, resembling grapes, are found on the veins, 
which are so painful to the touch that the creature shows evi- 
7 



130 THE HORSE. 

dent marks of uneasiness on their being pressed with the 
finger. They are at first very hard, hke unripe grapes, but in 
a very little time they grow soft, and break and discharge a 
bloody matter, and become very foul and untoward ulcers. 
This disease appears in different places on different horses. 
Some show it first on the head; some on the external jugular 
vein; some on the plate vein, extending from thence down- 
ward, on the inside of the fore leg, towards the knee, or 
upwards towards the brisket. In some it first appears about 
the pasterns, on the sides of the large veins, and on the insides 
of the thighs, extending towards the groin; in others on the 
flanks, spreading by degrees towards the lower belly; and some 
horses are nearly covered all over the body at once. 

Cure. — When the farcy attacks only one part of a horse, 
and that where the blood vessels are small, it may be easily 
cured; but when the plate vein is affected and turns corded, 
and especially when the crural veins withinside the thigh are 
in that condition, the cure is very difficult, and the creature is 
rarely fit for anything but the lowest work after it. Therefore, 
those who depend on some particular medicine, and flatter 
themselves with being able to cure every species of the farcy 
with it, will find themselves wretchedly mistaken; for different 
medicines are needful, according as the disease is superficial or 
inveterate. The former is easily cured, for sometimes 
moderate exercise is sutflcient ; but the latter requires knowledge 
and experience, and often baffles the most skillful and defies 
the whole power of medicine. 

From the above description of this disease, it appears that 
it is of the inflammatory kind, and that the blood vessels are 
affected. Copious bleedings are, therefore, absolutely necessary, 
especially if the horse be fat and full of blood. This evacua- 
tion always checks the progress of the farcy in its beginning, 
but its good effects soon vanish, especially if the horse be low 
in flesh. After bleeding, mix the following: 

4 ounces of cream of tartar. 

4 ounces of lenitive electuary. 

4 ounces of Castile soap. 

2 drachms of calomel, 8 drachms to an ounce. 

Make these into balls, and give two ounces a day for some 
time. While giving these balls, dissolve a little nitre in the 
water given to the horse to drink. These medicines will keep 
his body open, and allay the inflammatory heat of his blood, 
which is the principal cause of the disease; and, while they are 
given inwardly to remove the cause, let the tumors be rubbed 
twice a day with the following ointment: 

4 ounces of elder ointment. 
4 ounces of Flanders oil of bays. 
2 ounces of white vitriol. 
1 ounce of red precipitate. 
8 ounces of sugar of lenA- 



THE HORSE, 131 

Beat all well together into an ointment, and keep it for use. 
This ointment will soon disperse the tumors, which will leave 
small bald spots on the skin, but the hair will grow again in 
time. If the tumors break, and run a thick, well digested 
matter, it is a sign that the disease is conquered, and the horse 
will soon be well; but it will be necessary to give him two 
ounces of liver of antimony every day for a fortnight, and two 
ounces every other day for a fortnight after, in order to sweeten 
his blood, and disperse the small bunches that remain. This 
method never fails when the small veins only are affected; and 
a short time will complete the cure. 

But when the farcy affects the large blood vessels, the cure 
is far more difficult. Let the practitioner always attempt it at 
the beginning of the disease, as he then will have fewer diffi- 
culties to encounter; for delay renders that almost impossible 
to be overcome which at first might have been easily conquered. 
Therefore, when the plate or crural veins are corded, lose no 
time, but bleed immediately on the opposite side, and apply to 
the distempered vein the following mixture, which is proper to 
dress the wound with, but not before they are broken out: 

3 drachm of corrosive sublimate. 
1 ounce of spirits of salt. 

Powder the sublimate, and put into a bottle, and put the 
spirits of salt upon it to dissolve it; then add two ounces of 
vinegar by degrees. This is a very proper mixture to dress 
the ulcers with; but, if it cannot be got, take 

6 ounces of oil of turpentine. 
3 ounces of oil of vitriol. 

Put the pot in water with the turpentine in it, and pour the 
oil of vitriol in, a little at a time, and keep stirring it till it shall 
have subsided. If the farcy be situated in the loose and fleshy 
parts, such as the flanks and belly, the mixture should consist 
of equal parts of oil of turpentine and oil of vitriol; but when 
the seat of the disease is in the parts which are less fleshy, the 
proportions above are best calculated to perform a cure. The 
medicine must be used in the following manner: Rub the 
parts affected with a woolen cloth, and then apply some of the 
compound oil to every bud and tumor. Continue this method 
twice a day, and at the same time give cooling physic every 
other day. The balls and nitrous draughts before mentioned 
will answer the intention. By this treatment the tumors will 
be digested, and the cords dissolved; but it will be necessary 
to give liver of antimony to complete the cure, and to prevent 
a relapse; and also to dress the sores, when well digested, 
with a mixture of bees-wax and oil, which will heal them, and 
smooth the skin. 

Soiiietira6s the disease will not yield to this treatment, 



132 ^THE HORSE. 

especially when situated near the flanks or the lower belly. In 
that case it will be necessary to bathe the parts with the com- 
pound oil as far as the centre of the belly; and at the same 
time to give a course of antimonial medicines. The following 
composition is stronger than the last, and on that account is 
often used when the disease is obstinate: 

4 ounces of spirits of wine. 
2 ounces of oil of turpentine. 
4 ounces of oil of vitriol. 

2 ounces of vinegar. 

Mix all together with the caution before directed. When this 
method fails, and the disorder becomes inveterate, try the 
following, which is recommended by an eminent practitioner: 

Yi pint of linseed oil. 

3 ounces of oil of turpentine. 
2 ounces of oil of bays. 

Va ounce of oil of origanum. 
y^ ounce of strong aquafortis. 

2 ounces of Barbadoes tar. 

1 drachm of tincture of euphorbium. 

Mix all together with caution, as before directed. This 
medicine must be rubbed on the tumors and corded veins once 
in two or three days, observing that if the mouths of the ulcers 
are choked up, or so thick as to confine the matter, to open a 
passage with a small hot iron; and also to destroy the proud 
flesh, which maybe kept down by touching it occasionally with 
oil of vitriol, aquafortis or butter of antimony. 

In this disorder, these are the best v/ays of proceeding that 
have yet been discovered; but it is to be considered as an 
obstinate one, and is sometimes very hard to cure. It has 
hitherto baffled many an able practitioner, and it is to be 
feared will baffle many more; for when the blood has got into 
such a corrupted state, it bids defiance to medicines. 

The ingenious Dr. Brackden recommends the strong mer- 
curial ointment for rubbing the cords and tumors with before 
they break; and, in order to disperse them when they are 
broken, to dress the sores with a mixture composed of equal 
parts of Venice turpentine and quicksilver. If the mouth 
becomes sore by this means, a gentle purge should be given to 
prevent salivation. This is doubtless a very good method, and, 
if care be taken, will often prove effectual. 

I have given you the best prescriptions that I am able to 
give, and such as will not fail to cure if properly applied, if the 
horse be not incurable. I have been more particular in treat- 
ing of this disease, because it is common among horses, and 
very often managed improperly by those who pretend to cure 
it. Such, therefore, as have valuable horses in this disease, 
would do well to be careful whom they employ, and assiduous 
in observing the methods they make use of to cure it, if they 
do not think proper to attempt a cure theniselves. In my 



THE HORSE. 13^ 

opinion they may do it better themselves by following these 
directions than by trusting to farriers. 

The Water Farcy. — This disease varies very much from 
the last, and would more properly be called a dropsy than a 
farcy. There are two kinds of this disorder, but they are 
nearly of the same nature. One of them is produced by 
indisposition terminating in the skin, as is often the case in 
epidemical colds; the other is a true dropsy, where the water 
is not confined to the body and limbs, but is found in different 
parts of the body, and a great number of soft swellings appear. 
When you press the finger pretty hard upon any of the 
swelled parts, or under the horse's belly, or any part of the 
body, you may take it for granted that he has got the dropsy, 
or what is called the water farcy. 

This disorder mostly proceeds from foul feeding, or a con- 
tinuance of very wet weather in the end of summer. 

Cure. — Whenever the swellings appear, make scarifications, 
that is, holes through the skin. This may be done by a short 
fleam; and if you have not one short enough, put a collar 
made of a piece of leather on it. If the swelling be under the 
Delly, strike a good many holes in at a time, but be careful to 
avoid the veins. By this means a great quantity of water will 
run out. Taps in the brisket are also often of great service. 
I have fleamed horses four or five times before I could get 
the swelling to subside. When the w^ater has subsided, the blood 
is left in a bad state, to remedy which a gentle purge should be 
given iwo or three times, eight days' distance, to recover the 
crasis of the blood, and brace up the relaxed fibres of the whole 
body. Lime water is very proper, with a little nitre in it, and 
let the horse's food be warm mashes or bran, with a little malt 
in it. His keep must be increased by degrees. The disorder 
mostly happens to young horses that have not been used to 
high keep. You must give one of the following balls every 
day, omitting the time when the physic is working: 

2 ounces of squills. 
1 ounce of camphor. 

1 ounce of Castile soap. 
l;4 ounces of turpentine. 

4 ounces of yellow resin. 

Make these into a ball with honey, and give one ounce at a 
time. These balls will work the water off by urine. When 
the horse has been treated in this manner till the water is 
evacuated, and he begins to recover, give him a pint of the 
following infusion every day for a fortnight, fasting, and let him 
fast one hour after each dose: 

4 ounces of gentian root. 
4 ounces of black hellebore. 

2 ounces of Jesuit's bark. 

4 ounces of camomile flowers. 
1 handful of centaury. 



134 THE HORSE. 

Boil all together in six quarts of water, for ten minutes; let 
stand till cool, and then strain it through a cloth. This 
strengthening drink will brace the fibres, cause the fluids to 
circulate quicker, and complete the cure. 

Founders. — The chest founder is produced by violent 
exercise on a full stomach, and drinking large quantities of 
cold branch water; by the use of mouldy bran, corn, or oats, or. 
by eating large quantities of green food, such as oats, wheat, 
peas, etc., while performing hard labor. The seat of the dis- 
ease is in the lungs; the heart and liver are also considerably 
enlarged, insomuch that there is not room for them to perform 
their office with ease. The liver, lungs, diaphragm and sur* 
rounding parts, are all covered with large brown spots, and ar< 
much inflamed. 

Symptoms. — A horse that is chest foundered will stiaddl? 
or stake with his fore legs, showing an unwillingness to bring 
his feet together; and, if they are placed near each other, he 
will not permit them to remain so for a minute, indeed, they 
are frequently twelve or eighteen inches apart, v/rich is caused 
by a fulness and continual uneasiness about the chest; the 
cavity being too small to contain the lungs, etc., in their enlarged 
situation, with ease. The hind legs are free from the palsied 
appearance of those before, and it is not ditficult to distinguish 
it from a common founder, as it is wflnring in all its symptoms, 
except the stiff and numbed appearance of the legs. 

Large bleedings, and half au ounce of aloes, given intern- 
ally in a ball, have sometimes iifrorded momentary relief. A 
horse laboring under this disease is worth but little more than 
his board, as he is unable to bear fatigue, or undergo severe 
service. 

The common founder is caused by riding the horse until 
much heated and fatigued, and then allowing him to cool sud- 
denly, by drinking treely of cold water, or standing in an ex- 
posed situation, or in a cold stable without covering; or, with- 
out sudden cooiing, it may be produced by too bountiful feed- 
ing, and hi? swallowing his food greedily, while very warm and 
hungry. Under such unfavorable circumstances, the poor ani- 
mal, after resting, instead of being refreshed, is stiff and sore; 
his rest, food, and drink, being more destructive to health than 
constant action and abstinence. On the contrary, had he been 
allowed to cool gradually, and fed sparingly, he would have 
escaped injury. 

Cure. — Take from the neck vein a gallon of blood, and 
give as a drink, in a quart of strong sassafras tea, a tablespoon- 
ful of saltpetre, and a quarter of an ounce of assafoetida; with- 
holding any drink for six hours; at the end of which, should 



THE HORSE. 135 

he not be better, take half the quantity of blood, repeat the 
drink, offering him bran or oats scalded with sassafras tea, his 
drink being mixed with tea. His feet should be well cleansed, 
and filled with cow dung. 

Other Remedies. — As soon as your horse is foundered, 
bleed him in the neck in proportion to the severity of the case. 
In extreme cases, bleed him as long as he can stand. Then 
draw his head up, and, with a spoon, lay salt back on his tongue, 
till he has swallowed one pint. Let him drink only moderately. 
Anoint his feet with spirits of turpentine, and he will soon 
be well. The founder pervades every part of the system. 
Bleeding arrests it in the blood, and the salt in the stomach 
and bowels. Attend to it immediately after the injury. 

The Prairie Farmer recommends, as a simple and certain cure, 
to bleed the horse freely in the neck, as soon as the founder is 
discovered, and as soon as practicable, place him in water, about 
up to his belly — the colder the better — and let him stand two- 
thirds of a day; or, if badly foundered, longer. This drives 
the founder from his feet and legs, and prevents its settling 
there. 

Poll Evil. — This disease in the horse proceeds sometimes 
from striking the poll of his head against any hard substance, 
or from bruising the part with the halter, which causes it to 
swell. First abate the inflammation, by bleeding, physic, and 
the application of cold lotions to the part. This will some- 
times disperse the swelling. If it matters, hasten its formation 
with warm fomentations, poultices, or stimulating embroca- 
tions; then open the swelling so that the whole of the matter 
should run out, and continue to do so. This is done by a 
seton. Keep it clean with warm water. A piece of the skin of 
old bacon, rubbed on with a hot iron, is a good application. 
Poll Evil has been cured by the following mixture (apparently, 
at least, by it in some instances): Take finely pulverized flint 
glass, three spoonsful, put into urine one pint in a bottle, and 
bury it in the ground for three or four days; after which, take 
one spoonful or more of the mixture, well shaken up, and put 
that much into each ear, once a day, for three, four, or five 
days. 

A Sprain in the Back. — All kinds of sprains resemble each 
other. They are a relaxation of the tendinous fibres, from the 
muscular parts being overstretched. Sprains in the back are 
mostly caused by overweighting the horse, or by his losing his 
hind feet on the side of the hill; and, sometimes, by putting 
him back too quickly. There is much difference between a 
sprain in the back, and what is called tifled in the'back. Some- 
times a horse catches cold in his loins by having his clothes on 



136 THE HORSE. 

his saddle taken off when he is hot, and being turned out of 
doors; and some horses are subject to rheumatics, which make 
them lame in many places, and are generally taken for sprains. 
To cure a sprain in the back, first bleed pretty freely, and 
then give, the following drink: 

1 onnce of tincture of giiaiacam. 
1 ounce of balsam copaiva. 

1 ounce of oil of juniper. 

To be put into a quart of strong parsley-root tea; half to be 
given at night, half in the morning, and plenty of warm wate.r 
to work them off. 

Also, lay a sheep's skin with the flesh side to his loins for 
six or eight hours, if he can bear it; and then turn the wool 
side to him, and let it stay on a day; and, when you take it off, 
sheet him well for fear of catching cold. 

A Sprain in the Shoulder. — When the shoulder of a horse 
is sprained, he does not put out the leg like the other, but, in 
order to ease it, sets the sound foot firmly on the ground. 
When trotted in hand he forms a kind of circle with his lame 
leg, instead of putting it forward, and when he stands in the 
stable that leg is advanced before the other. 

There is what is called a shoulder-slip, which is worse than 
a sprain. When this happens, the horse can neither lift his leg 
nor put it forward. ^ You may know this by the shoulder-blade 
standing higher than the other; but, to discern that, you must 
make him stand on the lame leg, for the leg he stands on will 
always appear a little higher than the other. The flesh will 
also shortly waste away from the shoulder-blade, which is a 
sure sign of a shoulder-slip. When the accident has taken 
place, put a tap in the lame side of the animal's breast, and 
blow the shoulder full of wind with a pipe. When you have 
rinded the skin to put the tap in. hold the skin fast to the pipe, 
and blow the part that you have rinded full, and let some one 
draw the wind up into the shoulder with the edge of his hand 
as far as the top of the shoulder-blade, and then put in the tap, 
or rowel, and stop the hole up well with tow and salve. Give 
warm water for three days, and then open the place, stir the tap 
round, and rub the shoulder all over with the following lini- 
ment: 

2 ounces of spirits of wine. 
2 ounces of sweet oil. 

2 ounces of spirits of sal ammoniac. 

Shake them well together, rub the shoulder well with the 
mixture every third day, for some time, and if the horse do not 
get better, with three or four times rubbing, use the following: 

2 ounces of oil of turpentine. 
1 ouQce of oil of origanum. 

Shake these up together, uib all on at a time, and walk the 



THE HORSE. m 

horse about a little afterwards. When nearthe sea, swimming 
in the salt water is very proper, and I have known swimming 
in fresh water to be of great use, particularly in clear running 
streams. 

A sprain in the shoulder point requires nearly the same 
treatment as a slip, but you need not blow it. When it is 
attended by inflammation, cooling mixtures, such as extract of 
lead and water, must be used. But when a swelling or an in- 
flammation takes place, it is mostly caused by a hurt, or by a 
stroke from another horse. If there be no swelling, rub the 
shoulder point well with the following mixture every third day: 

1 ounce of oil of amber. 
1 ounce of oil of spike. 
1 ounce of oil of origanum. 

Shake these well together, and rub the shoulder point every 
other day. If the horse be no better, take 

1 ounce of oil of turpentine, 
1 ounce of oil of origanum. 
1 ounce of oil of amber. 

Shake these together, and rub the shoulder point well with 
them every third day; and, if the horse continue lame, recourse 
must be had to blistering. 

A Sprain in the Coffin Joint. — This is often a grievous dis- 
ease, and it is difficult to discover where the lameness is. It is 
often neglected till the joint grows stiff, and then the horse 
pitches upon his toe, and is afraid of bearing any weight upon 
his foot. If you press with 'your thumb in the hole in the 
horse's heel, and upon the cornet of his foot, you will soon dis- 
cover whether the hurt is in the coffin joint. 

When people cannot tell the cause of a horse's lameness, 
they often say that he has got sprained in the coffin. In my 
opinion it is better not to doctor a horse than to apply stuff to 
you know not what. If people would have a little patience, 
most lamenesses would soon show themselves, especially a 
sprain in the coffin joint, for it would raise a ring round the 
corner of the foot, not much unlike a ring-bone, but closer to 
the foot. 

The first thing to be done is to draw a little blood from the 
spurn vein, then mix an equal quantity of oil of bays, or oil of 
origanum, beat well together, and rub well all, round, just 
above the hoof. Apply this for three or four days together, 
and if no better, you must have recourse to repeated blistering. 

A Sprain in 'the Back Sinews.— This kind of sprain is 
more frequent among horses than any other, and is so comrhon 
that I need not describe it, but only inform you hov/ to cure 
it. 

If it be recent, bathe the leg with a little hot vinegar, or 



138 THE HORSE. 

verjuice, with a little saltpetre dissolved in it, and put round 
it a proper bandage ; or, curriers' shavings, wetted with a com- 
position made of vinegar, spirits of wine, and a little tar, and 
laid on the swelling, with a pretty tight bandage round them, 
will be of great use. Take it off once a day, and soak the 
shavings again, or get fresh. Injuries of this kind must not be 
expected to be removed immediately. Rest is absolutely neces- 
sary, and turning the horse out to grass would be of great ser- 
vice as soon as the swelling disappears, but not before. If 
these methods fail, the next thing is to blister ; for I have 
known blistering to succeed when all the former have failed. 
The last thing to have recourse to, is firing ; and this must be 
done carefully, and by some experienced person. 

Sprains of the Knees and Pasterns. — The knees are liable 
to many misfortunes besides sprains. The speedy cut is done 
by striking one foot against the other leg, just below the knee, 
and is frequently done by a horse that trots high. . Sometimes 
it swells very much, and is taken for a sprain. Sometimes 
horses get kicked by others, or meet with some other accident, 
which causes a swelled knee, which is sometimes bad to re- 
move. A poultice, made as follows, and carefully applied to 
the part injured, will have a great tendency to remove the 
swelling : 

Take 4 ounces of tar. 

4 ounces of spirits of wine. 
3 ounces of hogs' lard. 

Melt these together over a slow fire, and be careful not to 
set fire to them, and put in as much linseed meal as will make 
them of proper consistence. This is a very good poultice for 
many kinds of swellings, and, although but little known hitherto, 
I hope that it will be found of great service. If any substance 
be left, which will not give way to this method, you must lay 
on a little blistering ointment 

• Lameness in the Stifle. — The stifle is the tenderest part of 
a horse, except the eye. How many horses have lost their 
lives by misfortune in this part, and how many have been left 
lame by not being properly cured ! A horse that is lame in 
the stifle generally treads on his toe, and cannot set his heel to 
the ground without great pain and difiiculty. When you find 
this is the case, bathe the part well with warm vinegar ; and 
if a puny swelling appear, foment it well with a woolen cloth, 
wrung out of hot vinegar, wormwood and rosemary, having 
added half a pint of spirits of wine to a quart of the decoction. 
Let this operation be continued till the swelling is nearly gone. 
Owners of horses should watch closely for this lameness. 
They cannot be too careful of the feet of their animals. You 



THE HORSE. 139 

shoald examine the feet of your horses frequently, and with 
much minuteness. 

When a horse has got a stroke, and cut by the heel of his 
shoe, great care must be taken to keep out the cold air, and to 
keep him from drinking cold water, especially in winter time ; 
for, if the horse take cold, and an inflammation come on, there 
is reason to fear that death will follow. When you perceive 
that a horse has got a stroke, and is cut through the skin, bathe 
it well with the following mixture : 

2 ounces of spirits of wine. 

1 ounce of spirits of sal ammoniac. 

1 ounce of oil ot amber. 

Shake all well together, bathe the place well with it, and lay 
on a diachylon plaster with gum, in order to keep out the 
cold. If the horse grow very lame, and the place swell much, 
foment with the following : 

Take a handful each of wormwood, 
elder leaves, camomile tlowers, 
juniper berries, m;irshmallo\v leaves, 

boil in 2 gallons of chamber ley. 

If the above cannot all be got, take double the quantity of 
juniper berries and camomile flowers, and foment for some 
time, as before directed ; and, when you leave off fomenting, 
rub with the above mixture. Be careful to wrap the part up 
warm, and, as soon as it comes to matter, dress it with basili- 
con ointment. If any brown lee appear, syringe tincture of 
benjamin, or balm drops, into the wound. When a callous 
substance, or proud flesh, appears, cut it off with red precipi- 
tate. These are the best ways of curing a horse that has got 
lamed in the stifle. 

Lameness in the Cup-bone, or WMrlebone. — A lameness in 
this part of the hip is discovered by the horse dragging his leg 
after him, and dropping backwards on his heel when he trots. 
If the muscles of the hips only are injured, the lameness may 
be soon cured ; but, if the ligaments of the cup are affected, 
or relaxed, the cure is often very tedious ; and, when the cup 
is full of glueish liquor, the cure is doubtful. I have known the 
ligament, which holds the hip bone in the cup, to be broken, 
and then the hip bone has come loose ; but this seldom hap- 
pens, and when it does, nothing can be done to relieve it. 
When a horse is lame in the cup bone, rub him well with the 
following mixture. 

1 ounce of oil of amber. 

Yz ounce of oil of origanum. 

1 ounce of oil of turpentine. 

Shake these well up, rub one-half on the cup, and the other 
half the third day. I have known this mixture to remove the 
complaint when of long standing ; but, if it fail, you must 



140 THE HORSE. 

try what blistering will do. The last thing to be tried is firing. 
I have fired horses that have been lame above a year, and cured 
them by it. 

It is very easy to fire a horse in this part. Take the iron and 
make a circle, eight inches in diameter, like a cart wheel, with 
scores about an inch asunder. Cut nearly through the skin ; 
and if you do cut through in some places, it will be no worse. 
Sprains in the fetlock, or anywhere in the limbs, may be 
treated in the same manner, and if the oils will not remove the 
substance, blisters will ; therefore, I shall give you a recipe for 
a blister, which is not only suitable for those complaints, but 
for others where a blister is wanted : 

Take V^ ounce of quicksilver. 

Yi ounce of Venice turpentine. 
2 ounces of Flanders oil of bays. 
}^ ounce of gum euphorbium. 

1 ounce of Spanish flies. 

2 (Iraclims of oil of origanum. 

Rub the Venice turpentine and quicksilver well in a mor- 
tar for some time, and then put in the oil of bays, and rub 
some time longer, till the quicksilver is quite killed. Powder 
the gum and flies well, and mi.x them all together. When you 
lay the blister on, rub it well against the hair, to get it to the 
bottom ; lay it on with a broad pointed knife, and cover it 
with a cloth, or the horse will get his mouth to it. This blis- 
ter will answer any purpose you want a blister for, but you 
must observe that there must be fifteen days between the times 
of laying it on. 

The Bone-Spavin. — Although this is a common disorder 
among horses, yet it is little understood by either breeders or 
farriers. The bone-spavin is a bony excrescence, or hard 
swelling, on the inside of the hock of a horse's leg, and some- 
times owes it origin to kicks and blows, and, sometimes, to 
natural causes ; but, in the former case, it is much more easily 
cured than in the latter ; and those that grow spontaneously 
on colts, or young horses, are not so bad as those that appear 
in horses that have arrived at their full strength and maturity. 
In old horses they are generally incurable. 

Sometimes the horse is very lame when the spavin is first 
coming out, and when it has come out, is better for some time, 
and then grows lamer again as the bone hardens. I would ad- 
vise you to apply a blister as soon as you have any suspicion 
that a horse is likely to put out a spavin, and to continue blis- 
tering, every fortnight, for some time, by which means you may 
stop a spavin in a young horse. 

Cure. — Mild medicines should be used if the horse is 
young, as they will in a short time wear the tumor down by 
degrees, which is much better than trying to remove it at once 



THE HORSE. Ul 

by severer methods, which often have a very bad effect, and 
produce worse consequences than those they were intended to 
remove. But in full grown horses other treatment is neces- 
sary. The following ointment is probably the best that can be 
used : 

2 ounces of cantharides. 

4 ounces of mercurial ointment. 
8 ounces of tincture of iodine. 
4 ounces of turpentine. 

3 drachms of corrosive sublimate. 

Mix with two pounds of lard. 

Cut off the hair from the parts affected, and grease thorough- 
ly with the ointment thus made, rubbing it well in with the 
naked hand. Let it remain two days and then grease the part 
with lard. In two days more wash it off with soap and water, 
and then apply the ointment again. Continue this till a cure 
is effected. By this means, bone-spavin may often be cured; 
but when they fail, recourse must be had to firing. 

Before you fire a horse for the bone spavin, be careful to 
take the vein out of the way, for it generally lies over the 
spavin, and you cannot fire deep enough to come at the callous 
substance without its removal. In order to destroy the vein, 
cut a nick through the skin upon it, just below the spavin, and 
another just above it, and put a crooked needle under the vein, 
and tie both ends; then cut the vein across between the tyings, 
both above and below, and you may either draw the piece of 
the vein out, or leave it in. Let the iron you fire with be pretty 
sharp; cut four or five nicks upon the bone, and let the iron 
take hold of the superfluous bone, in order that it may waste 
away by mattering; and when you have done, lay on some 
white pitch, pretty hot, and put a cloth around it to keep it on. 
In three days open the place, and dress it with yellow 
basilicon. 

The Blood-Spavin, or Bog-Spavin. — Many farriers and 
horse-dealers divide this disease into two heads, and give them 
different names; but, to my certain knowledge, they are both 
one, for I have proved it in many ways. A blood-spavin does 
not come by breeding from spavined mares, nor by being got 
by spavined horses, as the bone-spavin does; but you may safely 
breed out of a blood-spavined mare, or have the foals got by a 
blood-spavined horse. In my opinion, blood-spavins are gen- 
erally brought on either by sprains, or by hard labor when the 
horse is young, and sometimes when he is full grown. 
> The blood-spavin, or bog-spavin, is a dilation of the vein 
that runs along the inside of the hock, and forms a small soft 
swelling in the hollow part, which in time renders the creature 
lame, but seldom till the gelatinous matter becomes ropy, like 
melted glue in a bag, and is situate on the inside of the hough. 



143 THE HORSE. 

Sometimes it goes through the back part of the joint, and then 
it is called a thorough-pin. 

Cure. — Soon as you discover the vein puffed up, or forming 
a bag, lay on some blistering ointment, and in four days after 
bathe the swelling with hot vinegar, with a little saltpeter dis- 
solved in it. Also put a bandage round it to disperse the 
swelling as much as you can. If this method do not succeed, 
you must make two incisions in the skin lengthwise, as the vein 
runs, one just above, and the other just below, the joint, and 
lay the vein bare; then put the end of a buck's horn under it, 
raise it up, and fasten it in both places with waxed thread; 
then cut the vein in two at both places within the tyings, and, 
if you think proper, draw the vein out. This method of pro- 
ceeding will cure most bog-spavins at the beginning. The 
blood-spavin may also be cured by applying the same ointment 
used in bone-spavin, only it should be applied once in six days 
instead of once in four. This spavin ointment is very power- 
ful, and when properly used is the best ever invented. 

A Corb. — This is a soft swelling that rises out of the joint, 
on the back part of the hind leg, just below the hock, and 
mostly lames the horse, besides being unpleasant to the eye. 
To cure it, strike a few holes into it with a pricker, made so as 
just to go through the skin, then rub well with oil of origanum, 
and blister as often as needful. If this will not answer, use 
the spavin ointment once in six days. 

A Ring-Bone. — This is so well known that I need not 
describe it, but only point out the remedy; yet I must observe 
that a sprain in the coffin is sometimes taken for a ring-bone, 
when it causes a rim to rise just above the foot. Ring-bones 
come out from the pastern, between the fetlock and the foot; 
but if the pastern is long, they are nearer the foot. They will 
generally yield to the same method of cure as a corb, especially 
if just coming out, but if not, use the spavin ointment in same 
manner as in bone-spavin, only do not apply it so often. Once 
in six days is often enough. 

Mallenders and Sallenders. — The first is on the fore leg at 
the bend of the knee, and the last on the hind leg at the bend 
of the hough. They crack and throw out a thin brown mattei, 
and, sometimes, a hard scurf, or scab, which prevents the horse 
from bending the limbs which are affected, as he. should do. 

Cure. — They both proceed from the same cause, and con- 
sequently require the same treatment, which consists in wash- 
ing the parts with old chamber-ley, or a warm lather of soap- 
suds, and afterwards applying strong mercurial ointment, 
spread on tow, to the cracks, once a day, till the scabs fall off, 



THE HORSE. 143 

when the cure will be complete; and then it will be necessary 
to give him a dose or two of physic. If the disorder will not 
yield to the mercurial ointment, make a strong mixture of 
vitriol water, and wash the cracks with it, and it will dry them 
up, and cause the scabs to fall off. 

The Strangles. — Most horses have this disorder while 
young, but at seven years old they are out of danger. There 
are two kinds of this disorder. The common kind is a swelling 
under or between the jaw bones. The other, which is called, 
the bastard kind, is much the worst. Sometimes swellings 
appear on the buHocks, break and discharge matter for a few 
days, and then dry up, after which others appear in a fresh 
place in the same manner. I have known horses that have 
had this complaint eight or ten weeks. The common kind, 
begins with a swelling between the jaw bones, which sometimes 
extends to the muscles of the tongue, and is often attended 
with so much heat, pain and inflammation, that before the 
matter is formed, the creature swallows with the utmost 
difficulty. 

Symptoms. — The strangles is attended with great heat and 
fever, a painful cough, and great inclination to drink, without 
being able. Some horses lose their appetites entirely, and 
others eat but very little, occasioned by the pain resulting from 
the motion of the jaws in chewing and swallowing. When 
the horse runs much at the nose, it is not a good sign. 
Although this disease is very troublesome, it is not dangerous, 
except when the swelling turns upwards against the windpipe 
and gullet, and then there is danger of suffocation if it do not 
break soon. 

Cure. — The strangles is not properly a disease, but a 
discharge common to young horses, and, therefore, it follows 
that the discharge must be promoted in order to throw off the 
offensive matter. The best method of doing this is to keep the 
swelling always soft by soaking it with softening ointment, 
such as marshmallows or elder ointment. I have known oil of 
swallows, with a little spirit of hartshorn in it, to be very useful 
in bringing the swelling forward and causing it to break. A 
cloth in the form of a cap, put on the horse's head, and stuffed 
with wool to keep the swelling warm, will be of great service. 
Some people apply a poultice, but there is no need of this if 
the above be properly used. Give plenty of warm water, with 
a little meal in it; for in this disorder a horse cannot swallow 
dry food enough for its support. When they gather and break, 
see that the matter runs freely; if not, open them with the 
point of a sh9.rp knife. It will be five or six days before they 
break. 



144 THE HORSE. 

When the swelhng is broken, and orifice of a proper size 
to discharge the matter, dress with the following ointment 
spread ontow: 

Takel pound of yellow resin. 

1 pound of Burgundy pitch 
Vi pound of honey. 
M pound of common turpentine. 
I'/j pounds of hofj"s lard. 
4 ounces of beeswax. 
1 ounce of verdigris, finely powdered. 

Melt the ingredients together, but do not put the verdigris 
in till nearly cold, and keep stiri'ino; all the time till cold, or 
the verdigris will fall to the bottom. This is one of the best 
salves for wounds that has been found out, and especially for 
old ones. 

The bastard strangles requires the same kind of treatment, 
but it is proper to give the horse some calomel physic also. 

The Glanders. — This disease has baffled all who have tried 
to cure it, and probably will do so to the end of time; so I ad- 
vise those who may have a glandered horse, to put him off as 
soon as they shall be certain that he is so. People often mis- 
take other disorders for the glanders. A violent cold some- 
times causes a running at the nostrils, and kernels under the 
jaws, when the horse is free from the glanders. Sometimes a 
running at the nostrils is caused by laying too much weight on 
a horse. I do not pretend to cure glanders. 

Symptoms. — The matter discharged from the nostrils of a 
glandered horse, is either white, yellow, greenish, or streaked, 
or tinged with blood. When the disease has been of long 
standing, and the bones are fouled, the matter turns blackish 
and becomes very bad. The glanders is always attended with 
a swelling of the kernels, or glands, under the jaws, but in every 
other respect the horse is generally healthy and sound, till the 
disorder has continued some time, and the morbid matter has 
effected other parts. If a thin, limpid fluid be first discharged, 
and afterwards a whitish matter — if the gland under the jaw do 
not continue to swell, and the disorder shall have been but 
recently contracted, a speedy cure may be effected by applying 
the following: 

1 ounce of roach alum. 
1 ounce of white vitriol. 

Powder these well, put them into a pint of warm vinegar, 
and syringe about an ounce up his nostrils every day. This 
may do good if the disorder be newly caught. 

Swellings and Imposthumes. — When a swelling is in its 
first stage, bathe it well with verjuice or vinegar, with a little 
saltpetre dissolved in it; and if the swelling still continue, mix 



THE HORSE. 145 



1 ounce of extract of lead, 

1 ounce of spirits of wine. 

1 ounce of spirits of sal ammoniac. 

3 ounces of vinegar. 



]R.ub the swelling well with it; but if it be very hot, add four 
ounces of water instead of the vinegar. Should the swelling 
come forward and form matter, which you may feel by the 
pressure of your finger, let the matter out, but be sure to make 
the incision large enough that you may dress it with ease. 
When you have laid the part open, dress it with the green salve 
before recommended, on tow, for you cannot have a more 
proper salve. The next time you dress it, that is, the day after, 
make a wash of the following: 

2 ounces of spirits of wine. 
2 ounces of spirits of rosemary 

1 ounce of roach alum. 

2 ounces of water. 

Mix these all together, and they will answer the purpose 
extremely well. When you have washed the wound with the 
above mixture, lay on a little green salve, on tow, and bind it 
on if you can, but if you cannot, lay on a plaster to keep it on. 

Some swellings, such as have been caused by bad barf ens on 
the shoulders, or blows on the legs, will not submit to weak 
mixtures, nor come to matter in a reasonable time. Mix the 
following, and it will either take them off or bring them to 
matter; 

2 ounces of oil of spike. 
1 ounce of oil of amber. 
Yi ounce of oil of origanum. 
I'ounce of oil of turpentine. 

Mix these well together, and rub the swelling well with 
them every other day. I have known this to remove obstinate 
swellings. 

Wounds. — Wounds are caused by accidents of various kinds. 
When the skin is much torn from the flesh, if you are at hand 
while the wound is quite fresh, take a square-pointed needle 
and a waxed thread, and sew it up. Mind to put the needle in 
straight, one side over agaiust the other; draw the skin tight, 
and tie a knot; cut off the thread, and then take another stitch 
about an inch off, and so proceed. When same people sew up 
a wound, they do it the same as they would sew up a piece of 
cloth, but that is quite wrong, for they should tie a knot at 
every stitch, and cut the thread off. But when you do not see the 
wound until the place is growing dead, and the skin is drawing 
up, then take off the loose skin; for if you keep it on it will 
curl up, and leave a blemish. Always keep the lips of the 
wound down. 

When a wound is upon or near a joint, there is danger of 
throwing out a joint-lee, of which there are three kinds. One, 
8 



146 THE HORSE. 

and mostly the first, is thin and brown, something like sweet 
wort; the second is rather thicker and tougher, something hke 
melted glue; and the third, which is the worst, is like muddy 
water and snort mixed together. This last has deceived many 
people, for when the wound has thrown out this kind of lee, 
with little, white slippery pieces, something like matter, it has 
often been taken for such. When you find any of these kinds 
of lee, get a bottle of Riga Balsam, and syringe the wound 
every day. If Riga Balsam can not be got, use the tincture of 
benjamin. I have known fomentations to be of great use, espec- 
ially on the stifle joint. When a wound is of a dead color, and 
the lips rise, and the dirty lee flows profusely, the cure is to be 
despaired of. If proud flesh arise when a wound is in a fair way 
for healing, take 

1 ounce of-basilicon. 

2 drachms of red precipitate. 

Mix them well together, and lay them on the proud flesh. 
This ointment is also very proper to dress a wound with that 
appears dead, and does not discharge a proper matter. If the 
proud flesh do not submit to the above, lay on a little blue 
vitriol, in powder, or touch it with caustic or oil of vitriol; and 
should none of these make it give way, lay on a little corrosive 
sublimate. The salves, tinctures, and mixtures already laid 
down, are sufficient to cure any curable wound. 

Hurts in the Feet. — Horses are oftener hurt in the feet than 
anywhere else, and those hurts are often received from the 
blacksmith. Every blacksmith should be a farrier, and every 
farrier a blacksmith, for these businesses should go hand in 
hand. Sometimes a horse is lamed by being shod into the 
quick. The foot should always be carefully examined on the 
first appearance of lameness. Sometimes a nail with a flaw in 
it will cause a great grievance, as one part will come out and 
the other will go into the foot. Blacksmiths should never use 
such nails except in a frost, when they can put them into the 
old holes. Sometimes they leave stumps, or pieces of nails, in 
the feet; and sometirhes when they drive a nail they turn the 
point into the foot, and then draw it back and put in another, 
take no further thought about it, and when the horse becomes 
lame, they say he is gravelled. 

When a horse has got lamed in the foot, be careful to cut 
it well out, and to damage the hoof as little as possible, and 
dress the place with oil of turpentine, spirits of tar, and com- 
mon tar. Lap no hot drying drugs on, unless proud flesh rise. 

Sometimes corns on the heels cause a horse to be lame; cut 
them out, and dress the place with aquafortis. There is 
another fault which blacksmiths are guilty of, and which is a 
great hurt to a horse, that is, cutting or paring the heel down 



THE HORSE. 147 

too much. The heel being best to come at, they clap the par- 
ing-knife there and cut them down, when there is no need to 
take any off them at all. The heels are the greatest support of 
the horse, and, by paring them too thin, both corns and lame- 
ness in the back sinews are produced. 

Before a blacksmith begins to shoe a valuable horse, especi- 
ally a f oad-horse, he should examine how he stands and how 
he goes. If he go low, heavy shoes should be used; but if he 
go high, light ones. If he turn his toes out, he will cut with 
the heel, and, if he turn them in, will cut with the spurn. If he 
have a thin, flat foot, he should have broad shoes; but, if a 
hollow, dished foot, narrow ones. If the crust be thin, and 
the vein near, small nails should be used. Some horses are 
hoof -bound — that is, have straight heels, which pinch the vein 
between the hoof and the cofhn. When this is the case, thin 
the soles of the feet till the blood springs through, and then put 
on screw-shoes, and screw the feet out. Let the screw-shoes 
stay on a fortnight. You may screw the feet out more than 
half an inch. 

The next thing to be considered is gravel rising from the 
bottom to the top of the foot, and breaking out at the cornet. 
How many twitter-bones have been thus formed that might have 
been prevented! When the gravel comes up to the top of the 
foot, take away the sole at the bottom, and the hoof at the top, 
and mix equal parts of oil of turpentine and oil of origanum, 
and bathe the top part of the foot. This will prevent a twitter 
from forming. 

A xWitter-Bone. — A twitter-bone makes a horse very lame, 
aTid not fit for work. It keeps throwing a tough white matter 
out of what is called a pipe. In order to cure it, first find out 
where the pipe leads. This you may do with a piece of round 
lead, the size of a small quill-barrel. Have the following 
ready, viz.: 

% ounce of siihlimate, in fine powder. 
1 ounce of spirits of salt. 

Mix all together, and syringe a squirt full into the pipe when 
you take the lead out; and, when you draw out the point of the 
syringe, put your thumb on the place to prevent it coming back 
again, and then put on a pledget of green salve and tow. Do 
this every other day, for three or four times, and by this 
method most twitters may be removed. But, if this fails, the 
next thing to be done is to put a hot iron, the thickness of a 
small finger, where the pipe leads to, and to fill the hole with 
sublimate, and bind on it a pledget of green salve with a cloth. 
Let it be five days, and then lay on some more salve and tow, 
and in five days more the twitter-bone and pipe will come out. 
The wound must be washed with the following mixture, and 



148 THE HORSE. 

dressed with green salve and tow every other day, till nearly 
well: 

1 ounce of bole. 

1 ounce of oil of orlgaaum. 

4 ounces of oil of turpentine. 

Shake them up well together, and they will both help to heal 
the wound and bring down the substance. If any more twit- 
ter-bones or pipes form, you must take them out in the same 
manner. 

A Fistula, and Bruises of the Withers. — The withers are 
much subject to bruises, caused by bad saddles, or such as are 
too wide in the front; but, whatever be the cause, it is well 
known that by neglect they often terminate in a fistula. 

When the withers are bruised, and a swelling appears, lay a 
poultice of bran and vinegar over the part. People who have 
a horse which is crushed in the withers, and pay no regard to 
it, are worse than savages, and are not fit to have such a useful 
animal. 

Cure. — After a horse has been bruised in the withers, the 
skin breaks, and matter is discharged, and then the owner 
supposes that the abscess will subside, but he is often mistaken; 
and the pipe which he perceives throwing out matter is, at the 
same time, running forwards in the withers, and forming a 
fistula. When you find the disease proceeding in this manner, 
lay the pipe open, and dress it with the following mixture 

4 ounces of potash. 
4 ounces of honey. 

2 ounces of white vitriol. 
1 pint of vinegar. 

Boil all together, wash the wound well with the mixture,' 
and lay on the green salve and tow. If the above be not dry 
enough, add two ounces more of white vitriol, and two ounces 
of bole. These will make a salve by themselves; and by these 
methods you may cure any disease of the withers arising from 
external injuries. 

But tumors often arise in the withers from internal causes, 
such as the crisis of fevers. When this happens, you must not 
attempt to stop it, nor use anything to put it back, for by this 
means you would drive it more into the shoulder-blades, and 
make it worse to cure; but, on the contrary, do everything 
you can to assist nature in bringing it forward. You cannot 
do better than lay on poultices twice a day till it breaks, for 
reason tells us that it is better to do so than to cut it; but, 
when it is broken, open the orifice with a knife, that you may 
have more freedom in using it; but be careful in using the 
knife, that you do not catch hold of the ligament which turns 
along the neck of the withers. Sometimes it runs to the other 



THE HORSE. 149 

side of the neck under the withers. The cure is the same as 
before. Lay all the cavities open with the knife, and not cut 
across if you can avoid it. Then take the following never- 
failing mixture to dress with: 

4 ounces of crude sal ammoniac. 

2 ounces of bole. 

8 ounces of honey. 

2 ounces of pearl ashes. 

2 ounces of white vitriol. 

1 pint of vinegar. 

Boil all together, and apply it to the wound every day 
at first, and afterwards every other day till well. 

Warbles, Girth-Galls, and Plushes from Saddles. — These 
grievances are commonly known, and the following mixture 
will effect a cure, take off the soreness, and leave the skin kind. 
I may affirm that it is one of the best recipes yet found out 
for the purpose: 

2 ounces of extract of lead. 

54 an ounce of white copperas. 
2 ounces of spirits of wine. 
4 ounces of soft water. 
1 ounce of spirits of sal ammoniac. 

Mix all together in a bottle, keep shaking it up, and rub the 
affected places well with it, and put your saddles and barfens 
on while the places are wet, in order to prevent them from 
infecting other horses. 

Sometimes horses have what are called setfasts on their 
backs. Rub them with a little mercurial ointment, in order to 
raise them and make them come off; and, if you cannot pull 
them out after using the ointment, cut them out with a sharp 
knife, and apply to the place the above mixture, or heal it up 
as a common wound. Most excrescences on horses are cured 
in this manner. 

Windgalls. — These are mostly on the hind legs, near the 
fetlock, but I have known them above the fetlock, and on the 
arm. Windgalls are not only eye-sores, but lame many ahorse. 
Many methods are used to disperse them without effect. If 
you put your finger on one side, and your thumb on the other, 
and press with one of them, you will find the windgall to go 
quite through the leg. The reason that they are mostly on the 
hind leg is, that the horse stands lower behind than before, 
and throws most weight on the hind legs. 

Cure. — On the first appearance of a windgall, bathe the 
place well with warm vinegar and spirits of wine, and put a 
pretty tight bandage round it. If this do not remove it, lay on 
iDlistering ointment till the cure shall be completed. But should 
this method also fail, which it seldom does, you must lay the 
windgall open and dress it as a common wound. Before you 



150 THE HORSE. 

use the knife, be careful to get the horse's body into a proper 
cool state by physic. 

The Grease.— This disorder is mostly brought on by soft 
corn, hard usage, want of proper cleaning, or a depraved state 
of the blood and juices; therefore, it is proper to divide it into 
two heads. 

Cure, when the Vessels are Relaxed. — On first ob- 
serving the legs of a horse to swell after standing several hours, 
and to recover their proper dimensions with exercise, be care- 
ful to wash them clean with chamber-ley, soap-suds, or vinegar 
and water, every time he comes in, for this will prevent or 
remove the disorder. Horses that have round or fleshy legs 
are more subject to the grease than those that have flat legs; 
but a flat-legged horse is more easily sprained. Nitre, sulphur, 
and liver of antimony are proper, both to prevent the grease 
and refine the blood. Mix equal parts of each, and give a 
meat-spoonful every day in his food. 

Cure for the Grease from Internal Causes. — If the 
horse be full of flesh, the cure must be begun by bleeding, 
rowels, and repeated purging; after which two ounces of ^ the 
following balls should be given every other day for some time, 
and they will work by urine the day following: 

4 ounces of yellow resin. 

5 ounces of salt of pruneL 
i ounce of oil of juniper. 
2 ounces of salt of tartar. 
8 ounces of Castile soap. 

1 ounce of camphor. 

Put these into a mortar with about two ounces of honey, 
or as much as will make them into balls, and they will carry off 
the offending humors, and free the blood from its noxious 
qualities. But, at the same time these internal remedies are 
taken, outward ones should not be omitted. The legs should 
be bathed with warm verjuice; and, if very bad, a poultice of 
boiled turnips applied. If turnips cannot he got, make a 
poultice of linseed meal and bran, with a little hog's lard in 
to prevent it from growing hard. 

Sometimes horses are neglected when in the grease till they 
have what are called grape-legs. These may be cured on their 
first appearance, when they are in bud, by laying on caustic, or 
corrosive sublimate. When the swelling is abated, make the 
following into a salve to dress the sores with: 

1 ounce of blue stone vitriol, in powder. 

2 ounces of white lead, in powder. 
4 ounces of honey. 

Mix these well together, and lay them on the sores with 
tow, to heal them; but should they continue foul, and not 
fraine to heal, mix four ounces of green salve, and four ounces 



THE HORSE. 151 

of ^gyptiacum ointment well together, and lay it on in the 
above manner. The mixture will both heal and dry up the 
sores. 

Scratches. — This disease is a forerunner of the grease, and 
is a hot, oozing matter that breaks out like links, with a nause- 
ous smell. It is very troublesome to a horse, causing his heels 
to look red and angry, and to be very sore ; and, sometimes, 
it is so violent as to render a horse lame, and make him unfit 
for use. 

If you do not bleed and physic as soon as you find a heat 
in a horse's heels, you may soon have him laid in the grease. 
Sometimes in slight touches of this complaint the heels are 
not hotter than usual. In that case, take a little flour of sul- 
phur and spirits of wine, mix them together into an ointment, 
and fill the cracks well with it. When the disorder is too hot 
to be healed by this ointment, rub with a little ^gyptiacum 
ointment, but be careful not to lay too much on, for it is a 
great drier. 

Rat-tails at first resemble the grease, and are attended with 
a hot, scorbutic humor at the beginning, and often by neglect 
destroy the roots of the hair, and then there is no complete 
cure for them, but they may be relieved by rubbing with equal 
parts of strong mercurial ointment and Flanders oil of bays. 

If the horse have got the scurvy, or scabs on his legs, this 
ointment will mostly take them off ; but if not, mix well with 
hog's lard, one drachm of sublimate, in fine powder. These 
two last mixtures will cure most scabs, and mixed together will 
cure the itch. 

The Crown Scab. — This disorder is similar to the last. It 
breaks out on the cornet of the foot, and is at fi-rst a hot, run- 
ning tumor, and, afterwards, a dry, scurvy scab. Let the horse 
be bled, and physicked, and then rub him with either of the 
above ointments, and the cure will be effected. 

How to Manage a Horse on a Journey. — In the first place, 
find out whether the horse is in health, and has been properly 
fed and exercised ; for, when a horse is flushed up, and has 
had no exercise, he is very unfit for a journey. Before you set 
out be careful to observe if his shoes are fast, and if they sit 
easy ; also, whether he cuts before or behind, or interferes, as 
it is called. If a horse cut with bad shoes he will probably do 
it Avith new ones, notwithstanding what horse dealers may say 
to the contrary. 

If your horse's back inflame by the rubbing of the saddle, 
wash the part, as soon as you perceive it, with salt and water, 
or vinegar and water, and have the stuflSng of the saddle 
altered, so as to remove the pressure from the part effected. 



152 THE HORSE. 

but if the skin be broken before you perceive it, the injured 
part should be washed with a mixture, composed of equal parta 
of extract of lead, spirits of wine and water. You must look 
well after his back, and walk sometimes, in order to ease him, 
especially when going down hill. 

It often happens, especially to young horses, that the legs 
swell, or become gourdy, as farriers call it, with traveling, and 
more frequently when a horse cuts. It is also observed that 
the hind legs swell oftener than the fore legs, because the fore 
parts stand highest in the stall, and, consequently, the greatest 
stress lies on the hind legs. The best method of prevention is 
to wash the legs with warm water every time you bait, by which 
means the disease will be prevented, and much time, trouble 
and expense saved. 

Nothing is of more consequence in traveling than to take 
care that your horse has water at proper times and in proper 
quantities. When a horse travels he perspires considerably, 
especially in hot weather, and should, therefore, be allowed to 
drink a little more than usual, as opportunity offers, which will 
refresh him greatly ; but never suffer him to drink much at a 
time, for, if you suffer him to drink his fill, he will be dull and 
sluggish afterwards, besides the harm he may receive from 
drinking too much cold water when he is hot. Never allow 
your horse to be led in water, or to have his heels washed, 
after you have arrived at your inn, but let him have lukewarm 
water, or water moderatelv cool, when he has stood some time 
in the stable. 

It is a general rule that when any extraneous body, or foreign 
matter, such as sand or gravel, is lodged in any part of the 
animal's body, it must be extracted as soon, and as easily, as 
possible. When gravelly matter has got into the quick at a 
nail-hole, or any other aperture, it ought to be removed as soon 
as possible, but with as little loss of substance as the nature of 
the case will admit of, for it is a folly to cut and pare away the 
hoof, as some ignorant farriers do ; because by that means they 
increase the evil, instead of removing it, as it is a considerable 
time before the breach is repairea, and, till that is done, the 
same part is likely to admit more gravel. So much, therefore, 
and no more, of the hoof should be taken away as is necessary, 
viz.: till the blackness or discoloration vanishes; then the 
wound should be dressed with the following balsam : 

1/3 an ounce of balsam of Peru. 

fi drachms of myrrh. 

3 drachms of storax. 

3 drachms of Socotrine aloes. 

3 drachms of frankincense. 

3 drachms of gum guaiacum. 

Powder the ingredients that will powder, and put them in 
a bottle with one quart of spirits of wine, and let them stand 



THE HORSE. 153 

warmfor eight or ten days, shaking the bottle up every day. 
This is an excellent balsam for green wounds, and no person 
that keeps valuable horses should be without it. Apply it 
warm to the wound, dipping a piece of tow or lint into it, and 
fastening it on to the part out of which the gravel or thorn 
has been taken, and renew it as it grows dry. 

A horse is often seized with the gripes on a journey, the 
best and surest cure for which is the following : 

9 drachms of tincture of opium. 

1 ounce of spirits of sweet nitre. 

2 ounces of olive oil. 

Mix the above in half a pint of mint-water, give it to the 
horse, and, at the same time, bed him well, that he may lie 
down to rest, and be careful not to give him cold water for a 
day or two after. 

A horse that is subject to scouring or purging on the road, 
has what is called a washy constitution, and such horses sel- 
dom bear hardships well, because the aliment passes off before 
it is thoroughly digested, which is a sign that the fibers of the 
stomach and bowels are lax ; therefore, such horses should not 
be chosen. The best method of curing the disorder is to 
keep the horse chiefly on hard food, and to give him proper 
exercise. 

When a horse purges upon the road, occasioned by foul 
feeding, or catching cold, give him the following : 

4 ounces of Venice treacle. 

3 ounces of Armenian bole. 
1 ounce of Japan earth. 

1 ounce of powdered ginger. 

Make these up into four balls, and give them night and 
morning. 

When a horse has got a cough by catching cold, give 

4 ounces of cordial balls. 

V 1 ounce of licorice powder. 
1 ounce of elecampane bark. 

Give all together in warm ale, fasting, and to fast two hours 
after. 

Hinis on Feeding. — The foundation of many diseases is 
laid in feeding all horses in the same proportions, without 
regard to age, constitution, or the work which the horse is 
required to do. The impropriety of such a course is readily 
seen. 

Bad hay has not proper nourishment in it ; therefore it 
would be poor policy to buy it simply because it is cheap, as it 
is often very dear in the end. 

Old horses will do better on chaff than on hay, as they can 
chew and digest it better. 

There is not sufficient nutriment in hay or grass alone to 
support a horse well under hard work. 



154 THE HORSE. 

Corn which has been damaged is very injurious, as it will 
produce inflammation of the bowels and skin diseases. 

Oats and corn are the best nourishment if a horse is 
worked hard, but if not, it should be chiefly hay, because corn 
and oats supply more nourishment and flesh-making material 
than any other kind of food ; but hay not so much. 

For a coach horse, four to six quarts of good oats, and 
eighteen pounds of good hay, are usually sufficient. If a horse 
should be worked hard he should have more of each ; but, if 
worked but little, he should have less. 

Chopped hay, sprinkled with a little water, which has a tea- 
spoonful of salt dissolved in it, is quite pleasing to the taste of 
the horse, and is also more easily digested. 

Spring or well water is not usually as good for a horse as 
water from a stream or pond, as the former is usually hard and 
cold. 

Horses require and should have at least a pailful of water, 
morning or evening; or, what is better, give a half pailful at 
four different times in a day. 

A horse should not be driven or worked hard directly after 
he has had a full draught of water, nor soon after eating heart- 
ily, as exertion prevents digestion. 

Do not allow a horse to become accustomed to drinking 
warm water, for, if compelled to drink cold at any time, it will 
be liable to cause colic. 

Do not work nor drive a horse if he refuses his food, after 
drinking, until you have given him rest. 

Do not feed nor water a horse directly after his coming in 
very warm, but let him walk about until cool; groom him quite 
dry first with a wisp of straw, and then with a comb and brush, 
and rub the legs well with the hand. When he is cool give him 
his grain. 



THE HORSE. 



155 




U Cuiee of the lower jaw. 
;Fistula of tbe parotid 
duct. 
. Bony excrescence or 
Exostosis of the low- 
er jaw 
4. Swelling by pressure of 

the bridle. ^ 

B. Poll-evil. 

6. Inflamed parotid glAnd. 

7. Inflamed jagolar vein. "IS. 

8. Fungus tnmor, pro- 19. 

duced by presenre of 20. 
the collar. 



Fistula in the withers. 21. 

Saddie-gall. ' -/ 22. 

Tnmor of the elbow. 23. 

Induration of the knee. 24. 

Clap of the back sinews 25. 

Malandere. 2K. 

Splint. 27. 

Ring-bone. 2& 
A Tread upftti the coro- ' 

net. . >29. 

Qnittor. ^ 30. 

Sandcrack. 31. 
Contracted or ring foot 

of a foundered horse. 



Capped hock. 
Malanders. 
Spavin. 
Curb. 

Swelled sinews. 
Thick leg. 

Grease. . - 

A crack in front of the 
foot.callcil crfw-craclc 
Onarter-cr;ick. 
Ventral hernia. 
Rat-tail. ■' 



A' FEW MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES 

Cough. — Quit feeding musty hay, and feed roots and laxa- 
tive food. Sprinkle human urine on his fodder, or cut up 
cedar boughs, and .mix with his grain, or boil a small quantity 
of flax-seed, and mix it in a mash of scalded bran, adding a 
few ounces of sugar, molasses, or honey. Administer luke- 
warm. If there should be any appearance of heaves, put a 
spoonful of ground gin^^' once per day in his orovender, and 
alloff him to drink freely of lime water. 



156 THE HORSE. 

Split or Broken Hoof. — Let the blacksmith bore two holes, 
on each side of the crack or split, pass along nails through the 
holes, and clinch tight. After anointing with the hoof-bound 
liquid, it will soon grow together. 

To Cure Distemper. — Take i 1-4 gals, blood from the neck 
vein; then administer sassafras oil, i 1-2 ounces. Cure 
speedy and certain. 

Founder Cured in 24 Hours. — Boil or steam stout oat-- iraw 
for half an hour; then wrap it around the horse's leg quite hot; 
cover up with wet woolen rags, to keep in the steam; in 6 
hours renew the application; take one gal. of blood from the 
neck vein, and give one quart of linseed oil. He may be 
worked next day. 

Cure for Staggers. — Give a mess twice a week, composed 
of bran, i gal.; sulphur, i tablespoonful; saltpetre, i spoonful; 
boiling sassafras tea, i quart; assafoedita, i 1-8 ounce. Keep 
the horse from cold water for half a day afterwards. 

Cure for Bots. — Give the horse first, 2 quarts of new milk 
and I quart molasses; fifteen minutes afterwards, give 2 quarts 
very strong sage tea; 30 minutes after the tea, give 3 pints (or 
enough to operate as physic) of currier's oil. The molasses 
and milk cause the bots to let go their hold, the tea puckers 
them up, and the oil carries them completely away. Cure cer- 
tain in the worst cases. 

Ring-Bone and Spavin Cure. — Venice turpentine and Span- 
ish flies, o|f each two ounces; euphorbium and aqua-ammonia, 
of each i ounce; red precipitate, 1-2 ounce; corrosive subli- 
mate, 1-4 ounce; lard, i 1-2 lbs. Pulverize all, and put into 
the lard; simmer slowly over coals, not scorching or burning; 
and pour off free of sediment. For ring-bones, cut off the 
hair, and rub the ointment well into the lumps, once in forty- 
eight hours. For spavins, once in twenty-four hours for three 
mornings. Wash well previous to each application with suds, 
rubbing over the place with a smooth stick to squeeze out a 
yellow matter. This has removed very large ring-bones. 

Bone Spavins, French Paste. — Corrosive sublimate, 
quicksilver, and iodine, of each i ounce. Rub the quicksilver 
and iodine together, then add the sublimate, and lastly the 
lard, rubbing them thoroughly. Shave of the hair the size of 
the bone enlargement; grease all around it, but not where the 
hair is shaved off; this prevents the action of the medicine, 
except on the spavin; then rub in as much of the paste as will 
lie on a three-cent piece, each morning, for three or four morn- 
ings. In from seven to eight days, the whole spavin will come 
out; then wash the wound with suds for an hour or so, to re- 



THE HORSE. 157 

move the poisonous effects of the paste; afterwards heal up 
the sore with any good healing salve, keeping the sore covered 
while it is healing up. 

Another Recipe for Ring-Bone. — Pulverize cantharides, 
oils of spike, origanum, amber, cedar, Barbadoes tar and Brit- 
ish oil, of each 2 ounces; oil of worm wood, i ounce; spirits 
turpentine, 4 ounces; common potash, 1-2 ounce; nitric acid, 
6 ounces; sulphuric acid, 4 ounces; lard 3 lbs. Melt the lard, 
and slowly add the acids; stir well, and add the other articles, 
stirring till cold; clip off the hair, and apply by rubbing and 
heating in. In about three days, or when it is done running, 
wash off with soap-suds, and apply again. In' old cases, it may 
take three or four weeks; but, in recent cases, two or three 
applications have cured. 

Another. — Pulverized cantharides, oils of origanum and 
amber and spirits turpentine, of each i ounce; olive oil, 1-2 
ounce; sulphuric acid, 3 drachms; put all except the acid into 
alcohol, stir the mixture, add the acid slowly, and continue to 
stir till the mixture ceases to smoke; then bottle for use; ap- 
ply to ring-bone or spavin, with a sponge, tied on the end of a 
stick, as long as it is absorbed into the parts; twenty-four hours 
after, grease well with lard, and, in twenty-four hours more, 
wash off well with soap-suds. One application is generally 
sufficient for spavins, but may need two; ring-bones always 
two or three applications, three or four days apart, which pre- 
vents loss of hair. This will stop all lameness, but does not 
remove the lump. 

Splint and Spavin Liniment. — Oil of origanum, 6 ounces; 
gum camphor, 2 ounces; mercurial ointment, 2 ounces; iodine 
ointment, i ounce; melt by putting all into a wide-mouthed 
bottle, and setting it in a kettle of hot water. Apply it to bone- 
spavins, or splints, twice daily for four or five days, and a cure 
is guaranteed. 

Liniment for Sweeney. — Alcohol and spirits turpentine, of 
each, 8 ounces; camphor-gum, pulverized cantharides, and 
capsicum, of each, i ounce; oil of spike, 3 ounces; mix. 
Bathe this liniment in with a hot iron, and a certain cure is sure 
to follow. 

For Looseness or Scouring in Horses or Cattle. — Tormentil 
root powdered; dose for a horse or cow, i to i 1-2 ounce. It 
may be stirred into i pint of milk, and given; or, it may be 
steeped in i 1-2 pints of milk, then given from three to six 
times daily until cured. 

Scours and Pin-Worms in Horses and Cattle. — White-ash 
bark burnt into ashes, and made into a rather strong lye; then 



158 THE HORSE. . 

mix 1-2 pint of it with i pint warm water, and give all two or 
three times daily. This will certainly carry off the worms, 
which are the cause, in most instances, of scours and looseness. 

Grease Heel. — Lye made from wood ashes, and boil white- 
oak bark in it till it is quite strong, both in lye and bark- 
ooze; when it is cold it is fit for use. Wash off the horse's 
legs with Castile soap; when dry, apply the above lye with a 
swab fastened on a long stick to keep out of his reach, as the 
smart caused by the application might make him let fly without 
much warning; but it is a sure cure, only it brings off the hair. 
To restore the hair after the cure is effected, make and apply a 
salve by stCAving elder bark in old bacon; then form the salve 
by adding a little resin according to the amount of oil when 
stewed, or 1-4 lb. resin to each pound of oil. 

2. Chloride of zinc, i 1-2 drachms; water, 10 ounces; 
glycerine, 8 ounces; mix. If there is much discharge, apply a 
poultice for several hours, followed by application of the above, 
after cleansing well with soft water and Castile soap. The 
following powders should be given at the same time in the feed, 
every night for a week or two: Bicarbonate of soda, i ounce; 
arsenic, i drachm; iodide of iron, 1-2 ounce; fenugreek, 2 
ounces; ginger, 2 ounces; elecampane, i ounce. Mix thor- 
oughly, and divide into 12 powders. 

For Scratches and Grease Heel. — i. Balsam iir, 4 
ounces; lard, 4 ounces. Stir, with a gentle heat, until thoroughly 
mixed. Wash the sores well with Castile soap and apply. 

2. Sugar of lead, 2 ounces; borax, i ounce; sweet oil, 6 
ounces. Mix, and apply twice daily, after washing with Castile 
soap, and drying. 

3. Tincture of myrrh, 2 ounces; glycerine, 4 ounces; 
tincture of arnica, 2 ounces. Mix thoroughly, and apply two 
or three times a day, after cleansing, as above, with Castile 
soap. 

4. Take 1-2 ounce of powdered verdigris and i pint of 
rum, or proof spirits. Mix, and apply once or twice a day. 
This works nicely for grease heel or mud fever. 

5. Take oxide of zinc, i drachm; lard, i ounce; powdered 
gum benzoin, 10 grains; camphorated spirits, i drachm. Mix 
thoroughly, and rub on twice a week. Do not wash after the 
first application. 

To Distinguish and Cure Distemper. — Wet up bran with 
rather strong lye; if not too strong, the horse will eat it greed- 
ily; if they have the distemper, a free discharge from the 
nostrils, and a consequent cure, will be the result if continued 
a few days; but, if only a cold, with swellings of the glands, 
no change will be discovered 



THE HORSE. 159 

Physic Balls for Horses. — Barbadoes aloes, from 4 to 5 or 
6 drachms (according to the size and strength of the horse); 
tartrate of potassa, i drachm; ginger and Castile soap, each 2 
drachms; oil of anise or peppermint, 20 drops. Pulverize 
and make all into one ball with thick gum solution. Feed by 
giving scalded bran instead of oats for two days before giving 
the physic, and during its operation, 

Nerve and Bone Liniment. — Take beef's gall, i qt.; alco- 
hol, I pt. ; volatile liniment, i lb.; spirits of turpentine, i lb.; 
oil of origanum, 4 ounces; aqua ammonia, 4 ounces; tincture 
of Spanish flies, 6 ounces; mixed. Uses too well known to 
need description. 

This is more particularly applicable to horse flesh. 

Condition Powders. — Take fenugreek, cream of tartar, gen- 
tian, sulphur, saltpetre, resin, black antimony and ginger, equal 
quantities 'of each, say i ounce, all to be finely pulverized; 
cayenne, also fine, half the quantity of any one of the others, 
say 1-2 ounce. Mix thoroughly. It is used in yellow water, 
hidebound, coughs, colds, distemper, and all other diseases 
where condition powders are generally administered. 

In ordinary cases, give two teaspoonsfuls once a day in feed. 
In extreme cases, give it twice daily. 

Cathartic Condition Powders. — Gamboge, alum, salt- 
petre, resin, copperas, ginger, aloes, gum-myrrh, salts, and salt, 
and, if the horse is in very low condition, put in wormwood, 
all the same quantities, viz.: i ounce each. Dose, i table- 
spoonful in bran, twice daily;' not giving any other grain for a 
few days; then once a day, with oats and other good feed. 

This last is more applicable for old, worn-down horses which 
need cleaning out, and starting again into new life, and in such 
cases, just the thing to be desired. 

Condition Powders — i. Gentian, fenugreek, sulphur, 
saltpetre, cream of tartar, of each, 2 ounces; resin, black 
antimony, of each, i ounce; ginger, licorice, 3 ounces each; 
cayenne, i ounce, pulverized and mixed thoroughly. Dose, i 
tablespoonful, once or twice a day, mixed with the feed. Used 
with good success for coughs, colds, distemper, hidebound, and 
nearly all diseases for which condition powders are given. 

2. Fenugreek, 4 ounces; ginger, 6 ounces; anise, pulver- 
ized, 4 ounces; gentian, 2 ounces; black antimony, 2 ounces; 
hard-wood ashes, 4 ounces. Mix all together. Excellent to 
give a horse an appetite. 

3. Licorice, 4 ounces; fenugreek, 4 ounces; elecampane, 
4 ounces; blood root, i ounce; tartar emetic, 1-2 ounce; ginger 
and cayenne, each, i ounce. Mix, and give a tablespoonful 
two or three times a. day in feed. One of the best condition 



160 THE HORSE, 

powders for any cough, cold, distemper, or epizootic; also 
excellent for heaves. For heaves, i ounce of lobelia and cam- 
phor may be added. 

For Heaves. — i. One teaspoonful of lobelia given in the 
feed, once a day, for a week, and then once or twice a week, 
will stop them for a time. 

2. Balsam copabia, i ounce; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces; 
balsam fir, i ounce; cider vinegar, 16 ounces. Mix and give 
a tablespoonful once a day. 

3. Saltpetre, i ounce; indigo, 1-2 ounce; rain-water, 4 
pints. Mix, and give a pint twice a day. 

4. Licorice, elecampane, wild turnip, fenugreek, skunk- 
cabbage, lobelia, cayenne, and ginger; equal parts of each. 
Mix, and give a tablespoonful once or twice a day. If the 
horse refuse to eat it in feed, make it into a ball and give, 

5. Calcined magnesia, balsam of fir, balsam copabia, of 
each, I ounce; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces. Put them all 
into I pint of best cider vinegar. Give for a dose, i table- 
spoonful in his feed once a day for a week, then every other 
day for two or three months. Wet his hay with brine, and also 
his other feed. He will cough more at first, but looser and 
looser till cured. 

Contracted Hoof or Sore Feet. — i. Take equal parts 
of soft fat, yellow wax, linseed oil, Venice turpentine, and Nor- 
way tar; first melt the wax, then add the others, mixing thor- 
oughly. Apply to the edge of the hair once a day. 

2. Benzine, i ounce; salts of nitre, i ounce; alcohol, 3 
ounces; aqua ammonia, 2 ounces; Venice turpentine, 8 ounces. 
Mix, apply to the edge of the hair, and all over the hoof, once 
a day, for ten days, then twice a week for a short time 

Horse Liniments. — i. Oil spike, oil origanum, oil hemlock, 
oil wormv/ood, aqua ammonia, camphor gum, of each, 2 ounces; 
olive oil, 4 ounces; alcohol, i quart. Mix. This is an excel- 
lent liniment for man or beast. 

2. Oil origanum, oil amber, sweet oil, of each i ounce; 
oil spike, aqua ammonia, and oil of turpentine, of each, 2 
ounces. Mix. 

3. Linseed oil, 8 ounces; turpentine, 8 ounces; oil ori- 
ganum, 4 ounces. Mix well. This is excellent for sprains 
and bruises, and is good as a general liniment. 

4. Oil spike, i ounce; oil origanum, 2 ounces; alcohol, i6 
ounces. Good for lameness resulting from almost any cause. 

5. Take equal parts of alcohol, chloroform, aqua ammonia, 
Jamaica rum and water, and mix 

6. Turpentine and seneca oils, of each, 7 1-3 ounces; 
sweet oil and tincture of arnica, of each, 3 2-3 ounces; oils of 



THE HORSE. 161 

origanum, hemlock, jumper, amber, and laudanum, of each, 

1 1-3 ounces; spirits of ammonia, 1-2 ounce; and gum cam- 
phor, 1-4 ounce, which make a little less than i quart, there 
being 64 quarts, besides the gum camphor, in the whole 
amount. This calculation will be sufficiently near for all prac- 
tical purposes. 

Liniment, very Strong. — Oil of spike, aqua ammonia, and 
oil of turpentine, each 2 ounces; sweet oil and oil of amber, 
each I 1-2 ounces; oil of origanum, i ounce. Mix. 

Liniment for Fifty Cents per Gallon. — Best vinegar, 2 
quarts; pulverized saltpetre, 1-2 lb.; mix and set in a cool 
place till dissolved. Invaluable for old swellings, sprains, 
bruises, &c. 

Cuts, Wounds and Sores.— i. Take of lard, 4 ounces; 
beeswax, 4 ounces; resin, 2 ounces; carbolic acid, 1-4 ounce. 
Mix the three first and melt, then add the carbolic acid, stirring 
until cool. This is excellent for man, as well as beast. 

2. Tincture aloes, i ounce; tincture myrrh, 1-2 ounce; 
tincture opium, 1-2 ounce; water, 4 ounces; mix, and apply 
night and morning. 

3. Tincture opium, 2 ounces; tannin, 1-4 ounce. Mix. 

4. Carbohc acid, i ounce; soft water, i quart. Mix. 

Ointment for Horses. — Beeswax, 2 ounces; resin, 3 ounces; 
lard, 4 ounces; carbolic acid, i drachm; honey, 1-2 ounce; melt 
all together, and bring slowly to a boil, then remove from the 
fire, and add slowly, i gill of spirits of turpentine, stirring all 
the time until cool; used with good success for galls, cracked 
hee's, flesh wounds or bruises 

Eye Water. — Sugar of lead, i drachm; tincture of opium, 

2 drachms; soft water, i pint; mix, and wash the eye two or 
three times a day. 

Founder. — i. Vinegar, 3 pints; cayenne pepper, 1-2 
drachm.; tincture of aconite root, 15 drops; mix, and boil 
down to I quart; when cool, give it as a drench; blanket the 
horse well; after the horse has perspired for an hour or more, 
give one quart of raw linseed oil; this treatment will be found 
good for horses foundered by eating too much grain. 

2. Some recommend for horses foundered on grain, to 
bleed about i gallon, then to drench the horse with i quart of 
raw linseed oil; after this to rub the fore legs well, and for a 
long time, with very warm water, having a little tincture of 
opium mixed with it. As the horse will not recover from loss 
of blood for a long time, it is usually better to adopt the treat- 
ment given in No. i. 
9 



163 THE HORSE. 

Tonic Balls. — Copperas, i 1-2 drachms; ginger, i drachmr 
gentian, i drachm; saltpetre, 3 drachms, resin, 1-2 ounce; flax- 
seed meal, i ounce; mix, and form into a ball. 

Cordial Balls — i. Anise, powdered, 1-2 ounce; ginger, 

1 drachm; gentian, i drachm; fenugreek, 2 drachms. Mix. 

2. Caraway and ginger, each, 2 drachms; anise, gentian and 
fenugreek, each, i ounce. Mix. 

3. Camphor, i drachm; anise, 3 drachms; tincture of 
opium, I ounce; powdered extract of licorice, 3 drachms, flax- 
seed meal, i ounce. Mix. 

Laxative Balls. — i. Linseed meal, i ounce; aloes, 1-2 
ounce; Castile soap, 1-2 ounce. Mix. 

2. Ginger, i drcahm; Castile soap, 2 drachms; Barbadoes 
aloes, pulverized, 6 drachms; flaxseed meal, i ounce. 

Cough Mixtures. — i. Oil of tar, given as directed for 
treatment of heaves, is one of the best remedies for nearly all 
coughs. 

2. Take of alcohol, 1-2 pint; balsam of fir, 2 ounces; mix 
well, and add all the tar it will cut. Shake well before using. 
Dose from one to two spoonfuls, two or three times a day. 

Thrush. — i. Wash the feet well with Castile soap and 
water, and sprinkle a small quantity of pulverized blue vitriol 
in the cleft, and then fill up all the cavities with cotton, and 
press it in, so as to keep out all dirt, and repeat as often as 
necessary until the cure is complete. 

2. Blue vitriol and copperas, of each one ounce, burnt 
alum, 2 ounces; white vitriol, 1-4 ounce. Mix. 

3. Take white vitriol, 2 ounces; soft water, 8 ounces. Mix, 
and apply to the diseased surface, after the ragged parts have 
been cut away and thoroughly cleansed. Pack the cavitiesi 
with cotton batting, so as to keep out all dirt. 

Healing Mixtures. — i. Carbolic acid, i ounce; soft water, 

2 pints. Mix. 

2. White vitriol, i ounce; soft water, 2 pints. Mix. 

3. Pulverized camphor, i drachm; prepared chalk, 6 
drachms: burnt alum, 4 drachms. Mix. Sprinkle over the 
sore. 

4. Tincture of opium, i ounce; tannin, i drachm; mix 
and shake well before using. Excellent for galls of collar, 
saddle, or in fact for any purpose requiring a healing astrin- 
gent. 

For Fresh iJVouNDS. — Copperas, 2 drachms; white vitriol, 

3 drachms; gun powder, 2 drachms; boiling soft water, 2 
quarts. Mix; when cool it is ready for use. 

Sore Lips. — The lips become sore frequently at the angles 



THE HORSE. 163 

of the mouth, from bruising with the bit. They can be cured 
by applying the following mixture : 

Tincture of myrrh, 2 ounces; tincture of aloes, i ounce, and 
tincture of opium, 1-2 ounce. Mix, and apply three or four 
times a day. 

For Flesh Wounds. — To prevent inflammation or tendency 
to sloughing or mortification, take i pound saltpetre; 2 gallons 
of water; 3 pints proof spirits. Mix, and inject into the wound 
with a [syringe, three times a day until it heals. In treating 
deep wounds, or those of a dangerous character, especially if 
the animal is inclined to be fat, give a dose of physic, feed 
bran, carrots, &c. No grain should be fed, and grass is more 
desirable than hay. If grass is fed freely, physic is not neces- 
sary. 

Qiiif.Js.TER Crack. — The best way to cure quarter crack is 
to oper the heel on that side, between bar and frog, cutting 
down pretty well, (not sufficient to cause bleeding), until the 
quart".r will give freely ; then put on a shoe that will expand 
the h««el. It is also necessary in this case that the inner heel 
should be opened or spread, as the hoof is simply too small 
for the foot ; if this is properly done the point is directly 
reached. Some recommend, in addition to this, burning with 
a hot iron a crease across at the upper edge of the hoof. If 
this is done properly the hoof will not split any more. The 
hoof may now be more rapidly grown if desired. Opening 
the foot and the shoe is the point of success. 

Cracked Heels. — Tar, 8 ounces; beeswax, i ounce; resin, 
I ounce; alum, i ounce; tallow, i ounce; sulphate of iron, i 
ounce; carbolic acid, i drachm; mix, and boil over a slow fire. 
Skim off the filth, and add 2 ounces of the scraping of sweet 
elder. 

Cure for Mange. — Oil of tar, i ounce; lac sulphur, i 1-2 
ounces; whale oil, 2 ounces. Mix. Rub a little on the skia 
wherever the disease appears, and continue, daily, for a week, 
and then wash off with Castile soap and warm water. 

For Sprains, &C. — Hog's lard and spirits of turpentine. 
Mix, and place in the hot sunshine for four or five days. Ap- 
ply four or five times a week. 

For Colic. — Take of gum myrrh, i ounce; gum camphor, 
I ounce; powdered gum guaiac, i ounce; cayenne, i ounce; 
sassafras bark powdered, i ounce; spirits turpentine, i ounce; 
oil origanum, 1-4 ounce; oil hemlock, 1-2 ounce; pulverized 
opium, 1-2 ounce; strongest alcohol, 2 quarts; mix all together 
and shake often for eight or ten days and filter or strain 



164 THE HORSE. 

through flannel. Dose, from i to 3 tablespoonfuls, according 
to the severity of the case; give in a pint of milk. 

We have never known the above remedy to fail of giving 
relief when given for colic, in horses. In many cases where 
it has been used it has given immediate relief even though vari- 
ous other remedies had failed of giving any relief. 

It makes one of the very best of pain killers for family use, 
and we advise all to keep it on hand. 

To Grow Hair. — Mix sweet oil, i pint; sulphur, 3 ounces. 
Shake well, and rub well into the dock twice a week. 

For Worms. — Calomel, i drachm; tartar emetic, 1-2 
drachm; linseed meal, i ounce; fenugreek, i ounce. Mix and 
give in feed at night, and repeat the dose for two or three 
times, and follow with i 1-2 pints of raw linseed oil, about 6 
hours after the last powder has been given. 

For Distemper. — Hops, 2 ounces; carbolic acid, 30 drops; 
boiling water, 2 gallons. Mix the hops and carbolic acid with 
the boiling water and compel the anirnal to inhale the steam 
for 15 or 20 minutes at a time, and repeat three times a day. 
Apply a strong mustard paste to the throat, and place a warm 
poultice over the paste. Feed warm mashes and boiled vege- 
tables; keep the stable comfortably warm, and the air pure. 
Give the following powders once a day: Powdered Peruvian 
bark, 2 ounces; powdered gentian, i ounce; powdered copperas, 
I ounce; mix, and divide into 8 powders. 

How to Make a Horse FoUow You. — Turn him out into a 
large stable or shed, where there is no chance to get out, with 
a halter or bridle on. Go to him and gentle him a little; take 
hold of the halter and turn him towards you, at the same time 
touching him lightly over the hips with a long whip. Lead him 
the length of the stable, rubbing him on the neck, saying, in a 
steady tone of voice, as you lead him, "Come along, my boy !" 
or, use his name instead of "my boy," if you choose. Every time 
you turn, touch him slightly with the whip, to make him step 
close up to you, and then caress him with your hand. He will 
soon learn to hurry up to escape the whip, and be caressed, and 
you can make him follow you around without taking hold of 
the halter. If he should stop and turn from you, give him a 
few sharp cuts about the hind legs, and he will soon turn his 
head towards you, when you must always caress him. A few 
lessons of this kind will make him nm after you, when he sees 
the motion of the whip — in twenty or thirty minutes he will 
follow you around the stable. After you have given him two 
or three lessons in the stable, take him in a small lot and train 
him; and from thence you can take him into the road, and 
make him follow you anywhere, and run after you. 



THE HORSE. IGo 

To Make a Horse Stand Without Holding. — After you have 
well broken him to follow you, stand him in the center of the 
stable, begin at the head to caress him, and gradually work 
backwards. If he moves, give him a cut with the whip, and 
put him back to the same spot from where he started. If he 
stands, caress him as before, and continue gentling him in this 
way until you can get around him without making him move. 
Keep walking round him, increasing your pace, and only touch 
him occasionally. Enlarge your circle as you walk around, 
and if he then moves, give him another cut with the whip, and 
put him back to his place. If he stands, go to him frequently 
and caress him, and then walk round him again. Do not keep 
him in one position too long at a time, but make him come to 
you occasionally, and follow you around the stable. Then 
stand him in another place, and proceed as before. You should 
not train him more than half an hour at a time. 

To Prevent a Horse From Scaring. — This process is very 
simple. Whenever a horse scares at objects on going along 
the road, always stop him, and let him face the object. Lead 
him slowly towards it, and let him touch it with his nose. Take 
the pains to do this on every occasion, and it will soon break 
him entirely. If your horse is frightened at an umbrella, you 
can soon teach him to be used to that. Go into the stable with 
him, and first let him look at the umbrella before it is opened 
— let him touch it with his nose. Open it a little way, and 
then let him see it, and, finally, open it wide. By ordinary 
patience you can soon teach the horse to have the umbrella 
opened suddenly in his face, without his being afraid of it. By 
a similar treatment you can break any horse from scaring at 
almost anything that may look frightful to him. If you wish 
to make a trial of this theory, just take a horse into the stable, 
and let him examine the frightful object a few minutes, after 
his mode of examining things, and you will be perfectly satis- 
fied. There is a singular fact connected with taming the horse 
that I would have never believed if I had not tried it. If you 
accustom him to any particular object by showing it to him on 
one side only, he will not be afraid when he sees it with the 
eye on that side, but he will be afraid if you approach him 
with it on the other side. It is, therefore, necessary to pacify 
him on both sides in all cases. After you have accustomed 
him to the umbrella, or whatever you may wish to make him 
familiar with, on his right side, repeat the operation on the left 
side in the same manner as if you had not approached him at all. 

Blinds or Blinkers. — All my experience with and observa- 
tion of horses, proves clearly to me that blinkers should never 
be used, and that the sight of the horse, for many reasons, 
should not be interfered with in any way. Horses are only 



166 THE HORSE. 

fearful of objects which they do not understand, or are not 
familiar with, and the eye is one of the principal mediums by 
which this understanding and this familiarity are brought about. 
The horse, on account of his very amiable nature, can be made, 
in the course of time, to bear almost anything in any shape; 
but there is a quicker process of reaching his intelligence than 
that of wearing it into him through his skin and bones. How- 
ever wild and nervous a horse may be, he can be taught in a 
very short time to understand and not to fear an object, how- 
ever frightful in appearance. Horses can be broken in less 
time, and better, without blinkers; but horses that have 
always worn them will notice the sudden change, and must be 
treated carefully the first drive. After that they will drive bet- 
ter without the blinkers than with. I have proved by my own 
experiments, that a horse broken without blinkers can be driven 
past any omnibus, cab or carriage, on a parallel line as close as 
it is possible for him to go, without ever wavering or showing 
any disposition to dodge. I have not, in the last eight or ten 
years, constantly handling horses, both wild and nervous, ever 
put blinkers on any of them, and in no case have they ever 
shied at passing objects. 

The horse's eye is the life and beauty of the animal, as well 
as the index of all his emotions. It tells the driver, in the most 
impressive characters, what the horse's feelings are. By it he 
can tell the first approach of fear in time to meet any difficulty; 
he can tell if he is happy or sad, hungry or weary. The horse, 
too, when permitted to see, uses his eyes with great judgment. 
He sees better than we do. He can measure distances with 
eyes better than we can, and, if allowed free use of them, would 
often save himself, by the quickness of his sight, from collis- 
ions, when the driver would fail to do so by a timely pull of 
the reins. It would also save many accidents to pedestrians in 
the streets, as no horse will run on to any person that he can 
see. Blinkers are rapidly going out of use in the United States, 
and I have yet to find the man who, having once left them off, 
could ever be persuaded to put them on again. They are an 
unnecessary and injurious incumbrance to the horse, and in 
years hence will be a thing to be read of as one of the follies 
happily reformed in the nineteenth century. 

Rules for Purchasing a Horse. — When you are looking to 
purchase a horse, first examine the eyes well. The best judges 
are sometimes deceived in the eyes, therefore, you cannot be 
too careful. Clearness of the eyes is a sure indication of their 
goodness; but this is not all that should be attended to; the 
eye-lids, eyebrows, and all the other parts, must also be consid- 
ered; for many horses, whose eyes appear clear and brilliant, 
go blind at seven or eight years old. Therefore, be careful to 



THE HORSE. 167 

observe whether the parts between the eyelids and the eye- 
brows are free from bunches, and whether the parts round the 
under eyelids be full, or swelled; for these are indications 
that the eyes will not last. When the eyes are remarkably flat, 
or sunk within their orbits, it is a bad sign; also, when they look 
dead and lifeless. The iris, or circle that surrounds the sight 
of the eye, should be distinct, and of a pale, variegated, cinna- 
mon color, for this is always a sure sign of a good eye, and it adds 
beauty to the appearance of the animal. 

In the next place, examine the teeth, as you would not wish 
to purchase an old horse, nor a very young one for service. 

The feet should next be regarded; for a horse with bad 
feet is like a house with a weak foundation, and will do little 
service. The feet should be smooth and tough, of a middle 
size, without wrinkles, and neither too hard and brittle, nor 
too soft; the heels should be firm, and not spongy and rotten; 
the frogs horny and dry; the soles somewhat hollow, like the 
inside of a dish or a bowl. Such feet will never disappoint 
your expectations, and such only should be chosen. 

Particular regard should be paid to the shoulders; they 
should not be too much loaded, for ahorse with heavy shoulders 
can never move well; and, on the other hand, one that has 
very thin shoulders, and a narrow chest, though he may move 
briskly so long as he is sound, yet he is generally weak, and 
easily lamed in the shoulders; a medium should therefore be 
chosen. 

The body, or carcass, should be neither too small nor too 
large. The back should be straight, or have only a moderate 
sinking below the withers; for when the back of a horse is 
low, or higher behind than before, it is both very ugly and a 
sign of weakness. The back should also be a proper length. 
The ribs should be large, the flanks smooth and full, and the 
hind parts, or uppermost haunches, not higher than the 
shoulders. When the horse trots before you, observe if his 
haunches cover his fore-knees. A horse with short hind- 
quarters does not look well. 

The next thing to be regarded in a horse is his wind, which 
may be easily judged by the motion of his flanks. A broken- 
winded horse also pinches in his flanks, with a slow motion, and 
drops them suddenly, which may be easily perceived. Many 
horses breathe thick that are not broken-winded; indeed, any 
horse will in foggy weather, or if foul fed, without sufficient 
exercise; but, if a horse has been in good keeping, and had 
proper exercise, and yet had these symptoms, there is some 
defect, either natural or accidental, such as a narrow chest, or 
eome cold that has affected the lungs. 

There are other particulars that should be observed in 



168 THE HORSE. 

choosing a horse. If his head be large and fleshy, and his 
neck thick and gross, he will always go heavy on the hand, 
and, therefore, such should never be chosen. A horse that has 
his hocks very wide, seldom moves well, and one that has thern 
too near, will chafe and cut his legs by crossing them. Fleshy- 
legged horses are generally subject to the grease, and other 
infirmities of that kind, and, therefore, should not be chosen. 

The temper of a horse should be particularly attended to. 
Avoid a fearful horse, which you may know at first sight by 
his starting, crouching, or creeping, if you approach him, A 
hot and fretful horse is also to be avoided, but the buyer should 
be careful to distinguish between a hot, fretful horse, and one 
that is eager and craving. The former begins to fret the 
moment he is out of the stable, and continues in that humor till 
he has quite fatigued himself; and the latter only endeavors to 
be foremost in the field, and is truly valuable; he has those 
qualities hat resemble prudence and courage; the other those 
of intemperate heat and rashness. 

A horse that goes with his fore feet very low, is apt to stumble; 
and there are some that go so near the ground that they stumble 
most on even roadr:; and the dealers, to remedy this, put heavy 
shoes on their feet; for, the heavier a horse's shoes are, the 
higher he lifts his feet. Care also should be taken that the 
horse does not cut one leg with the other. A horse that goes 
near the ground will cut the low side of the fetlock joint, but 
one that goes high cuts below the knee, which is called the 
speedy cut. A horse that lifts his feet high generally trots 
fast, but is not the easiest for the rider. Some horses cut with 
the spurn of the foot, and some with the heel; but this you may 
soon perceive by their standing; for, if a horse points the front 
of his foot inward, he cuts with the spurn, and if outward, 
with the heel. 

These lew instructions may be of use in purchasing horses; 
but I advise every one to get some experimental knowledge of 
them before he trusts to his judgment, for the dealers have so 
many arts to hide the defects of their horses, that the best 
judges are often deceived, 

SOUND OR UNSOUND, ACCORDING TO LAW, 

The definition of unsoundness is, "the existence of disease 
or alteration of structure, which does or will impair the horse's 
natural usefulness." Vice also may be defined, on a similar 
principle, as " the prevalence of a habit which interferes with 
the horse's natural usefulness." But these definitions must be 
taken with some modifications, for there is not one horse in a 
hundred which does not possess some disease or vice likely to 
impair his general usefulness to some slight extent; indeed, 



THE HORSE. 16fl 

the proportion of strictly sound horses may be considered to 
be much smaller even than this. A bad feeder is generally so 
from a disordered state of stomach, and such a horse cannot 
stand work like one which will consume double the quantity 
of corn, yet he would not be considered unsound; nor would 
a horse be returnable as vicious if he showed the usual symp- 
toms of being "fresh," though they might impair his useful- 
ness in carrying a timid rider. But, subject to such modifica 
tions, the above definitions may be accepted as sufficient t'.> 
make intelligible the terms, "unsoundness" and "vice." 

The following diseases and accidents are generally con- 
sidered not to render their possessors unsound: 

Bog- Spavin, in a slight degree only. 
A Broken Knee, unless the joint is injured so as to impair 
its functions, is not considered to be unsoundness. 

Capped Hocks and Elbows do not produce any lameness, 
nor do they in any way interfere with the action of the joints to 
which they are adjacent. 

Contraction of the foot is no evidence of disease, and, 
taken by itself, is not sufficient to prove it to be unsound. 

Crib-biting was decided, in the case of Broennenbury vs. 
Haycock and Scolefield vs. Robb, not to be unsoundness; but 
Baron Parker ruled in the latter that it came within the mean^ 
ing of the word "vice." Undoubtedly this is a habit which ia 
generally attended by impaired digestion, and, as such, it comes 
strictly within the definition given above, but the law is as 1 
have stated it. 

CuRBY HOCKS, though experience may tell us they are likely 
to be attended by curbs, are decided not to be unsoundness. 
In Brown vs. Elkington, the attention of the vendor was directed 
to the hocks by the purchaser before the sale, as likely to 
spring curbs; but in the action on the warranty it was held by 
Lord Abinger that a " defect in the formation of the horse, 
which had not occasioned lameness at the time of sale, though 
it might render the animal more liable to be lame at some 
future time, was no breach of warranty;" and the Court of 
Exchequer confirmed this view of the law, by refusing a rule 
for a new trial. 

Cutting, on the same principle, is no breach of warranty, 
unless the horse is lame from it at the time of sale. 

A SPLINT is not, in itself, evidence of unsoundness; but if 
it is so situated as necessarily to interfere with the suspensory 
ligament or tendons, or if it is has already produced lameness, 
it is to be accepted as a mark of unsoundness. 

Thoroughpin, when existing to a moderate extent, is not 
sufficient to render the horse unsound; but this will always be 
a question of opinion, and a horse with a thoroughpin is, there- 
fore not to be warranted with safety. 



170 THE HORSE. 

Thrush, occurring from mismanagement only, and not 
from any defect in the horse, is clearly not to be considered as 
unsoundness. 

Soreness of the joints from work, as it soon goes off after 
a short rest, is not accepted as unsoundness. 

WiNDGALLS are also only evidence of work, and do not 
usually cause lameness. When this co-exists, it is sufficient to 
produce unsoundness, without resorting to the windgalls. 

The following list comprises the diseases and injuries which 
have been settled as sufficient to entitle the purchaser to return 
a horse warranted sound: 

Bog-spavin, when it is so severe as clearly to interfere with 
the action of the joint; and blood-spavin, as making an ag- 
gravated form of the same disease. 

Breaking down, even though the horse is restored so as 
to run without lameness. 

Broken wind. 

Cataract, in any degree. 

Corns, unless very trifling; but they should be discovered 
within a few days of the sale, or it may be alleged that they 
have been produced by subsequent mismanagement. 

Cough, as long as it lasts. A horse with chronic cough 
is clearly returnable. 

Curbs constitute unsoundness; but they must be shown to 
exist at the time of purchase, for a horse may throw out one 
immediately after he is transferred to the purchaser. 

Diseases of the organic kind in any of the internal viscera. 

Farcy. 

Founder, or laminitis, whether it produce lameness or not, 
if it manifestly has existed, is to be accepted as unsoundness; 
for when there is evidence of its previous occurrence, the 
laminae are injured so much as inevitably to lead to lameness 
when the horse is put to work. 

Grease, and glanders. 

Mange. 

Megrams, when the attack comes on subsequently to the 
sale, and can be shown to have occured before it. 

A nerved horse is unsound from the existence of the dis- 
ease for which the operation has been performed, as well as 
from the division of the nerves. 

Ophthalmia, if it can be proved to have previously existed, 
and comes on soon after the purchase, is to be received as 
unsoundness. So, also, when any of the evidences of its pre- 
vious presence can be detected, and are proved by a veterinary 
surgeon, the horse is returnable. 

Ossification of any of the structures adjacent to the 



THE HORSE. 171 

joints is unsoundness, and hence ossification of the lateral 
cartilages will be considered so, without doubt. 
Pumiced foot, as evidence of laminitis. 

QUIDDING. 
QUITOR. 

Ringbones and sidebones, whether large or small, are 
undoubtedly sufficient to constitute a horse unsound. 

Roaring, whisling, &c., as evidence of contraction of the 
rima glottidis, and therefore interfering with respiration. 

Ruptures of all kinds. 

Spavin (bone), although it may not have occasioned lame- 
ness, if it is clearly the disease so named. 

Stringhalt has been decided to be unsoundness. (Thomp- 
son vs. Patterson). 

Thick wind, as marking some impediment to respiration. 

Thrush, when it is in one of the severe forms, and not 
caused by mismanagement. 

Thickening of the back sinews, or suspensory ligament, 
when existing to any extent easily appreciable, is to be received 
as a proof of unsoundness. 

Returnable vices are comprehended in the following list : 

Biting, when carried to any unusual extent. 

Bolting or running away. 

Crib-biting. 

Kicking, when more than usual. 

Restiveness, or refusal to proceed in the desired direction. 

Rearing. 

Shying, when marked. 

Weaving in the stahle. 

When a horse is purchased with the conditions that he is 
warranted sound, or free from vice, or quiet to ride and drive, 
the warranty must either be in writing, or given in the presence 
of a disinterested third person. The form of warranty is as 
follows, and it is better that it should be on the same paper as 
the stamped receipt, though this is not absolutely necessary if 
it is shown that the receipt is properly given: 

Date. 

Received of A. B. C. $250 for a bay gelding, by '$>niaU- 
hopes, warrafited Jive years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet 
to ride and drive. 

$250. X. V. z. 

Any one or more of these points may be omitted, or the 
horse may simply be warranted "a good hack," in which case 
he must fairly answer that description. The terms "has been 
hunted," or "has carried a lady," are not to be trusted, as it is 
only necessary to prove in defence that the horse has seen 
hounds, and had a woman on his back. 



1V2 THE HORSE. 

Whether the horse under examination is to be warranted or 
not, the intended purchaser should never omit to look over 
every point where unsoundness is likely to occur. To do this 
effectually, it should be done regularly, by which there is less 
chance of passing over any serious defect. The usual mode of 
proceeding is as follows: Under no circumstances, if it can 
possibly be avoided, should he be looked at immediately after 
having been out of doors, and, if he is of necessity brought to 
the purchaser, let him be put in the stable and quietly rested 
for one or two hours at least, by which time the effects of most 
of the "coping" tricks will have gone off. 

Before the horse passes the stable door, stop him with his 
head just inside, and in that position carefully examine his 
eyes. The light is exactly suited to this, and the sensibility of 
the iris may well be judged of. Any specks or opacities are 
also here readily seen. Then let him be led to a level surface, 
and then proceed to look over every part, beginning with that 
nearest the one already inspected, namely, the mouth. Then 
"cough" him by tightly grasping the larynx, by which some 
idea may be formed of the state of his respiratory organs, after 
which the usual manuoeuvre with the stick may be practised if 
there is no opportunity of examining into his freedom from 
rearing in the saddle. When these points are satisfactorily dis- 
posed of, look to the position of the fore legs, that is, whether 
they are turned in or out, and, if the latter, feel the elbows, 
and see if they are confined or "tied," that is, too close to the 
ribs, also look for marks of cutting or speedy cutting. Pass 
the hand down the back sinews and suspensory ligaments, 
examme the knees for any marks, and then carefully feel the 
coronets and heels for any marks of exostosis or ossification. 
Lastly, take a good look at the front of the foot, and, then lift- 
ing it, inspect the frog, heels and sole. This will complete the 
front half of the body, after which the form of the middle and 
loins should be regarded, and then, lifting the tail, the open- 
ness, or otherwise, of the space around the anus, will give some 
idea of the strength of constitution, while the resistance afforded 
by the dock will be a sign of the muscular strength of the back. 
Then look carefully at the hocks, examine the spavin and curb 
places, and finish the whole by passing the hand down the hind 
cannon bones to the fetlocks, and feel them in the same order 
as in the fore legs. Now let the horse rest a minute, if his 
groom will let him, with his head quite at liberty, and you will 
be able to judge of his ordinary habit of standing, when un- 
excited. At the conclusion of this careful examination, while 
at rest, the action must be minutely investigated, by first having 
the horse walked with a loose rein, and then trotted in the 
same way slowly, when, if he is sound, he will put his feet down 



THE HORSE. 173 

regularly and firmly. Grooms, when they want to conceal de- 
fects, will not let the head be loose, nor will they trot slowly, 
but bustle the horse along, with their hands as close as possible 
to the mouth, so as to prevent any nodding of the head as much 
as they can. A very good judge will be perhaps able to select 
a pleasant pack or hai less horse by seeing him thus run, and 
afterwards ridden, but a far better test is to ride or drive him 
yourself, when his freedom from vice, or disease, may be ascer- 
tained, as well as hie manners, and the ease of his various paces. 
No trouble should be spared to get this real trial, which is 
worth ten per cent, on the purchase money, for many a horse 
that looks to go well, does not feel so, and it is well worth that 
sum, to be saved the trouble attending upon the possession of 
a horse which does not suit. When, however, after such a care- 
ful examination by a competent judge, and subsequent trial in 
the saddle or in harness, the horse is found to be really likely 
to answer all the purposes for which he is wanted, a few dol- 
lars should never prevent his being obtained. 



CATTLE 



8 9_ 




1 The upper jaw-bone. 2. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. 3. The lachrymal 
bone. 4. The malar, or cheek bone. 5. The frontal bone, or bone of the forehead. 
6. The horns, being processes or continuations of the frontal. 7. The temporal 
bone. 8. The parietal bone, low in the temporal fossa. 9. The occipital bone, deeply- 
depressed below the crest or ridge of the head. 10. The lower jaw. 11. The grind- 
ers. 12. The nippers, found on the lower jaw alone. 13. The ligament of the neck, 
and its attachments. 14. The atlas. 16. The dentata. 17. The orbits of the eye. 18. 
The vertebrse, or bones of the neck. 19. The bones of the back. 20. The bones of 
the loins. 21. The sacrum. 22. The bones of the tail. 23. The haunch and pelvis. 
24. The eight true ribs. 25. The false ribs, with their cartilages. 26. The sternum. 
27. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 28. The humerus, or lower bone of the shoulder. 
29. The radius, or principal bone of the arm. 40. The ulna, its upper paj^t forming 
the elbow. 41. The small bones of the knee. 42. The large metacarpal or shank 
bone. 43. The smaller or splint bone. 44. The sessamoid bones. 45. The bifurca- 
tion av the pasterns, and the two larger pasterns to each foot. 46. The two smaller 
pasterns to each foot. 47. The two coffin bones to each foot. 48. Thenavicular 
bones. 49. The thigh bono. 50. The patella, or bone of the knee. 51. The tibia, or. 
proper leg bone. 52. The point of the hock. .53. The small bones of the hock. 5* 
The metatarsals, or larger bones of the hind leg. 55. The pasterns and feet. 



176 CATTLE. 

Next to the horse, the cow is justly valued as the most use- 
ful animal which man has been able to domesticate and retain 
permanently in his service. The ox tribe, of which it is the 
female, belongs to the order Ruminantia, in the class Mammalia; 
these terms implying that the animals ruminate or chew their 
food a second time, and have mammae or teats with which they 
suckle their young. In the ox tribe there are different genera 
and species, all more or less differing from each other. 

The wild breed, from being untamable, can only be kept 
>vithin walls or good fences; consequently very few of them 
are now to be met with, except in the parks of some English 
gentlemen, who keep them for ornament and as a curiosity. 
Their color is invariably of a creamy white; muzzle black; the 
whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of the out- 
side from the tip downward, red; horn white, with black tips 
very fine, and bent upward; some of the bulls have a thin 
upright mane about four or five inches long. The weight of 
the oxen is from 450 to 550 lbs. and the cows from 280 to 450 
lbs. The beef is finely marbled and of excellent flavor. 

The domesticated species of oxen is, in all its varieties, 
materially altered from its wild parentage. Influenced by 
climate, peculiar feeding, and training in a state of subjection, 
its bony structure is diminished in bulk and power, its ferocity 
tamed, and its tractability greatly improved. Our observations 
will refer chiefly to the cow, on which very great changes 
have been effected by domestication; the most remarkable of 
th;se alterations has been in the capacity for giving milk. In 
a wild state, the udder is small, and sinks into an insignificant 
compass when the duty of suckling is over; but when domes- 
ticated for the sake of its milk, and that liquid is drawn 
copiously from it by artificial means, the lacteal, or milk- 
secreting vessels enlarge, and the udder expands so as to become 
a prominent feature in the animal. In this manner, by constant 
exercise,,the economy of the cultivated species of cows has been 
permanently altered, and rendered suitable to the demands 
which are constantly made on it. Yet it is important to 
remark that those milk-yielding powers are not equal in the 
different varieties or breeds of cows. Some breeds, from the 
influence of circumstances, give a large quantity of milk, but of 




CO 

UJ 



O 

o 



CATTLE. 177 

a thin or poor quality, while others yield less milk, but of a 
good or rich quality. Whether, then, the cow-keeper wish 
quantity or quality, is the question for him to solve in making 
a selection of stock. In general, near large towns, where the 
demand for milk is considerable, the object of dairymen is to 
keep cows which will give a large quantity of milk, no matter 
of what sort. Private families in the country are usually 
regardful of the quality of the article; they wish a little milk 
which is good, some fine cream, and perhaps, also, some sweet 
butter and cheese; and on that account are more careful in 
their choice of their cows. 

Breeds of Cattle. — The breeds of cattle vary in different 
districts, from the small hardy varieties of the north High- 
lands, to the bulky and handsome breeds of the southern parts 
of England. It has been customary to classify the whole 
according to the comparative length of the horns — as the long- 
horned, short-horned, middle-horned, crumpled-horned, and 
hornless or polled breeds. Besides these, there are many 
intermixed breeds. The middle-horned cows, which are found 
in the north of Devon, the east of Sussex, Herefordshire, and 
Gloucestershire, in England, are among the most valuable and 
beautiful varieties of the animal. 

Whatever be the breed, there are certain conformations 
which are indispensable to the thriving, valuable ox or cow. If 
there is one part of the frame, the form of which, more than of 
any other, renders the animal valuable, it is the chest. There 
must be room enough for the heart to beat and the lungs to 
play, or sufficient blood for the purposes of nutriment and 
strength will not be circulated; nor will it thoroughly under- 
go that vital change which is essential to the proper dis- 
charge of every function. We look, therefore, first of all, to 
the wide and deep girth about the heart and lungs. We must 
have both; the proportion in which the one or the other may 
preponderate will depend on the service we require from the 
animal; we can excuse a slight degree of flatness on the sides, 
for he will be lighter in the forehand, and more active; but 
the grazier must have width as well as depth. And not only 
about the heart and lungs, but over the whole of the ribs, must 
we have both length and roundness; the hooped as well as the 
10 



178 CATTLE. 

deep barrel is essential; there must be room for the capaci- 
ous paunch— room for the material from which the blood is to 
be provided. The beast should also be ribbed home; there 
should be little space between the ribs and the hips. This 
seems to be indispensable in the ox, as it regards a good 
healthy constitution and a propensity to fatten; but, a largness 
and drooping of the belly, notwithstanding that the symmetry 
of the animal is not improved, are considered advantageous in 
the cow, because room is thus left for the udder; and if these 
qualities are accompanied by swelling milk veins, her value in 
the dairy is generally increased. This roundness and depth of 
the barrel, however, are most advantageous in proportion as 
found behind the point of the elbow, more than between the 
shoulder and legs; or low down between the legs, rather than 
upward toward the withers; for, the heaviness before, and the 
comparative bulk of the coarser parts of the animal, are thus 
diminished, which is always a very great consideration. The 
loins should be wide. Of this there can be no doubt, for they 
are the prime parts; they should seem to extend far along the 
back; and, although the belly should not hang down, the flanks 
should be round and deep. Of the lips, it is superfluous to say 
that, without being ragged, they should be large, round, rathei 
than wide, and presenting, when handled, plenty of muscle and 
fat. The thighs should be full and long, close together when 
viewed from behind, and the farther down they continue close, 
the better. The legs may occasionally vary in length, accord- 
ing to the destination of the animal; but, shortness is a good 
general rule, for there is an almost inseparable connection 
between length of leg and lightness of carcass, and shortness of 
leg and propensity to fatten. The bones of the legs (and they 
are taken as a sample of the bony structure of the frame gen- 
erally) should be small, but not too small — small enough for 
the well-known accompaniment, a propensity to fatten — small 
enough to please the consumer; but not so small as to indicate 
delicacy of constitution and liability to disease. Lastly, the 
hide — the most important thing of all — should be thin, but not 
so thin as to indicate that the animal can endure no hardship; 
movable, mellow, but not too loose, and particularly well 
covered with fine and soft hair. 



CATTLE. 179 

Of the various breeds and cross-breeds of cows now in use, 
there are a few which enjoy the best reputation. 

Native Cattle. — This is a favorite term with Americans, 
and comprehends everything in the country, excepting such as 
are of a pure and distinct breed. It embraces some of the 
best, some of the worst, and some of ahnost every variety, 
shape, color and character of the bovine race. The designa- 
tion has no farther meaning than that they are indigenous to 
the soil, and do not belong to any well defined or distinct 
variety. The best native cattle of the Union are undoubtedly 
to be found in the north-eastern Stated. Most of the early 
emigrant cattle in that section were from the southern part of 
England, and, though not bearing a close resemblance to any 
particiilar English breed, unless it has been impressed upon 
them by more recent importations, yet a large number have 
that general approximation in character, features and color, 
which entitles them to claim a kindred with one or another of 
the better breeds there. They have been so promiscuously 
interbred that most of their original characteristics are lost, 
and an amalgamation of their good, bad or indifferent qualities 
have become diffused into their present condition 

Of the native cattle we need not further speak; they absund 
everywhere, and their various qualities are well known; but, as 
they evidently need improvement by an infusion of better, and 
foreign distinct breeds among them, the principal varieties of 
those introduced here for that purpose will be named. 

The Dsvons. — This beautiful race is claimed, in England, 
their native country, where only in Europe they are bred in 
any considerable numbers, to be aboriginal in blood, being 
known there before the time of the Roman invasion, in the 
early centuries of the Christian era. They are of medium size, 
red in color, symmetrical in shape, and of great beauty in ap- 
pearance, combining almost every good quality demanded in 
the bovine race. They have been kept and cultivated for 
many centuries in the south-western counties of England — 
more in Devonshire than elsewhere — and much improved in 
form and early ripeness within the last century. They were 
brought into America probably among the early importations 
of cattle by the Massachusetts colonies, AVe have no accounts^ 



180 CATTLE. 

of their having been distinctly bred by themselves, and they 
became soon lost in the miscellaneous admixtures which pre- 
vailed among all the early importations. Yet their blood and 
characteristics were strong, and they gave tone and style to 
many of the predominating herds in various sections of the 
country, where their taking appearance made them favorites as 
working oxen. 

They are fine in the bone, round and long in the carcass, 
wide in the hips, short in the leg, straight and broad in the 
back, fine in the head and neck, deep in the chest and brisket, 
prominent in the eye", high and spreading in the horn, and yel- 
low in the muzzle — taken altogether, of most graceful and 
blood-like appearance. They are naturally excellent milkers, 
giving a medium quantity, and of remarkably good quality, 
yielding the richest butter. It is but just to say, however, that 
the English breeders of them, within the last century, have 
bred them more with a view to flesh and early maturity as beef 
cattle than for the dairy, in which symmetry in form, early 
ripeness, and choicer meat has been obtained at the expense of 
their dairy qualities. Yet among the thorough-bred herds in 
the United States, where attention has been paid to the milk 
development, they have proved well in that particular. 

A few small herds of pure Devons were imported into the 
United States early in the present century. Those have since 
been added to by several new importations into several of the 
eastern States, down to a quite recent date, and been bred in 
their purity, and of a quality quite equal, probably, to their 
original ancestry in England. Their beef is of the best quality, 
and for working oxen they excel almost any others, being 
quick and sprightly in action, docile in temper, easily matched 
in color and movement. Yet with all their good qualities, 
they have not, of late, been so generally sought and appreciated 
as their merits demand, as tastes and fashions change, in cattle, 
as in some other commodities. But, for hilly and medium 
soils, no cattle are better fitted, as a profitable stock, for the 
farmer. We decidedly recommend them, from long experience 
in their keeping, as a valuable and profitable race. 

The Herefords. — This is another valuable breed, of great 
antiquity in some of the western counties of England, border- 



CATTLE. 181 

ing on Wales, of which Herefordshire is the chief, and from 
which the cattle take their name. They have been bred there, 
time immemorial, with a distinctive character altogether their 
own, and are claimed, by their breeders and advocates, to have 
an origin as distinct and pure as any other breed. In England 
they are highly esteemed as among the best of the beef pro- 
ducing breeds, in early maturity, and a profitable carcass, and 
hold a sharp competition and rivalry with even the best of 
other breeds for the shambles. As working oxen they are un- 
surpassed. As a dairy cow, the Hereford is less esteemed, not 
running to milk so well as the Devons, and some of the other 
more common dairy breeds. 

They were probably early imported, with other cattle, to 
America, but, like them, became lost in the general diffusion of 
their blood with them. Their size is large, their color red, 
with white or mottled faces, sometimes white backs and bellies, 
and occasionally a deep roan of red and white intermixed on 
their bodies. In general shape they are much like the Devons, 
a fourth larger in size, somewhat coarser in the bone, and 
hardly so refined and graceful in the outline. Their horns are 
high and spreading. So far as tried in America, as a beef 
animal they mature early, as at three to four years they are well 
grown for fattening. As a working ox, no beast can be better, 
being large, strong, readily matched, decile, and of great 
strength — taken altogether, the best of working cattle. 

Several herds of pure Herefords have been imported here 
within thirty years past ; successfully bred, and scattered. 
They have been well approved, as a grazier's beast, fitted to 
our medium soils, and profitable. Several good herds now 
exist among us, but, we regret to say, they are not sought by 
our leading cattle breeders, with the avidity to which, by their 
actual merits, they are entitled. 

The AyrsMres. — This is, perhaps, the most popular breed 
of milch cows now in Scotland, taking their name from the 
county of Ayr, where they were first originated and bred, and 
obtained their celebrity. Their origin is of recent date, being 
within the last hundred years, and made up from the original 
Scotch Kyloe cow, by a cross of bulls obtained from the north- 
eastern counties of England, mainly, so far as our investiga' 



182 CATTLE. 

tions have proved, the Shorthorns, the older original families 
of which were known as excellent milkers. The history of 
these various crosses is too much involved in obscurity to trace 
it thoroughly within our limited pages; but, as they are now, a 
Avell established breed of great merit in their lacteal qualities, 
and widely disseminated in Scotland, England and America as 
dairy cattle, their history is of less consequence than the fact 
of their decided excellence for the pail. They may now be 
considered as an established dairy breed, capable of perpet- 
uating, in their own blood alone, their excellent qualities. As 
such, they are now bred, cherished and valued. 

In size they are medium, compared with our native cattle; 
in color, dark red, or brown and white, occasionally inclining to 
roan, sometimes flecked or spotted, the red and white variously 
intermingling. Their shape is usually good, being squarely 
built, short in the leg, broader behind than before, as all good 
milkers should be, straight in the back, wide across the hips, 
finely shaped udder, with the milk marks well developed, and 
bounteous milkers. Their heads are small, the horns short and 
well set, the eye bright, the nose either dark or yellow, but the 
dark usually prevailing, — altogether a satisfactory dairy cow. 

They were first imported into America in the year 1822, 
and many more about 1830, when they readily established a 
good reputation as milkers. Frequent importations, and in con- 
siderable numbers, have since been made, and they have been 
bred and multiplied with a care evincing the value accorded to 
them by those who best knew their good properties. They are 
fitted to our medium soils and rougher lands, being active in 
movement, docile in temper, and grazmg where some of the 
heavier and more sluggish breeds would not so well flourish. 

As a beef or laboring animal, they have been but little 
sought or tried. That the quality of their flesh may be good — ■ 
equal, perhaps, to others — we have no reason to doubt, although 
our opportunities to judge them have been limited. As a 
laboring ox they have really had no trial. Their r' ;:.and, 
hitherto, for breeding purposes, has been too active io r.^nitof 
thorough trials for either flesh or labor. 

The Polled Cattle, or Galloways — Of Scotland, have been 
recently introduced into Upper Canada (now Ontario) by 



CATTLE. 183 

several of the Scotch farmers there. They are a beef animal 
chiefly, the cows having little reputation in their native land as 
milkers. They are of medium size only, mostly black in color, 
although occasionally red, dun, or black and red brindled, com- 
pact in shape, and hornless. They are hardy, easy keepers, 
early matured, and of excellent quality for flesh. They thrive 
well on rough soils and in a severe climate, and may, on some 
of our leaner lands, yet obtain a considerable celebrity. Some 
of their partial breeders and advocates contend that they are 
good milkers, but such is not their usual reputation. For the 
lighter labor uses they have proved good working oxen. 

The Short-horns. — This is the most universally popular 
foreign breed in our country. Their large size, full develop- 
ment, and excellent general qualities, have made them universal 
favorites on all good soils where abundant grasses prevail. 
They have great size, great length, breadth, and depth of 
carcass, small in bone, fine in symmetery, attractive in color, 
which is red and white, wholly, or of those colors in patches, 
or agreeably intermingling through all degrees and shades of 
roan. They are fine in the head, clean in the neck, with yellow 
noses, bright eyes, small, short, curved horns, and of elegant, 
imposing contour. They mature early, at three to four years 
old, and make a quick and profitable return of their food in 
either milk, or beef, for either of which purposes they may be 
profitably bred and used, as selections are made, or these 
qualities are required. As working oxen exclusively, we do not 
recommend them, as they are heavier and slower in movement 
than some of the other breeds, or even our native cattle. 

They are of ancient origin, and until early in the present 
century never known, to any extent, only in a few of the north- 
eastern counties of England. In their present improved con- 
dition they were imported to America, only so late as the 
earlier years of the present century. But since their good 
qualities have become more known and approved, frequent and 
valuable importations have been made of the best blood, and 
they have been bred and scattered throughout the country, 
with an assiduity pertaining to no other foreign breed and 
promising a popularity among our cattle breeders and farmers, 
on the richer soils, which is likely to become permanent. 



184 CATTLE. 

When bred for that purpose, they have proved excellent 
milkers, and for quantity of flesh to the carcass they are supe- 
rior as a beef producing animal. Yet, in their pure blood, and 
kept solely for breeding, they require good care to keep them 
up to their best condition, in quality and appearance, as, 
indeed, do all other good cattle, of any established breeds. 

The Alderneys, or Jerseys — Are a choice, small race, 
giving a moderate quantity of very rich, creamy milk, much 
prized by families who choose to indulge in the rarest luxury of 
its kind. They are natives of the Channel Islands of Britain, 
lying off the coast of Normandy, in France, where they are 
reared and kept in the highest perfection. In size they are 
small, and in shape lean, ragged, and angular, as compared 
with the Devons or Short-horns. Their heads are small, yet 
symmetrical, with black muzzles, mealy faces, bright, promi- 
nent eyes, dishing or slightly concave forehead, light, short, 
crooked horns, and thin necks. Their shoulders are high and 
narrow; they are thin in the chest, large in the belly, somewhat 
depressed in the back, high and well spread in the hips, thin in 
the thighs. The udder and teats are well shaped and delicate, 
giving a moderate quantity — say eight to twelve quarts a day — 
of the richest, yellowest milk, and yielding more butter to a 
given quantity than any other race of cows known. Their 
colors are usually fawn and white, or " squirrel grey," prettily 
blended, and sometimes a smoky, or deep brown hue, and 
occasionally black and white mottled. They have a peculiarly 
blood-like appearance, and of distinct characteristics from any 
other breed. They are docile in disposition, not so hardy to 
withstand the severe vicissitudes of our climate as some others, 
yet great favorites with those who properly appreciate and 
carefully use them. They are rapidly increasing in popularity, 
particularly in the neighborhood of our large towns and cities. 
Indeed, some of our tasteful lovers of this race of bovines, 
jocularly assert that the ownership of one or more Alderneys is 
necessary to constitute a finished " country gentleman.* 

As a beef producing, or working ox, the Alderney is in little 
request, their forms not being fitted to excel in the one, nor 
their muscular form sufficient for the strength of the other. 



CATTLE. 18^' 

Still they are a most useful and desirable breed for the pur- 
poses to which they -are applied. 

Points of Cattle. — In adverting briefly to the properties ot 
cattle, it will be advisable to describe the points by which they 
are characterized: 

1. The nose or muzzle, in the Devon, Hereford, and Sussex, the muzzle is pre- 
ferred when of a clear golden color. When brown or dark, it is aa indication that 
this breed has been crossed with some of the Welsh or other breeds. 

2. The forehead should neither be narrow nor very broad — the eye prominent. 
The nostril between the eve and muzzle should be thin, which is particularly the 
case in the best breeds of iJevon cattle. 

3. The horns should be thin, projecting horizontally from the head, and turning 
■up at the tips, as in the breeds of the Devon, Sussex, and Hereford. i 

4. The neck should be neither long nor short, full at the sides, and not too deep 
Ih the throat, coming out from the shoulders nearly level with the chin, with a thiu 
dewlap. 

5. The top of the plate bones should not be too wide, but rising upon a level 
with the chine, and well thrown back, so that there may be no hoUowness behind; 
this point gives facility to the walk. From the point of the shoulder to the top or 
the plate bones shouldbe rather full outside, to admit the ribs to bow. 

(i. The shoulder point sliould lay flat with the ribs without any projection. 
When the shoulder point projects outward, the beast seldom fattens well about the 
shoulder vein. 

7. The breast should be wide and open, projecting forward. 

8. The chine should lie straight, and well covered with flesh. 

9. The loin should be flat and wide, the side lying parallel, and nearly as high aa 
the chine — almost as wide at the fore as at the hinder part; being an indication ot 
the ribs bowing out, which is desirable. 

10. The hip or huckle bones should be wide apart, coming upon a level with the 
chine, to the first touch or setting on of the tail. 

11. The first touch or tip of the rump should be tolerably wide, so that the tail 
drop in a level between the two points. The tail should come out broad as an 
indication of a flat chine. 

12. The thio;h should not be too full outside or behind, which is always an 
indication of bully flesh, but the inside or twist should be full. 

13. The hock or hough should be flat and rather thin, not coarse and gummy, 
•which indicates coarseness in the animal. 

14. The hind leg should be flat and thin. The legs of a medium length, and the 
hock or hough rather turning out. 

15. The feet or claws not too broad. 

16. The flank should be full and heavy when the animal is fat, indicative ot 
being fat inside. 

17. The belly should not drop below the breast, but in a horizontal line with it, 

18. The shoulder should be rather flat, not projecting. 

19. The foreleg should also be flat and upright, but not fleshy. 

20. The round or pot-bone should not project, but lie flat with the outside of 
the thigh. A \ 

21. The under jaw. The jaws should be rather wide, particularly for beasts In- 
tended for working, as it affords them greater liberty to breathe. 

22. The chap snould be fine, indicating a disposition to feed. 

23. The ribs should spring nearly horizontally from the cliine, the sides round, 
forming a circle ; in which case the animal will never drop in the belly, and will 
lay its meat on the prime parts. The great objection to the Sussex breeu of cattle is 
that they are too sharp in the chine, and the ribs too flat. When this is the case, the 
animal will always drop in the belly, and seldom lay its meat on the prime joints. 

Remarks on Breeds. — We have thus briefly treated of some 
of the many breeds of cattle considered valuable as dairy stock 
in Britain; but we pretend not to give any decided opinion as 
to which is best. The merits of each kind have been vigor- 
ously contested by their respective advocates, and it would be 
extremely difficult to decide between them. Upon the form 
and qualifications of a perfect cow, it ought to be observed, that 
whatever breed is selected, there is a wide difference between 



186 CATTLE. 

the form of one meant for fattening and that intended for the 
dairy. The first should resemble the ox as nearly as possible; 
while the latter should be long and thin on the head, with a 
brisk, quiet eye, lank in the neck, narrow across the shoulders, 
but broad at the haunches; and there should be no tendency 
to become fat. The udder should be large and full looking, 
but not protruding too far behind; the teats all pointing out 
and downward, equal in size and rather long and tapering; 
all corresponding with the signs or escutcheons. A cow with a 
high back-bone, large head, small udder, and showing an in- 
clination to become fat, will be found to be a bad milker. 
This description applies to all breeds; and, of course, the dif- 
ference between a cow for fattening and one for yielding milk 
will be comparative. 

The following are the most important qualities of the dairy 
cow: Tameness and docility of temper greatly enhance its 
value. One that is quiet and contented feeds at ease, does not 
break over fences, or hurt herself or other cattle, will always 
yield more milk than those who are of a turbulent disposition. 
To render them docile, they ought to be gently treated, fre- 
quently handled when young, and never struck or frightened. 
Some degree of hardiness, however, a sound constitution, and 
a moderate degree of life and spirits, are qualities to be wished 
for in a milch cow, and what those of Ayrshire generally pos- 
sess. Some have thought that a cow living on a small quantity 
of food was a valuable quality, but that will depend upon the 
quantity of milk given by the cow that eats little compared with 
those that eat much. If the cow that eats little gives as much 
milk as the one that eats more, it certainly is a valuable quality; 
but of this I entertain doubts, which forty years' experience 
and observation have served to confirm. Speculative writers 
affirm that some cows will fatten as well, and yield as much 
milk, when fed on coarse as others will do on rich food. Cows 
that have been reared and fed on coarse pasture will yield some 
milk of a good quality, and from which the best butter may be 
extracted; while a cow that has been reared and fed on much 
better pasture, would, if turned on that which is bad, give 
scarcely any milk. With persons living in towns and villages, 
and keeping but a single cow, with opportunity of grazing on 



CATTLE. 187 

the commons, and depending mainly on them for food, a good 
rule is to get their cow, not over the middle size; and from a 
poorer district of country. If she comes from rich, fertile pas- 
tures, she will fall off in her milk, below the quantity which he 
was assured she had been accustomed to give, and thus disap- 
point him. If from a poorer district, with the addition of the 
"slop" from the house and kitchen, and the external signs here 
laid down, she will be sure to improve. But if a cow that has 
been accustomed to feed on bad pasture, be put on that which 
is better, she will greatly increase in milk, and fatten much 
faster. If two cows of the same age and condition, and which 
have been reared and fed on food of equal quality, are put, the 
one on bad food, and the other on that which is good, the latter 
will yield four times the milk, and fatten four times faster than 
the former. A cow need not always be fed on green clover, 
cabbages, and cauliflower; but she will neither fatten nor yield 
milk if she gets no better fare than rushes, bent, and sage grass. 
To ensure the perpetuation of valuable qualities in cows, it 
is necessary to breed from good bulls of a similar variety to 
the cows. The heifer or young cow, if properly pastured, 
should begin to breed at two years, or not beyond two and a 
half years old. The cow is at her prime at from four to six 
years, and declines into old age at ten or eleven years, when it 
is customary to fatten her for market. Dairymen, in selecting 
cows, prefer those which have had their third or fourth calf 
when they have attained their fifth or sixth year. The bull is 
in his prime at three years, and should not be used after eight. 
or nine years old. 

Calving.* — The cow goes with young nine calendar months, 
or 270 days, but this length of time is liable to variation, from 
the effect of circumstances. A calf is most likely to survive • 
and be healthy which has gone exactly the nine months. Cows 
come into season at different periods of the year, in which state 
they remain for a few days, after which the affection ceases, 
but it afterward returns in three or four weeks. The farmer 
watches the periods, and permits the company of the bull at 
such a time as will produce the young at the time of the year 
when grass is plentiful for the nourishment of the mother. 
This should be an advanced period of spring, for the cow will 



185 CATTLE. 

require nourishing diet some time before shw diopu ht<, cttil as 
well as afterwards. 

A cow may be kept in milk up to the time of her calving, by 
daily taking a quantity from her; but this is most injurious to 
the foetus, and the excitement of the new upon the old milk is 
apt to produce local inflammation. In towns, where dairymen 
care nothing for the calf, and musS have milk at all risks, cows 
are often maltreated by being milked to the last; but no one 
who conducts a dairy on proper principles will be guilty of this 
inhumanity. The best plan, is to allow the cow to gradually 
dry, and not milk her at all for six or eight weeks before calv- 
ing. This will keep hei in a reasonably good condition, and 
save extra food, which it is not advantageous to give on a 
luxuriant scale, because high feeding at this period may induce 
inflammation and fever at calving. 

No animal is so liable to abortion as the cow; it takes place 
at uncertain periods during the pregnancy; sometimes it occurs 
from fright, teazing by other cattle in the field, or over-high 
condition; but also not unfrequently from from some bad habit 
acquired by the animal. It has been found that the habit is 
infectious; and, when once it has got among a parcel of cows, 
it can be banished only with the greatest difficulty. In all 
cases the aborted foetus should be buried deep and far from 
the cow pasture; the cow physickeb, and its parts washed with 
chloride of lime; the cow-house thoroughly lime-washed and 
otherwise purified; and, lastly, the cow fattened and sent to 
market. 

If in a state of health, no difficulty will occur at the partu- 
rition; but, should the case be otherwise, we prefer leaving the 
cow-keeper to ask assistance from a person of practical skill, 
or veterinary surgeon, than to offer any speculative advice on 
the subject. With respect to the treatment after calving, we 
quote the following directions: "Parturition having been 
accomplished, the cow should be left quietly with the calf; the 
licking and cleaning of which, and the eating of the placenta, 
if it is soon discharged, will employ and amuse her. It is a 
cruel thing to separate the mother trom the young so soon; the 
cow will pine, and will be deprived of that medicine which 
/lature designed for her in the moisture which hangs about the 



CATTLE. 



189 



calf, and even in the placenta itself; and the calf Avill lose that 
gentle friction and motion which help to give it the immediate 
use of all its limbs, and which increases the languid circulation 
of the blood, and produces a genial warmth in the half- 
exhausted and chilled little animal. A warm mash should be 
put before her, and warm gruel, or water from which some of 
the coldness has been taken oif. Two or three hours after- 
ward, it will be prudent to give an aperient drink, consisting 
of a pound of epsom salts and two drachms of ginger. This 
may tend to prevent milk fever and garget in the udder. At- 
tention should likewise be paid to the state of the udder. If 
the teats are sore, and the bag generally hard and tender, she 
should be gently but carefully milked three or four times every 
day. The natural and the effectual preventive of this, how- 
ever, is to let the calf suck her at least three times in a day, 
if it is tied up in the cow-house, or to run with her in the pas- 
ture, and take the teat when it pleases. The tendency to in- 
flammation of the udder is much diminished by the calf fre- 
quently sucking; or, should the cow be feverish, nothing 
soothes or quiets her so much as the presence of the little 
one. 









CALVING 


TABLE 








Day balled. 


Will calve. 


Day bulled. 


Will calve. 


Day bulled. 


Wm calve. 


Jan. 1 


....Oct. 


8 


May 


7 


...Feb. 


11 


Sept. 


7.... 


June 15 


" 7 




14 


" 


14 




18 




U.... 


" 22 


" 14 


<( 


21 


« 


^^ 




25 


<c 


21.... 


« 29 


«« 21 


<t 


28 


«< 


^ 


. .Mar. 


4 


<c 


28.... 


July 6 

" 8 


" 28 


....Nov. 


4 


<c 


31 




7 


" 


30.... 


" 31 


« 


7 


June 


1 




8 


Oct. 


1.... 


" 9 


peh 1 


iC 


8 

14 


(( 


7 

14 




14 
21 


<c 


7.... 
14.... 


" 15 


" 7 


<c 


« 22 


" 14 


<l 


21 


" 


21 




28 


«' 


21.... 


" 22 


" 21 


.... " 


28 


" 


28 


...April 


4 


" 


28.... 


Aug. 5 


" 28 


....Dec. 


5 




30 




6 


" 


31 ... 


« 8 


Mar. 1 


<( 


6 


July 


1 




7 


Nov. 


1.... 


« 9 


" 7 


.... " 


12 


" 


7 




13 


" 


7.... 


" 15 


« 14 


<( 


19 


« 


14 




20 


<i 


14.... 


«' 21 


" 21 


<( 


26 


" 


21 




28 


" 


21... 


« 29 


'* 28 


Jan. 


2 


" 


28 


.. May 


4 


" 


28.... 


Sept. 5 


« 31 


. " 


5 




31 




8 


" 


30.... 


" 7 


April 1 


« 


6 


Aug. 


1 




9 


Dec. 


1.... 


" 8 


" 7 




12 


" 


7 




15 


" 


7.... 


" 21 


" 14 


«' 


19 


it 


14. 




22 


<( 


14 .. 


" 21 


•« 21 


<( 


26 
2 


« 


21 

28 


...June 


29 
5 


« 


21.... 
28.... 


" 28 


" 28 


....Feb. 


Oct. 5 


« 30 


« 


4 


« 


31 




8 


(( 


31.... 


" 8 


May 1 


<( 


5 


Sept 


1 




9 









The Calf. — The calf, when first dropped, is generally 
cleansed by the tongue of its dam from the slimy matter which 



190 CATTLE. 

always adheres to the skin of the animal. Sometimes it hap- 
pens that the cow will not at first recognize her offspring; but, 
upon a small quantity of salt being strewn over it, to which all 
neat cattle are particularly partial, she commences the motherly 
duties by licking the skin. The first milk appears to be calcu- 
lated to nourish the calf, which it should be allowed to suck 
plentifully before the cow is milked. It is the practice with 
some, as soon as the calf has sucked as much as it pleases, to 
milk the remainder, so as to cleanly drain the udder, and give 
it to the cow as nourishment. 

The treatment of calves in rearing varies materially in dif- 
ferent countries, and even in districts. In Sussex, England, 
the calf is by many not allowed to take all the milk of the cow, 
but is shut up from her in the morning and evening, and a 
small quantity of bran or ground oats given in a trough, and 
not suffered to suck till the maid comes to milking, when she 
milks two speens, while the calf sucks the other two; after 
which, when the girl has got all the milk she can, the calf is 
left with the cow a short time, to draw the udder as clean as 
possible; and if there be any lumps occasioned by the pours 
being stopped, through which the milk flows to the speens, the 
calf, by sucking, will disperse them better than by any other 
means. Cows are frequently injured in their milk by not hav- 
ing their udders thoroughly cleansed for the first fortnight or 
three weeks after calving. When the calf is about a month 
old, it is suffered to run with the cow in the day, and kept 
from her in the night. A portion of the milk is taken from the 
cow, and the remainder is left for the calf, which is again per 
mitted to remain with her during the day; this practice is fol- 
lowed by some till the calf is weaned. Some let the calves go 
with the cows when three or four weeks old, at which time the 
cow has not a greater supply than sufficient for the calf alone; 
after which it is allowed to run with the cow till about twelve 
weeks, when it is weaned, and put in a confined place out of 
sight and hearing, to prevent the cow from being made uneasy 
from hearing her calf. The calf is then fed on cut grass, clover, 
or other green food, with hay and bran, till such time as it for- 
gets its dam. It should then be turned out upon good pasture; 
for, unless the calf be well fed at an early age, it will become 



CATTLE. 191 

stinted in its growth, and when arrived at maturity, will not 
fatten so readily as if proper attention had been paid to it while 
young. 

In many dairy districts it has been found desirable to de- 
prive the calf of the greater portion of milk; which has been 
accomplished by its being taught to drink skimmed milk in a 
lukewarm state, by the following means: When the animal has 
fasted two or three hours, the first and second fingers of the 
right hand are presented to its mouth; of these it readily takes 
hold, sucking very eagerly; in the meantime a vessel of luke- 
warm milk is placed and supported by the left hand under the 
calf's mouth; and, while it is sucking, the right hand is gradu- 
ally sunk a little way into the milk, so that it may draw in a 
sufficient quantity without stopping the nostrils. Should, how- 
ever, either from accident or from too sudden precipitation of 
the hand into the milk, the calf let go its hold, the attempt 
must be repeatedly renewed till crowned with success. For 
the space of three or four weeks, they are usually fed with luke- 
warm milk and water. A small quantity of hay, ground oats, 
or bran, and sometimes oil-cake, is then placed within their 
reach, which induces them to eat. Toward the end of May 
they are turned out to grass, being taken in for a few nights, 
when they have tepid milk and water given them; which is 
usually continued, though gradually, in smaller proportions dur- 
ing the last month, till they are able to feed themselves, when 
they totally disregard it. It is then advisable to turn them into 
pastures where the grass is short and sweet. 

Many attempts have been made to rear calves by artificial 
means, which by some is said to have answered very well where 
the animal has been confined and shut up in the dark; this 
practice has been proved to be injurious, and especially if the 
calves are intended for stock. We certainly have no practice 
which can answer so well as that where the laws of nature are 
strictly attended to, and the calf is supplied with nourishment 
such as nature dictates. 

The greatest attention in fattening calves should be paid to 
cleanliness, without which neither will the calf fatten quickly, 
nor will the fat be of good color; much risk will also follow in 
losing the calf from fever, or from scouring. Chalk should h^ 



X93 CATTLE. 

always before them to lick, to counteract the acidity always 
found in great abundance in the stomach of the calf when feed- 
ing on milk. 

It is advisable in fattening calves to keep them quiet, and 
to allow them to suck the cow night and morning, taking the 
last of the milk, which is considered to be the most rich and 
nourishing. By this treatment the calf will gradually become 
sufficiently fat in seven or eight weeks; and, when so, it is no 
advantage to keep it a day longer — as small veal, if fat, is pre- 
ferable to large. 

It is by some a practice to bleed calves weekly, after they 
are four or five weeks old, and always a short time before they 
are killed — by which course the veal is rendered whiter. 

As castrating calves is an operation which ought not to be 
performed but by skillful practitioners, we shall refrain from 
giving any directions — recommending the operation to be per- 
formed at the age of eight or ten weeks, as at that age the 
danger is considerably lessened. The animals should be kept 
quiet and warm after the operation; and if, on the following 
day, the scrotum should be much swollen and inflamed, the 
wound may be opened, and coagulated blood removed. 

Whether calves are kept for veal or for stock, they are begun 
to be fed in the same manner, by sucking milk from a dish. 
As they naturally seek for the teat when their nose is put to the 
dish, the fingers of the attendant may be put into their mouth 
when in the milk, and this will set them going in the art of arti- 
ficial sucking. The milk should be given to them sparingly at 
first, to render their appetite more keen, and prevent them from 
loathing at their food. For the first two weeks they should be 
fed on the milk first drawn from the cow, locally termed the 
forebroads, which abounds with serum; and, as they grow up, 
the quantity of milk is gradually increased to as much as the 
•calves can be made to drink. After the first two or three 
weeks, by all means give them plenty of milk, warm from their 
mother; and let it be that which is last drawn from the cow, 
locally termed afterings, which are much richer. Keep abund- 
ance of dry litter under them. Have them in a place that is 
well aired, and of a uniform temperature, neither too hot nor 
too cold; let the apartment be quite dark, excepting when the 




to 




LLl 


o 


^ 


z 


..J 


h- 


^ 


1- 
o 




tr. 


UJ 


1- 


O 


u. 


nr 


O 


O 
III 


O 


ej 





CATTLE. 193 

door is opened to give them food. If they enjoy the light 
they become too sportive and will not fatten. Take care that 
they are fastened to the wall in such a way, by ''swivels," that 
they cannot hang themselves. Never let them make their es- 
cape at the door, or, by their running and jumping, they will 
do more injury to themselves in three minutes than a week's 
feeding will make up. Don't keep them till they become too 
old, because, when they begin to grow to the bone, they require 
more milk than the manse can generally produce ; and, when- 
ever they cease to advance in the fattening process, they begin 
to recede, and the milk for a week or two is lost. They should 
be kept from four to seven weeks, according as milk may be 
abundant and rich. If a calf be kept long, during the last two 
or three weeks, it will require the richest part of the milk of at 
least two or three cows to bring it to the highest pitch of fat- 
ness. When the milk begins to fall short of the calf's appetite 
some mix eggs and others peas-meal into their food; others try 
infusions of hay, oil-cake and linseed ; but none of these addi- 
tions are approved of by those who feed calves to the greatest 
perfection. Meal is understood to darken the flesh, web and 
lights of the animal ; but sago has of late years been almost 
from the first two or three weeks, boiled and mixed in its liquid 
state with the milk, and to great advantage. Begin with a 
saucerful of it or so, and' gradually increase the quantity. 
Calves are very fond of chalk, and they also feel the want of 
salt. 

Formation of Teeth. — It is of the utmost importance to be 
able to judge of the age of a cow. Few farmers wish to pur- 
chase a cow for the dairy after she passed her prime, which 
will ordinarily be at the age of nine or ten years, varying, of 
course, according to care, feeding, &c., in the earlier part of 
her life. 

The common method of forming an estimate of the age of 
cattle is by an examination of the horn. At three years old, a£ 
a general rule, the horns are perfectly smooth; after. this, a 
ring appears near the nob, and annually afterward a new one is 
formed, so that, by adding two years to the first ring, the age 
is calculated. This is a very uncertain mode of judging. The 
rings are distinct only in the cow, and it is well known that if 
U 



194 



CATTLE. 



a heifer goes to bull when she is two years old, or a little before 
or after that time, a change takes place in the horn, and the 
first ring appears ; so that a real three-year-old would carry 
the mark of a four-year-old. 

The rings on the horns of a bull are either not seen until 
five, or they cannot be traced at all; while in the ox they do 
not appear till he is five years old, and then are often very in- 
distinct. In addition to this, it is by no means an uncommon 
practice to file the horns, so as to make them smooth, and to 
give the animal the appearance of being much younger than it 
really is. This is, therefore, an exceedingly fallacious guide, 
and cannot be relied upon by any one with the degree of con- 
fidence desired. 

The surest indication of the age in cattle, as in the horse, 
is given by the teeth. 




THETH AT BIRTH. 




SECOND •BTEBK. 



The calf, at birth, will usually have two incisor or front 
teeth — in some cases just appearing through the gums ; in 
others, fully set, varying as the cow falls short of, or exceeds, 
her regular time of calving. If she overruns several days, the 
teeth will have set and attained considerable size, as appears 
in the cut representing teeth at birth. During the second week 
a tooth will usually be added on each side, and the mouth will 
generally appear as in the next cut; and before the end of the 
third week, the animal will generally have six incisor teeth, as 
denoted in the cut representing teeth at the third week; and 



CATTLE. 



195 



in a week from that time the full number of incisors will have 
appeared, as seen in the next cut. 




THREE -WEEKS. 




These teeth are temporary, and are often called milk-teeth. 
Their edge is very sharp; and, as the animal begins to live upon 
more solid food, this edge becomes worn, showing the bony 
part of the tooth beneath, and indicates with considerable pre- 




PIYE TO EIGHT MONTHS. 




TEN MONTHS 



cision the length of time they have been used. The centre, or 
oldest teeth show the marks of age first, and often become 
somewhat worn before the corner teeth appear. At eight 
weeks, the four inner teeth are nearly as sharp as before. They 
appear worn not so much on th^ outer edge or line of the 



196 



CATTLE. 



tooth, as inside this line ; but, after this, the edge begins 
gradually to lose its sharpness, and to present a more flattened 





TWELVE MONTHS. 



FIFTEEN MONTHS. 



surface; while the next outer teeth wear down like the four 
central ones; and, at three months, this wearing off is very 
apparent, till at four months all the incisor teeth appear worn. 





EIGHTEEN MONTHS. 



TWO TEARS PAST. 



but the inner ones the most. Now the teeth begin slowly to 
diminish in size by a kind of contraction, as well as wearing 
down, and the distance apart becomes more and more apparent. 
From the fifth to the eighth month, the inner teeth will 
usually appear as in the cut of the teeth at that time; and 
at ten months this change shows more clearly, as represented Jn 



CATTLE. 



197 



the next cut, and the spaces between them begin to show very 
plainly, till at a year old they ordinarily present the appearance 
of the particular cut; and, at the age of fifteen months, that 




THREE TEARS PAST. 




POUR TEARS PAST. 



shown in the next, where the corner teeth are not more than 
half the original size, and the centre ones still smaller. 

The permanent teeth are now rapidly growing, and prepar- 
ing to take the place of the milk teeth, which are gradually 





PIVK TEARS PAST. 



TEK TEARS FAST. 



absorbed till they disappear, or are pushed out to give place to 
the two permanent central incisors, which, at a year and a half, 
will generally present the appearance indicated in the cut, 
which shows the internal structure of the lower jaw at this 



198 • CATTLE. 

time, with the cells of the teeth, the two central ones pro- 
truding into the mouth, the next two pushing up, but not quite 
grown to the surface, with the third pair just perceptible. 
These changes require time; and at two years past the jaw will 
usually appear as in the cut, where four of the permanent cen- 
tral incisors are seen. After this the other milk-teeth decrease 
rapidly, but are slow to disappear; and, at three years old, the 
third pair of permanent teeth are but formed, as represented in 
the cut; and at four years the last pair of incisors will be up, 
as in the cut of that age; but the outside ones are not yet 
fully grown, and the beast can hardly be said to be full-mouthed 
till the age of five years. But before this age, or at the age of 
four years, the two inner pairs of permanent teeth are beginning 
to wear at the edges, as shown in the cut; while at five years 
old the whole set becomes somewhat worn down at the top, 
and on the centre ones a dark line appears in the middle, 
along a line of harder bone, as appears in the appropriate cut. 
Now will come a year or two, and sometimes three, when 
the teeth do not so clearly indicate the exact age, and the 
judgment must be guided by the extent to which the dark mid- 
dle lines are worn. This will depend somewhat upon the 
exposure and feeding of the animal; but at seven years these 
lines extend over all the teeth. At eight years, another change 
begins, which cannot be mistaken. A kind of absorption 
begins with the two central incisors — slow at first, but percep- 
tible — and these two teeth become smaller than the rest, while 
the dark lines are worn into one in all but the corner teeth, till, 
at ten years, four of the central incisors have become smaller 
in size, with a smaller and fainter mark, as indicated in the 
proper cut. At eleven, the six inner teeth are smaller than the 
corner ones; and, at twelve, all become smaller than they were, 
while the dark lines are nearly gone, except in the corner* 
teeth, and the inner edge is worn to the gum. 

Cow-House. — The cow-house should be airy and well ven- 
tilated; of moderate temperature, and kept very clean. The 
stalls for the cows should be paved with smooth stones, slope 
gently toward the foot, where there should be a clear run of a 
gutter to carry off the urine to a pit outside. The stalls must 
be daily scraped and swept, and all refuse carried out to ths 



CATTLE. 19d 

dung-heap. In general, far too little litter is allowed. The 
cow should have plenty of straw bedding, kept in a cleanly 
condition; and this, when soiled, is to be mixed wi^ the dung 
for manure. The only fastening for the cow should be a chain 
to go round the neck, with the other end round an upright 
post, but easily movable up and down, and allowing room for 
the animal shifting its position. The feeding manger or stone 
trough is on the ground, and ought to be kept free of all 
impurities; for, though the cow is not so nice as the horse, it 
has a disinclination for food not fresh and cleanly. 

Except in dairies of a high order, it is customary to keep 
cows in a shamefully unclean condition. The floor of their 
habitation is filthy, the walls ragged and full of vermin, and the 
hides of the animals dusty or darkened with dirt. Persons who 
keep cows are not aware of the loss they incur from allowing 
them to live in this uncleanly state. Some people seem to think 
that they do quite enough for their cows if they give them food 
and shelter; but besides this they require to be kept very 
cleanly, though seldom indulged in that luxury. The cow 
should be curried daily like the horse; its hide should be freed 
from all impurities, and relieved from everything that causes 
uneasiness. When you see a cow rubbing itself against a post, 
you may depend on it that the animal is ill kept, and requires 
a good scrubbing. Irritation of the skin from impurities also 
causes them to lick themselves, a habit which is injurious, for 
the hairs taken into the stomach form a compact round mass, 
which may destroy the animal. If well curried, any danger 
from this catastrophe is avoided, the health is generally 
improved, and this improves the quality of the milk, besides 
increasing the quantity. 

Feeding. — The cow requires to be supplied with an abund- 
ance of food, not to make her fat, which is not desirable, but 
keep up a regular secretion of milk in the system. The 
feeding must be regular, from early morning to night, and pure 
water must also be offered at proper intervals, if the cow has 
not the liberty of going to the water herself. 

Regarding the nature of the food of cows, although soiling, 
or artificial feeding in the house, is at all times economical, there 
can be no doubt that the best milk and butter are produced by 



200 CATTLE. 

cows fed on natural pasture; and, although the quantity of 
milk is not so great, yet the butter has a sweeter taste, never to 
be discovered in the produce of soiled cows. On well-enclosed 
farms, it is the custom of many to keep their cows out, both 
night and day, from May till the end of October, so long as a 
full bite can be obtained; and some bring them into the house 
twice a day to be milked. Soiling, or feeding entirely in the 
house or court-yard, is but seldom practiced, except by some 
farmers in arable districts. Although complete soiling is only 
occasionally resorted to, yet a considerable quantity of rich, 
green food is served out to the dairy stock in their stalls at 
night, and in the heat of the day, by such farmers as bring 
their cows into the house at these times. This mode of feed- 
ing is more especially followed when the pasture begins to fail; 
the second crops of clover and tares, cabbages, coleworts, and 
other garden produce, are all given to the cows in the house at 
this period. Dairy cows are allowed to be much injured by 
being denied a due supply of salt, which is said to improve 
the quality and increase the quantity of milk. In the best 
managed dairies in Scotland, when the cows are taken in for 
the winter, they are never put out to the fields until spring, 
when the grass has risen so much as to afford a full bite. In 
the moorish districts, however, they are put out to the fields for 
some hours every day when the weather will permit. In these 
districts, the winter food is turnips with marsh meadow hay — 
occasionally straw and boiled chaff 

In the richer districts, turnips and straw are given, and 
occasionally some clover hay in the spring or when the cows 
have calved. Upon this subject nothing need be added, but 
that the quantity and quality of the milk will be in proportion 
to the nourishment in the food. White turnips afford a good 
quantity of milk, but they impart a very disagreeable taste, 
which may be removed, however, by steaming or boiling the 
turnips, or by putting a small quantity of dissolved saltpetre 
into the milk when new drawn. The quality of the milk 
depends a great deal upon the cow; influenced, however, by 
the food she eats. Linseed, peas and oat-meal produce rich 
milk; and a mixture of bran and grains has been recommended 
as food in winter. Brewers' grains are said to produce a large 



CATTLE. 201 

quantity of milk, but very thin — the quality being somewhat 
similar to that sold in large towns, yielding neither good cream 
nor butter. It has been found of some importance to feed 
cows frequently — three or four times a day in summer, and five 
or six in winter — and to give them no more at a time than they 
can eat cleanly. 

What has been stated regarding the feeding of cows applies 
principally to those kept on dairy farms. In establishments 
for the supplying of large towns with milk, the method of 
feeding is somewhat different; there the practice is to feed 
them chiefly on distillers' wash, brewers' grains, and every sort 
of liquid stuff that will produce a large quantity of milk, with- 
out reference to the quality. 

The following is an improved mode of feeding milch cows 
in Surrey: " Go to the cow-stall at six o'clock in the morning, 
winter and summer; give each cow half a bushel of the man- 
gel-wurzel, carrots, turnips or potatoes cut; at seven o'clock, 
the hour the dairy maid comes to milk them, give each some 
hay, and let them feed till they are all milked. If any cow 
refuses hay, give her something she will eat — such as grain, car- 
rots, etc., during the time she is milking, as it is absolutely 
necessary the cow should feed while milking. As soon as the 
woman has finished milking in the morning, turn the cows into 
the airing grounds, and let there be plenty of fresh water in the 
troughs; at nine o'clock give, each cow three gallons of the 
mixture (as under — to eight gallons of grains, add four gallons 
of bran or pollard); when they have eaten that, put some hay 
into the cribs; at twelve o'clock, give each three gallons of the 
mixture, as before. If any cow looks for more, give her another 
gallon. On the contrary, if she will not eat what you gave 
her, take it out of the manger; for never, at one time let a cow 
have more than she will eat up clean. Mind and keep your 
mangers clean, that they do not get sour. At two o'clock, give 
each cow half a bushel of carrots, mangel wurzel, or turnips; 
look the turnips, etc., over well, before you give them to the 
cows — as one rotten turnip, etc., will give a bad taste to the 
milk, and most likely spoil a whole dairy of butter. At four 
o'clock, put the cows into the stall to be milked; feed them on 
hay as you did at milking time in the morning, keeping in mind 



302 CATTLE. 

that the cow, while milking, must feed on something. At six 
o'clock, give each cow three gallons of the mixture as before. 
Rack them up at eight o'clock. Twice in a week, put into 
each cow's feed at noon a quart of malt dust. 

So much of the value of any food depends on the condition 
in which, and the circumstances under which, it is fed, that it 
is impossible to make a comparison which shall at all times 
hold good; but the following tables, giving as they do the re- 
sults of a number of carefully conducted experiments, will be 
found valuable: 
Table, showing the comparitive difference between good hay ana 

the articles nientio?icd below, as food for stock — being the mean 

of experime?it and theory. 



100 lbs. of hay are equal to 



275 lbs 


green Indian corn. 


54 lbs 


rye. 


442 « 


rye straw. 


46 " 


wheat. 


360 " 


wheat straw. 


59 " 


oats. 


164 « 


oat straw. 


45 " 


peas andTjeans mixed, 
buckwheat. 


180 " 


barley straw. 


64 " 


153 " 


pea straw. 


57 " 


Indian corn. 


200 " 


buckwheat straw. 


68 « 


acorns. 


201 " 


raw potatoes. 


106 " 


wheat bran. 


175 « 


boiled " 


109 « 


rye " 


339 " 


mangel-warzel. 


167 " 


wheat, pea and oat chaff. 


504 « 


turnips. 


179 " 


rye and barley mixed. 


300 " 


carrots. 







100 lbs. of hay are equal to 



Milking. — Cows are milked twice or thrice a day, accord- 
ing to circumstances. If twice, morning and night; if thrice, 
morning, noon and night. They should not go too long un- 
milked, for, independently of the uneasiness to the poor 
animal, it is severely injurious. 

The act of milking is one which requires great caution; 
for, if not carefully and properly done, the quantity of the milk 
will be diminished, and the quality inferior, the milk which 
comes last out of the udder being always the richest. It should, 
therefore, be thoroughly drawn from the cows until not a drop 
more can be obtained, both to ensue a continuance of the 
usual supply of milk, and, also, to get the richest which the 
cows afford. Cows should be soothed by mild usage, especially 
when young; for to a person whom they dislike, they never 
give their milk freely. The teats should always be clean 
washed before milking, and, when tender, they ought to be 
fomented with warm water. The milking and management of 
the cow should, in these circumstances, be only entrusted to 



CATTLE. 203 

servants of character, on whom the utmost reliance can be 
placed. In some places, it is a common practice to employ- 
men to milk the cows, an operation which seems, better fitted 
for females, who are likely to do the work in a more gentle 
and cleanly manner, which is of essential importance. 

A writer gives the following explicit directions to the dairy- 
maid in regard to milking: "Go to the cow-stall at seven 
o'clock; take with you cold water and a sponge, and wash 
each cow's udder clean before milking; dowse the udder well 
with cold water, winter and summer, as it braces and repels 
heats. Keep your hands and arms clean. Milk each cow as 
dry as you can, morning and evening, and when you have 
milked each cow as you suppose dry, begin again with the cow 
you first milked, and drip them each; for the principal reason 
of cows failing in their milk is, from negligence in not milking 
the cow dry, particularly at the time the calf is taken from the 
cow. Suffer no one to milk a cow but yourself, and have no 
gossiping in the stall. Every Saturday night give in an exact 
account of the quantity of milk each cow has given, in the 
week." 

The Dairy, and Dairy Produce. — The dairy should be 
cool, airy, dry, and free from vermin of all kinds. To prevent 
the intrusion of flies, the windows or ventilators ought to be 
covered with a fine wire gauze. The floor should be laid with 
smooth glazed tiles, and also the lower part of the walls; the 
benches on which the milk pans are to be placed are best when 
made of stone or slate, and about thirty inches broad. The 
ceiling should be at least eight feet from the floor, and finished 
in every respect like that of an ordinary dwelling house. A 
slate roof is preferable to one of tile, as it tends to keep the 
temperature more equable. Cleanliness is of the most essential 
consequence in dairy management, and, if not strictly looked 
after, may cause considerable loss. It is this which has raised 
the produce of the dairies of Holland so much in public esti- 
mation. Every article in which milk is placed, more especially 
when made of wood, ought to be washed in boiling water, with 
a little soda or lime dissolved in it. If milk should happen to 
sour in any dish, the acid thus generated will injure any which 
may be afterward put into it; but, if washed in water in which 
an alkali. has been dissolved, the acid will be destroyed. 



204 CATTLE. 

The utensils of a dairy are very numerous. The principal 
are milk-pails, shallow coolers for holding the milk, sieves for 
straining it through after it is taken from the cow, dishes for 
skimming the cream, churns for making the butter, scales, 
weights, &c. For making cheese, there are likewise ladders, 
vats, tubs, curd -breakers and presses; and various other arti- 
cles will be required, which it is almost impossible to enumerate. 
The majority of them are made of wood; but in some of the 
best dairies in England and Scotland, it is now the practice 
to have the coolers made of cast-iron, wood lined with tin in 
the inside, or glazed earthenware. Maple is the wood gener- 
ally used in England for the manufacture of these dishes; both 
from its lightness and being easily cut, it can be finished in a 
neater style. In Holland the milk-dishes are very commonly 
made of brass; and certainly brass or iron is to be preferred to 
wood, because the dishes made from either of these materials 
are more durable, and can be easier cleaned. It has been 
objected to earthenware vessels, that, being glazed with lead, 
the acid of the milk acting upon the glaze, forms a very nox- 
ious poison. This, however, is scarcely correct; it would re- 
quire a much stronger acid than that of milk to decompose the 
glaze. Zinc pans are now coming into use, and they can be 
safely recommended for their cool and cleanly qualities, besides 
being economical. We have seen it stated that cream rises 
best in zinc pans. 

Churning is now, in all large dairy establishments, performed 
by machinery, worked either by horse or water power. Churns 
vary in size from ten to fifty, and even one hundred, gallons, 
according to the size of the establishment. Great care should 
be taken to wash churns thoroughly with boiling water, 
both immediately after they have been used, and before 
they are again to be put in operation ; and those churns 
which admit of being easily cleaned are always to be recom- 
mended, even although they should not be so elegant in con- 
struction. 

Milk. — Milk consists of three materials blended together 
which can be separated by artificial means, so as to form butter, 
the milk called buttermilk, and serum or whey. The whey is 
little else than water, slightly saline, and is generally the chief 



CATTLE. 205 

ingredient in the milk. When taken from the cow, milk should 
be removed to the dairy or milk-house, and, after being sieved, 
placed in shallow pans, to throw up the butteraceous matter 
termed cream, which, being lightest, floats on the top. 

The following observations on milk and its management are 
worthy of the consideration of cow-keepers: 

"Of the milk drawn from any cow at one time, that part 
which comes off at the first is always thinner, and of a much 
worse quality for making butter, than that afterward obtained; 
and this richness continues to increase progressively to the 
very last drop that can be obtained from the udder. 

"If milk be put into a dish, and allowed to stand till it 
throws up cream, the portion of cream rising first to the surface 
is richer in quality and greater in quantity than that which rises 
in a second equal space of time; and the cream which rises in 
the second interval of time is greater in quantity and richer in 
quality than that which rises in a third equal space of time; 
that of the third is greater than that of the fourth, and so of 
the rest; the cream that rises continuing progressively to 
decrease in quantity, and to decline in quality, so long as any 
rises to the surface. 

"Thick milk always throws up a much smaller proportion 
of the cream which it actually contains than milk that is thin- 
ner; but the cream is of a richer quality; and, if water be 
added to that thick milk, it will afford a considerably greater 
quantity of cream, and consequently more butter, that it would 
have done if allowed to remain pure; but its quality is, at the 
same time, greatly debased. 

Milk which is put into a bucket or other proper vessel, and 
carried in it to a considerable distance, so as to be much agi- 
tated, and in part cooled, before it be put into the milk-pans to 
settle for cream, never throws up so much or so rich cream as 
if the same milk had been put into the milk-pans directly after 
it was milked. 

"From these fundamental facts, the reflecting dairist will 
derive many important practical rules. Some of these we shall 
enumerate, and leave the rest to be discovered. Cows should 
be milked as near the dairy as possible, in order to prevent the 
necessity of carrying and cooling the milk before it is put into 



206 CATTLE. 

the creaming dishes. Every cow's milk should be kept sepa- 
rate till the peculiar properties of each are so well known as to 
admit of their being classed, when those that are most nearly- 
allied may be mixed together. When it is intended to make 
butter of a very fine quality, reject entirely the milk of all those 
cows which yield cream of a bad quality, and also keep the 
milk that is first drawn from the cow at each-milking entirely 
separate from that which is last obtained, as the quality of the 
butter must otherwise be greatly debased, without materially 
augmenting its quantity. For the same purpose, take only the 
cream that is first separated from the first drawn milk. Butter 
of the very best quality can only be economically made in those 
dairies where cheese is also made; because in them the best 
part of each cow's milk can be set apart for throwing up cream 
— the best part of this cream can be taken in order to be made 
into butter — and the remainder or all the rest of the milk and 
cream of the dairy can be turned into cheese. The spontane- 
ous separation of cream, and the production of butter, are 
never effected but in consequence of the production of acid in 
the milk. Hence it is that, where the whole milk is set apart 
for the separation of cream, and the whole of the cream is 
separated, the milk must necessarily have turned sour before it 
is made into cheese; and no very excellent cheese can be made 
from milk which has once attained that state." 

Butter. — Butter is made of cream, freed from its milky and 
serous properties. This is effected by churning. Some imagine 
that no butter can be good except such as is made from fresh 
xream; but this is a mistake, as cream requires to have a little 
acidity before the butter will form. The length of time which 
the cream should stand before churning has never been clearly 
ascertained; from three to seven days, however, may be con- 
sidered as the proper period. A more important matter than 
the length of time which cream requires to stand, is the degree 
of temperature at which the cream will turn into butter. This 
has been ascertained from experiment to be from 45 to 75 
degrees of Fahrenheit. The best quality of butter is obtained 
at a temperature of 51 degrees, according to experiments, and 
the greatest quantity at a temperature of 56 degrees. During 
the process of churning, the agitation will increase the heat to 



CATTLE. 207 

s»*owt five degrees more than it was when the cream was put 
into the churn. 

In some of the dairies in the neighborhood of Edinburgh, 
and in all those near Glasgow, the butter is made by churning 
the cream and milk together. This is done in order to obtain 
the buttermilk, the demand for which is always great in large 
cities. When the milk and cream are to be churned together, 
the milk is kept in the coolers for from twelve to twenty-four 
hours, and then poured into a milk-tub. It remains here until 
required for churning; and will, during this time, have coagu- 
lated. If a certain quantity of milk is put into the milk-tub, 
and has coagulated [^before any more has creamed, the coagu- 
lated milk must in no way be disturbed, or, if the two quanti- 
ties are mixed together, too much fermentation may be the con- 
sequence. The milk is not churned till it has become acid; and, 
when once coagulation has taken place, it should be churned 
as early as convenient. If the milk has not fermented before 
churning, the buttermilk will keep for a much longer time, will 
have an agreeable taste, and will bear to be mixed with a little 
water. When the milk has fermented before being churned, 
the buttermilk will never be so good nor will it keep for such 
a length of time as the former. 

The operation of churning, whether it be of cream alone, or 
cream and milk, is performed in the same manner. The milk 
requires more time than cream to complete the process, from 
two to three hours being considered necessary, while cream 
alone may be effectually churned in an hour and a half. It is 
necessary that the operation should be slow in warm weather; 
for, if done too hastily, the butter will be soft and white. If 
the cream is at too high a temperature, the churn should be 
cooled with cold spring water, to reduce it to the proper degree 
of heat. In winter, again, the operation of churning should be 
done as quickly as possible, the action being regular; and the 
churn should be warmed, to raise the temperature of the milk 
or cream. The air which is generated in the churn should be 
allowed to escape, or it will impede the process by the froth 
which it creates. 

After the churning is performed, the butter should be 
washed in cold spring water, with a little salt in it, two or three 



208 CATTLE. 

times, to extract all the milk which may be lodged about the 
mass. It is said by some that the butter retains its sweetness 
much longer when no water is used; and others affirm that the 
washing improves the flavor. The extraction of the milk from 
butter will reduce its weight; but it appears from the experi- 
ments upon the temperature of the cream, that the less milk 
which is in the butter its quality is proportionately improved. 
Kneading and beating the butter too much render it tough and 
gluey. After the milk has been carefully extracted, if the but- 
ter is to be salted, it should be mixed with the finest salt, in 
the proportion of ten ounces to fourteen pounds, more or less, 
according to the time the butter is to be preserved. The butter 
and salt should be well mixed together with the hand; and in 
Ireland it is customary to add a little saltpetre. A compound 
of one part of sugar, one part nitre, and two parts of the best 
Spanish salt, finely powdered together, has been highly recom- 
mended for preserving butter. It is used in the proportion of 
one ounce to the pound; and it is said to give a flavor to the 
butter which no other kind ever acquires. 

For making butter casks or kegs, the wood of trees con- 
taining no acid is recommended. When wood contains acid it 
acts powerfully upon the salt in the butter, converting it into 
brine. Any wood will answer if boiled for a few hours, for by 
this process the pyrolignous acid will be entirely taken out. 

In salting, the butter should never be put into the firkins in 
layers; but the surface should be left every day rough and 
broken, so as to unite better with that of the succeeding churn- 
ing. The quality may likewise be better preserved by covering 
it over with a clean linen cloth dipped in pickle, and placing 
it in a cool situation. 

Marketing. — Marketing butter by many is thought to be 
the easiest part of the whole process, or the least important, 
judging by the manner in which it is done. But marketing it 
in the proper manner, or to make it the quickest selling, is half 
the battle. It should be put into the most inviting form to gain 
the best price. If the maker is near a market, and is about to 
retail it, or sell it to those who are to retail it, it should be put 
into half-pound or pound lumps, and printed or stamped with 
some emblematic device, such ?is a sheaf of wheats a cow, bee- 



CATTLE. 209 

hive, or the maker's initials. After the final working, the scales 
are placed handy, and with the clapper a lump is cut off, placed 
upon the scales, and either added to or taken from, always be- 
ing sure to give rather over than under a pound. It is then 
taken from the scale by one clapper, in the right hand, and 
with the other clapper in the left, it is worked over into a ball 
by a few expert touches; and, while held on the left-hand clap- 
per, the right-hand one having been exchanged for the stamp' 
mould, the mould is dipped in cold water to prevent its stick- 
ing to the lump, and then pressed firmly upon it, then with- 
drawn, leaving a beautiful raised impression of the stamp upon 
it, and adding to its attractions. The fashion is now becoming 
prevalent of making the lumps square, which is more conven- 
ient for use and for packing in the market tray. It is also more 
convenient for the butter-maker, as it is done by a machine 
which squares and prints it at one operation, and also marks it, 
so that the consumer cuts it in four parts, of about the right 
size for table, each piece being nicely stamped. 

When it is all stamped, it is set aside in a cold place to 
thoroughly harden; in a tray in the spring-house water is best. 
When about to market it, each pound or roll is wrapped in a 
linen cloth taken out of ice-water or cold spring-water, and laid 
upon the shelf of the tray or tub. Some market men have a 
square box made with a sliding lid and several shelves. On 
these shelves the pounds of butter are placed, the lid is dropped 
down in its grooves, as the box stands upright on one end, with 
a handle to carry it by on the other. This is very nice for 
winter use, when the butter will keep hard until sold; but for 
summer use there is provided a large tub made of cedar, with 
an inner tin vessel, with a well in each end for broken ice, and 
shelves on each side of them, one above the other, on which 
the butter is placed, and is removed as it is sold. The shelves 
are made of thin wood, and rest upon tin projections on the 
side about three inches apart. The wooden tub is cooled in 
ice or spring-water while the tin vessel is being filled with the 
ice and butter. The tin is then set into the Avooden vessel, the 
lid closed, and the whole enveloped in a padded carpet cover- 
ing made to fit, and again enclosed in an oil-cloth covering. It 
is thus effectually shielded from hot air and dust, and is opened 
12 



310 CATTLE. 

out to the customer firm, cool and golden, and brings readily 
in cities its seventy-five cents to one dollar and twenty-five 
cents per pound, thus well paying for the extra care. Many 
put up their butter in rolls of five or ten or more pounds, and 
sell it so, some times wrapped in muslin, sometimes not ; but, 
either way, it never looks so nice and attractivls as the nicely- 
stamped pound lumps, and, of course, does not bring so good 
a price. 

In general terms, it may safely be said that the less possi- 
bility there is of interfering with the condition of the butter, 
from the time it leaves the dairy till it reaches the larder, the 
better for both producer and consumer. To alter the condi- 
tion of butter by redressing, or repacking, is commercially cul- 
pable, whilst the introduction of any other substance, however 
innocuous, is fraudulent adulteration. To prevent both effec- 
tively, is to pack the butter, at the dairy, in the several quan- 
tities to suit the requirements of larger or smaller households 
or dealers. These packages ought only to be opened for ex- 
amination as to quality; the butter would in such a way be 
fully protected from injury, and as it left the dairy so it reaches 
the larder. 

Packing and Shipping. — Packing of the butter for ship- 
ping should be done not later than the third day. Be careful 
before packing there is no milky water runs from it, for, as sure 
as it is packed with the least drop in the butter, you will hear 
from it next March or April. Pack it down solid in stone jars, 
if for your own winter use, or in firkins, if for shipping^ 
Sprinkle a little salt on the surface, and, covering it with a 
thick, fine cloth, put on the lid and place the jar in a dry, cool 
place. It is better to fill the vessel with one churning; but, if 
not able to do so, pack in each churning solid, and exclude 
the air until it is full, by pouring over it a strong brine, to be 
poured off when ready to be filled. If it is to be kept a long 
while, or sent to sea, pour a little melted butter over the top of 
the jar before you put on the cloth. Butter put down this way 
in September or October, when the weather is cool and the 
quality of food is best, will keep till next June as good as 
newly-churned butter. 

When exposed for sale, it is often found that the lower por 



CATTLE. 211 

tion of the contents of the tub is the poorest, and the discov- 
ery of this fact causes not only a diminution of price on the 
whole package, but also suspicion of intended deception. Yet 
no deception has been intended. The difference in quality 
has arisen from improper management of the lower layers, the 
upper layer having been kept in good condition by carefully 
covering it with salt when placed in the tub. When forwarded 
to market, in warm weather, this imperfectly packed butter is 
placed in the low temperature of an ice-car, and, on its arrival 
at the city depot, it is often unloaded and carted under a broil- 
ing sun. 

It is very important that it should be kept from the air, as 
an exposure to the atmosphere will spoil the best butter that 
ever was made in a very short time. For this reason wooden 
tubs are not desirable to pack in, unless for a short time, as 
they are not sufficient protection against the action of the atmos- 
phere, and often of themselves destroy the flavor of that por- 
tion of butter which comes in contact with them to the depth 
of an inch or more. When they are used, they should be of 
hemlock or of oak, filled with boiling water, to remain till cool, 
then soaked in brine for two or three days, and, after the brine 
is poured out, the sides and bottom must be rubbed with fine 
salt. 

Makers of large quantities of butter, who store it and ship 
it when the market price is highest, after preparing the firkins 
as before described, pack the firkin full of butter, spread a 
cloth over the top, do not let the cloth expand over the sides, 
put a layer of coarse Turk's Island salt, washed clean, upon 
the cloth, and put on temporary tops of round flat stones, as 
they keep the temperature cooler and more even than any 
other cover. The firkins are then stored in a cool place, bet- 
ter* on open joists where the air can pass underneath them. 
When they are shipped for market, the cloth, with the salt, is 
lifted off, the firkin is turned down to let the brine drain off, 
the cloth, wrung out in brine, is replaced, and they are 
headed for market, where they arrive in sweet nice order. 

Butter from Whey. — Excellent butter, fit for the table, is 
said to have been made from whey, and sold in the New York 
market, bringing the best price. The following are two recipe? 



213 CATTLE. 

for making it, but we doubt whether it will pay well, and, if so, 
only at the factories, if properly managed: 

I. The Heating Process. — After separating the whey 
from the curd, place it in a tin vat and add a liquid acid, the 
vat with copper bottom and tin sides, about twelve feet long, 
three feet wide and twenty inches deep, or about these propor- 
tions; set over a brick arch; one gallon to the whey of fifty 
gallons of milk, if the whey is sweet, but less quantity .if 
changed. Then bring it to a heat of 210 deg. When the cream 
rises and is skimmed off, arui placed in a cool place, let it stand 
till next day. Then churn at a temperature of 56 deg. to 68 
deg., depending on the weather; work and salt it as usual. It 
will produce about one pound of butter from the whey of one 
hundred and fifty pounds of milk. The acid is made by taking 
any quantity of whey at boiling heat, after the cream is ex- 
tracted, adding one gallon of strictly sour whey, when all the 
caseine remaining in the Avhey is collected together in one mass, 
and is skimmed off. After the whey is allowed to stand from 
twenty-four to forty-eight hours, it is ready for use as acid. 
This process is repeated as often as necessity requires 

II. The Cooling Process. — Take a vessel made of zinc, 
or at least with a zinc bottom, about fifteen inches high, three 
feet wide and as long as desired; set the vessel in cold water 
and put in the whey, with a handful of salt to every ten gallons 
of whey. During the first two hours stir it up thoroughly 
from the bottom every fifteen minutes; afterwards let it stand 
quiet for about twenty hours, and then skim it; then churn 
the cream, keeping it at about 58 deg. If above 60 deg., cool 
it; if below 56 deg., warm it. Churn it till the butter becomes 
granulated about the size of kernels of buckwheat. Let it 
stand about five minutes, then let the buttermilk run off; then 
throw on cold water. If not hard enough, let it stand until it 
becomes so before it is stirred much. Then rinse with cold 
water until it runs off clear; then churn together or "gather" 
il; press the water out, salt it, one pound to eighteen or twenty, 
and let it stand till next day; then work it until it becomes 
perfectly even in color. Get it ready for market. 

Comparative Profits of Butter Making. — Of the four ways 
of realizing from milk — butter cheese condensed milk and 



CATTLE. 



213 



milk for family use — butter, if properly made, is the most 
profitable. In the form of condensed milk, at prices hitherto 
obtained, a quart of milk reduced by evaporation to one- 
fourth its bulk yields about half a pound in weight and 
realizes fifteen cents, at the rate of three dollars and fifty 
cents per dozen for pound cans; from which deduct one-third 
for cans and manufacturing, leaving ten cents per quart for the 
milk. At fifteen cents for cheese, requiring four and a half 
quarts for a pound, and forty-five cents for butter, requiring 
eleven quarts, the product would realize four cents per quart 
for cheese and four and a half for butter, less cost of making; 
and, if butter and skim-cheese are made, it will show five cents 
per quart. Where the milk is sold and the butter is sold, both 
being near good markets, and both of good quality, butter at 
fifty cents pays a better profit, equal to ten per cent. The 
superior manner in which cheese has been made of late years 
has more than trebled the foreign and home demand for it, 
and, consequently, as the increase of the manufacture of butter 
has not increased with the population, there is a scarcity of 
butter, and the prices have risen proportionately. 

The following averages of milk required for one pound of 
butter are the results of careful tests made during one week 
in each month from March, 187 1, to January, 1872, inclusive. 
Herd of high-grade short-horns: 



March l;i.5 quarts. 

April 12.4 " 

May 12 " 

June 12.2 " 



July 12.2 quarts. 

August 15 " 

September 12 " 

October 11.7 " 



November 11.5 quarts, 

December 9.8 " 

January ..10 " 



Buttermilk. — This is the liquid which remains in the churn 
after removing the butter. If skimmed milk has been em- 
ployed for churning, the buttermilk is thin, poor, and easily 
sours; but if from the churning of the entire milk, the butter- 
milk is more thick and rich, and is considered by many a 
delicious beverage. Good buttermilk is, at all events, 
exceedingly wholesome and nutritious. 

Cheese. — Milk, if allowed to become sour, will eventually 
curdle, when the whey is easily separated; and this simple 
mode was probably the universal method of making cheese in 



214 CATTLE. 

ancient times. Cheese, as already explained, is made from 
caseine, an ingredient of milk held in solution by means of an 
alkali which it requires the presence of an acid to neutralize. 
This, in modern manufacture,' is artificially added to form the 
curd; but the acidity of milk, after standing, acts in the same 
manner to produce coagulation. This is due to the change of 
the milk-sugar into lactic acid. 

All cheese consists essentially of the curd mixed with a 
certain portion of the fatty matter, and of the sugar of milk. 
But differences in the quality of the milk, in the proportion in 
which the several constituents of milk are mixed together, or 
in the general mode of dairy management, give rise to varieties 
of cheese almost without number. Nearly every dairy district 
produces one or more qualities of cheese peculiar to itself. It 
is obvious that whatever gives rise to natural differences in the 
quality of the milk must affect also that of the cheese prepared 
from it. If the milk be poor in butter, so must the cheese be. 
If the pasture be such as to give a milk rich in cream, the 
cheese will partake of the same quality. If the herbage or 
other food affect the taste of the milk or cream, it will 
also modify the flavor of the cheese. Still further differences 
are produced according to the proportion of cream which is left 
in or added to the milk. Thus, if cream only be employed, we 
have the rich cream cheese, which must be eaten in a com- 
paratively recent state. Or, if the cream of the previous 
night's milking be added to the new milk of the morning, we 
may have such cheese as the Stilton of England, or the small, 
soft, and rich Brie cheeses so much esteemed in France. If 
the entire milk only be used, we have such cheese as the 
Cheshire, the Double Gloucester, the Cheddar, the Wiltshire, 
and the Dunlop cheeses of Britain, the Kinnegad cheese, I 
believe, of Ireland, and the Gouda and Edam cheeses of Hol- 
land. Even here, however, it makes a difference whether the 
warm milk .from the cow is curdled alone, or whether it is 
mixed with the milk of the evening before. Many persons are 
of opinion that cream which has once been separated, can never 
be so well mixed again with the milk; that a portion of the 
fatty matter shall not flow out with the whey and render the 
cheese less rich. If, again, the cream of the evening's milk be 



CATTLE. 215 

•removed, and the skimmed milk added to the new milk of the 
next morning, such cheeses are of inferior quality. If the 
cream be taken from all the milk, the cheese is still inferior to 
the last. 

Buttermilk Cheese. — But poor or butterless cheese will 
also differ in quality according to the state of the milk from 
which it is extracted. If the new milk be allowed to stand to 
throw up its cream, and this be then removed in the usual way, 
the ordinary skimmed-milk cheese will be obtained by adding 
rennet to the milk. But if, instead of skimming, we allow the 
milk to stand till it begins to sour, and then remove the 
butter by churning the whole, we obtain the milk in a sour state 
(buttermilk). From this milk the curd separates naturally by 
gentle heating. But being thus prepared from sour milk, and 
without the use of rennet, buttermilk cheese differs more or 
less in quality from that which is made from sweet skimmed 
milk. The acid in the buttermilk, especially after it has stood 
a day or two, is capable of coagulating new milk also, and 
thus, by mixing more or less sweet milk with the buttermilk, 
before it is warmed, several other qualities of mixed butter and 
sweet milk cheese may readily be manufactured. This article 
is, however, of little use, only when fresh, when it is a healthy 
and palatable cheese. 

Whey Cheese. — The whey separates from the curd, and 
especially the white whey, which is pressed out towards the 
last, contains a portion of curd, and not unfrequently a con- 
siderable quantity of butter also. When the whey is heated, 
the curd and butter rise to the surface, and are readily skimmed 
off. This curd alone will often yield a cheese of excellent 
quality, and so rich in butter that a very good imitation of 
Stilton cheese may sometimes be made with alternate layers of 
new milk curd and this curd of whey. 

Rennet. — Rennet is prepared from the salted stomach or 
intestines of a suckling calf, the unweaned lamb, the young kid, 
or the young pig. In general, however, the stomach of the calf 
is preferred, and there are various ways of curing and preserv- 
ing it. The stomach of the newly killed animal contains a 
quantity of curd, derived from the milk on which it has been 



^16 Cattle. 

fed. In most districts it is nsual to remove, by a gentle wash- 
ing, the curd and slimy matters which are present in the stom- 
ach, as they are supposed to impart a strong taste to the cheese. 
The calf should have a copious draught of milk shortly before 
it is killed, in order that the stoniach may contain a larger 
quantity of the valuable curd. 

In the mode of salting the stomach similar differences pre- 
vail. Some merely put a few handfuls of salt into and around 
it, then roll it together, and hang it near the chimney to dry. 
Others salt it in a pickle for a few days, and then hang it up to 
dry; while others, again, pack several of them in layers, with 
much salt both within and without, and preserve them in a cool 
place till the cheese making season of the following year. They 
are then taken out, drained from the brine, spread upon a table, 
sprinkled with salt, which is rolled in with a wooden roller, and 
then hung up to dry. In some foreign countries, again, the 
recent stomach is minced very fine, mixed with some spoonfuls 
of salt and bread-crumb into a paste, put into a bladder, and 
then dried. In whatever way the stomach or intestine of the 
the calf is prepared and preserved, the almost universal opinion 
seems to be that it should be kept for ten or twelve months 
before it is capable of yielding the best and strongest rennet. 
If newer than twelve months, the rennet is thought to make 
the cheese heave or swell, and become full of eyes or holes. 

Making the Rennet. — In making the rennet different 
customs also prevail. The usual way is to take the entire 
stomachs, and pour upon them from one to three quarts of 
water for each stomach, and to allow them to infuse for several 
days. If only one has been infused, and the rennet is intended 
for immediate use, the infusion requires only to be skimmed 
and strained. But, if several be infused, as many as have been 
provided for the whole season, about two quarts of water arc 
taken for each, and, after standing not more than two days, the 
infusion is poured off, and is completely saturated with salt. 
During the summer it is constantly skimmed, and fresh salt 
added from time to time. Or a strong brine may at once be 
poured upon the skins, and the infusion, when the skins are 
taken out, may be kept for a length of time. Some even recom- 
mend that the liquid rennet should not be used until it is at 



CATTLE. 3ir 

least two months old. When thus kept, however, it is indis- 
pensable that the water should be fully saturated with salt. 

In making rennet, some use pure water only; others prefer 
clear whey; others a decoction of leaves, such as those of sweet- 
briar, the dog-rose, and the bramble, or of aromatic herbs and 
flowers; while others, again, put in lemons, cloves, mace, or 
whisky. These various practices are adopted for the purpose 
of making the rennet keep better; of lessening its unpleasant 
smell; of preventing any unpleasant taste it may give to the 
curd; or, finally, of directly improving the flavor of the cheese. 
The acidity of the lemon will, no doubt, increase also the 
coagulating power of any rennet to which it may be added. 
The rennet thus prepared is poured into the milk, previously 
raised to the temperature of 90 degrees or 95 degrees Fahren- 
heit, and is intimately mixed with it. The quantity which it is 
necessary to add varies with the quality of the rennet, from a 
tablespoonful to half a pint for thirty or forty gallons of milk. 
The time necessary for the complete fixing of the curd varies 
also from fifteen minutes to an hour, or even an hour and a 
half. The chief causes of this variation are the temperature 
of the milk, and the quality and quantity of the rennet em- 
ployed. 

Qualities of Cheese. — The temperature of new or entire 
milk, when the rennet is added, should be raised to about 95 
degrees Fahrenheit; that of skimmed milk need not be quite so 
high. If the milk be warmer, the curd is hard and tough; if 
colder, it is soft and difficult to obtain free from the whey. 
When the former happens to be the case, a portion of the first 
whey that separates may be taken out into another vessel, 
allowed to cool, and then poured in again. If it prove to have 
been too cool, hot milk or water may be added to it; or a ves- 
sel containing hot water may be put into it before the curdling 
commences; or the first portion of the whey that separates, 
may be heated and poured again upon the curd. The quality 
of the cheese, however, will always be more or less affected, 
when it happens to be necessary to adopt any of these reme- 
dies. To make the best cheese, the true temperature should 
always be attained, as nearly as possible, before the rennet is 
added. 



218 CATTLE. 

If, as is the case in many family dairies, the milk be warmed 
in brass caldrons, great care must be taken that it is not singed 
or fire-fanged. A very slight inattention may cause this to be 
the case, and the taste of the cheese is sure to be more or less 
affected by it. It is -desirable in this heating not to raise the 
temperature higher than is necessary, as a great heat is apt to 
give an oiliness to the fatty matter of the milk. 

The time during which the curd stands is also of import- 
ance. It should be broken up as soon as the milk is fully coagu- 
lated. The longer it stands after this, the harder and tougher 
it will become. 

The quality of the rennet is of much importance, not only 
in regard to the certainty of the coagulation, but also to the 
flavor of the cheese. The quantity of rennet added ought to 
be regulated as carefully as the temperature of the milk. Too 
much renders the curd tough; too little causes the loss of much 
time, and may permit a larger portion of the butter to separate 
itself from the curd. It is to be expected, also, that when ren- 
net is used in great excess, a portion of it will remain in the 
curd, and will naturally affect the kind and rapidity of the 
changes it afterwards undergoes. Thus it is said to cause the 
cheese to heave or swell out from fermentation. It is probable, 
also, that it will affect the flavor which the cheese acquires by 
keeping. "Thus it may be that the agreeable or unpleasant taste 
of the cheeses of certain districts or dairies may be less due to 
the quality of the pastures, or of the milk itself, than to the 
quantity of rennet with which it has there been customary to 
coagulate the milk. 

Treatment of the Curd. — It is usual in our best cheese 
districts carefully and slowly to separate the curd from the 
whey; not to hasten the separation, lest a larger portion of the 
fatty matter should be squeezed out of the curd, and the cheese 
should thus be rendered poorer than usual. But, in some 
places, the practice prevails of washing the curd with hot water 
after the whey has been partially separated from it. The sep- 
aration of the whey is part of the process upon which the quali- 
ties of the cheese in a considerable degree depends. In making 
the celebrated Stilton cheese, the curd is not cut or broken at 
all, but is pressed gently and with care till the whey gradually 



CATTLE. 219 

drains out,. Thus the butter and the curd remain intermixed, 
and the rich cheese of Stilton is the result. Thus, while it is of 
importance that all the whey should be extracted from 
the curd, yet the quickest way may not be the best. More time 
and care must be bestowed in order to effect this object, the 
richer the cheese we wish to obtain. The quality of the milk 
or of the pastures may often be blamed for the deficiencies in 
the richness or other qualities of cheese, which are in reality 
due to slight but material differences of manufacturing it. The 
salt used should be of the purest quality. 

How THE Salt is Applied. — In making large cheeses, the 
dried curd, for a single cheese of sixty pounds, is broken down 
fine, and divided into three equal portions. One of these is 
mingled with double the quantity of salt added to the others, 
and this is so put into the cheese vat, as to form the central 
part of the cheese. By this precaution, the after-salting on the 
surface is sure to penetrate deep enough to cure effectually the 
less salted parts. It may not be impossible to cause salt to 
penetrate into the very heart of a large cheese, but it cannot 
be easy in this way to salt the whole cheese equally, while the 
care and attetinon required must be greatly increased. Another 
mode of improving the quality of cheese is by the addition of 
cream to the dry and crumbled curd. Much diligence, how- 
ever, is required fully to incorporate these, so that the cheese 
may be uniform throughout. Still this practice gives a peculiar 
character to the cheese so manipulated. 

Size of the Cheese. — From the same milk it is obvious 
that cheeses of different sizes, if treated in the same way, will, 
at the end of a given number of months, possess qualities in a 
considerable degree different. Hence, without supposing any 
inferiority, either in the milk or in the general mode of treat- 
ment, the size usually adopted for the cheeses of a particular 
district or dairy, may be the cause of a recognized inferiority 
in some quality which it is desirable that they should possess 
in a high degree. 

Curing. — This has very much influence upon the after 
qualities of the cheese. The care with which they were salted, 
the warmth of the place in which they are kept during the first 
two or three weeks, the temperature and closeness of the cheese 



330 CATTLE. 

room in which they are afterwards preserved, ih^ ti^A^iS.',^ or 
turning, of cleaning from mold, and rubbing with butter; all 
these circumstances exercise a remarkable influence upon the 
after qualities of the cheese. Indeed, in very many instances, 
the high reputation of a particular dairy district, or dairy farm, 
is derived from some special attention to one or another, or to 
all of the appai^ently minor items of its process. 

In the foregoing remarks, we have treated the making of 
cheese in a domestic way chiefly, as a household production. 
But the manufacture of cheese in our dairy districts has of late 
assumed such large proportions, being now mainly made in 
factories, that the old time manner of treating it, in all but the 
preparation of the essential ingredients, is thrown aside for 
more recent improvements, as the heating caldron, the curd 
vats, and various other utensils to work the milk through its 
different processes into the perfectly cured cheese. It has be- 
come a trade by itself, requiring skill, experience, and appren- 
ticeship to the work, which few can obtain outside of the regu- 
lar factory. 

Fattening Cattle for Market. — The stall-feeding or soiling 
of cattle is considered to possess several advantages over feed- 
ing in the fields. In field-feeding the animals waste a certain 
quantity of pasture by treading and lying upon it, and dropping 
their dung — the grass which grows on the dung spots being 
ever after rejected; the animals also spend time in seeking for 
the herbage which suits their fancy, and much is allowed to go 
to seed untouched. In stall-feeding the whole time is devoted 
to eating and ruminating, while no food is lost, and the ani- 
mals are brought to a higher condition. Another important 
advantage of soiling is that it uses up the waste straw of a 
farm as litter, and thus furnishes a plentiful supply of that in- 
dispensable article, manure, for the fields. Some feeders tie 
up their cattle to the stall while preparing for market; but 
others permit them to roam about on a thick bed of straw in 
an enclosure in the farm yard, with a shed to retire to for shel- 
ter — the feeding in this case being from racks. Unless for a 
period during the final process of fattening, the straw-yard 
method is reckoned the best for keeping the cattle in a healthy 
state, and consequently for producing beef of the finest kind. 



CATTLE. 



221 



'Hce practice of feeding cattle, for a considerable length of 
timCj in darkened stalls, on oil-cake, carrots, mangle-wurzel, 
&c,, produces, as is well known, a great deposition of fat, and 
swells the animal to a monstrous size. The beef, however, of 
such over-fed cattle is never fine. The fat with which it is 
loaded easily escapes in cooking, and leaves lean of an inferior 
quality. The best sign of good meat is its being marbled, or 
the fat and lean well mixed, when brought to the table; and 
this is not to be expected from beef fed in an unnatural con- 
dition. 

The age at which cattle are fattened depends upon the 
manner in which they have been reared — upon the properties 
of the breed in regard to a propensity to fatten earlier or later 
in life — and on the circumstances of their being employed in 
breeding, in labor, for the dairy, or reared solely for the 
butcher. In the latter case, the most improved breeds are fit 
for the shambles when about three years old, and very few of 
any large breed are kept more than a year longer. As to cows 
and working oxen, the age of fattening must necessarily be 
more indefinite; in most instances the latter are put up to feed 
after working three years, or in the seventh or eight year of 
their age. 




Points of Fat Cattle. — ^Whatever theoretical objections may 
be raised against over-fed cattle, and great as may be the 
attempts to disparage the mountains of fat — as highly fed cat- 



332 CATTLE. 

tie are designated — there is no doubt of the practical faa, tiiat 
the best butcher cannot sell anything but the best fatted "beef; 
and, of whatever age, size or shape a half fatted ox may be, he 
is never selected by judges as fit for human food. Hence, a 
well-fatted animal always commands a better price per pound 
than one imperfectly, fed, and the parts selected as the primest 
beef are precisely the parts which contain the largest deposits 
of fat. The rump, the crop, and the sirloin, the very favorite 
cuts, which always command from twenty to twenty-five per 
cent, more than any other part of the ox, are just those parts 
on which the largest quantities of fat are found; so that, 
instead of the taste and fashion of the age being against the 
excessive fattening of animals, the fact is, practically, exactly 
the reverse. Where there is the most fat, there is the best lean; 
where there is the greatest amount of muscle, without its share 
of fat, that part is counted inferior, and is used for a differ- 
ent purpose; in fact, so far from fat's being a disease, it is 
a condition of muscle, necessary to its utility as food, a source 
of luxury to the rich, and of comfort to the poor, furnishing 
a nourishing and healthy diet for their families. 

Now, there are several qualities which are essentially 
characteristic of a disposition to fatten. There have not, as yet, 
been any book rules laid down, but there are, nevertheless, 
marks so definite and well understood, that they are compre- 
hended and acted upon by every grazier, although they are by 
no means easy to describe. It is by skillful acumen that the 
grazier acquires his knowledge, and not by theoretical rules; 
observation, judgment, and experience, powerful perceptive 
faculties, and a keen and minute comparison and discrimination, 
are essential to his success. 

The first indication upon which he relies is the touch. 
It is the absolute criterion of quality, which is supposed to be 
the keystone of perfection in all animals, whether for the pail 
or the butcher. The skin is so intimately connected with the 
internal organs, in all animals, that it is questionable whether 
even our schools of medicine might not make more use of it 
in a diagnosis of disease. Of physiological tendencies in cattle, 
however, it is of the last and most vital importance. It 
must neither be thick nor hard, nor adhere firmly to the 



CATTLE. 223 

muscles. If it is so, the animal is a hard grazer, a difficult 
and obstinate feeder — no skillful man will purchase it — such a 
creature must go to a novice, and even to him at a price so low- 
as to tempt him to become a purchaser. On the other hand, 
the skin must not be thin, like paper, nor flaccid, nor loose in 
the hand, nor flabby. This is the opposite extreme, and is 
indicative of delicateness, bad, flabby flesh, and, possibly, of 
inaptitude to retain the fat. It must be elastic and velvety, 
soft and pliable, presenting to the touch a gentle resistance 
but so delicate as to give pleasure to the sensitive hand — a 
skin, in short, which seems at first to give an indentation from 
the pressure of the fingers, but which again rises to its place by 
a gentle elasticity. 

The hair is of nearly as much importance as the skin. A 
hard skin will have straight and stiff hair; it will not have a 
curl, but be thinly and lankly distributed equally over the sur- 
face. A proper grazing animal will have a mossy coat, not 
absolutely curled, but having a disposition to a graceful curl, a 
semifold, which presents a waving inequality, but as different 
from a close and straight laid coat, as it is from one standing 
off the animal at right angles, a strong symptom of disease. It 
will also, in a thriving animal, be licked here and there with 
its tongue, a proof that the skin is duly performing its func- 
tions. 

There must be, also the full and goggle eye, bright and 
pressed outward by the fatty bed below; because, as this is a 
part where nature always provides fat, an animal capable of 
developing it to any considerable extent, will have its indica- 
tions here, at least, when it exists in excess. 

So much for feeding qualities in the animal, and their con- 
formations indicative of this kindly disposition. Next come 
such formations of the animal itself as are favorable to the 
growth of fat, other things being equal. There must be size 
where large weights are expected. Christmas beef, for instance, 
is expected to be large as well as fat. The symbol of festivity 
should be capacious, as well as prime in quality. But it is so 
much a matter of choice and circumstance with the grazier, 
that profit alone will not be his guide. The axiom will be, how- 
ever, as a general rule, that the better the grazing soil the larger 



224 CATTLE. 

the animal may be; the poorer the soil, the smaller the animal. 
Small animals are, unquestionably, much more easily fed, and 
they are well known by experienced men to be best adapted to 
second-rate feeding pastures. 

But, beyond this, there must be breadth of carcass. This 
is indicative of fattening, perhaps, beyond all other qualifica- 
tions. If rumps are favorite joints, and produce the best price, 
it is best to have the animal which will grow the longest, the 
broadest, and the best rump; the same of crop, and the same 
of sirloin; and, not only so, but breadth is essential to the con- 
consumption of that quantity of food which is necessary to the 
development of a large amount of fat in the animal. Thus, a 
deep, wide chest, favorable for the respiratory and circulating 
functions, enables it to consume a large amount of food, to 
take up the sugary matter and to deposit the fatty matter — as 
then useless for respiration, but afterwards to be prized. A full 
level crop will be of the same physiological utility; while a 
broad and open framework at the hips will afford scope for the 
action of the liver and kidneys. 

There are other points, also, of much importance; the head 
must be small and fine; its special use is indicative of the quick 
fattening of the animal so constructed, and it is also indicative 
of the bones being small and the legs short. For constitutional 
powers, the beast should have his ribs extended well toward 
the thigh-bones or hips, so as to leave as little unprotected 
space as possible. There must be no angular or abrupt points; 
all must be round, and broad, and parallel. Any depression 
in the lean animal will give a sufficient deposit of flesh and fat 
at that point, when sold to the butcher, and thus deteriorate its 
value; and hence the animal must be round and full. 

But either fancy, or accident, or skill — it is unnecessary to 
decide which — has associated symmetry with quality and con- 
formation, as a point of great importance in animals calculated 
for fattening; and there is no doubt that, to a certain extent, 
that is so. The beast must be a system of mathematical lines. 
To the advocate of symmetry, the setting-on of a tail will be 
a condemning fault; indeed the ridge of the back, like a 
straight line, with the outline of the belly exactly parallel, 
viewed from the side, and a depth and squareness when viewed 



CATTLE. 235 

from behind — which remind us of a geometrical cube, rather 
than a vital economy — may be said to be the indications of 
excellence in a fat ox. The points of excellence in such an 
animal are outlined under the subsequent head, as developed 
in the cutting up after slaughter. 

Now, those qualities are inherent in some breeds; there 
may be cases and instances in all the superior breeds, and in 
most there may be failures. 

Slaughtering. — Cattle are made to fast before slaughter. 
The time they should stand depends upon their state on their 
arrival at the shambles. If they have been driven a consider- 
able distance in a proper manner, the bowels will be in a pretty 
empty state, so that twelve hours may suffice; but if they are 
full and just off their food, twenty-four hours will be required. 
Beasts that have been overdriven, or much struck with sticks, 
or in any degree infuriated, should not be immediately slaugh- 
tered, but allowed to stand on dry food, such as hay, until the 
symptoms disappear. These precautions are absolutely neces- 
sary that the meat may be preserved in the best state. 

The mode of slaughtering cattle varies in different coun- 
tries. In the great slaughter-houses at Montmartre, in Paris, 
they are slaughtered by bisecting the spinal cord of the cerical 
verterbse; and this is accomplished by the driving of a sharp- 
pointed chisel between the second and third vertebrae, with a 
smart stroke of a mallet while the animal is standing, when it 
drops, and death or insensibility instantly ensues, and the 
blood is let out immediately by opening the blood-vessels of 
the neck. The plan adopted in England is, first to bring the 
ox down on his knees and place his under jaw upon the ground 
by means of ropes fastened to his head and passed through an 
iron ring in the floor of the slaughter house. He is then stun- 
ned by a few blows from an iron axe made for the purpose, on 
the forehead, the bone of which is usually driven into the 
brain. The animal then falls upon his side, and the blood is 
let out by the neck. Of the two modes, the French is appar- 
ently the less cruel, for some oxen require many blows to make 
them fall. Some butchers, however, allege that the separation 
of the spinal cord, by producing a general nervous convulsion 
throughout the body, prevents the blood from flowing as 
13 



226 CATTLE. 

rapidly and entirely out of it as when the ox is stunned in the 
forehead. The skin is then taken off to the knees, when the legs 
are disjointed, and also off the head. The carcass is then hung 
up by the tendons of the hough on a stretcher, by a block and 
tackle, worked by a small winch, which retains in place what 
rope it winds up by means of a wheel and rachet. 

After the carcass has hung for twenty-four hours, it should 
be cut down by the back-bone or chine into two sides. This 
is done either with the saw or chopper; the saw making the 
neater job in the hands of an inexperienced butcher, though it is 
the more laborious; and with the chopper is the quicker, but 
by no means the neater, plan, especially in the hands of a care- 
less workman. In London, the chine is equally divided be- 
tween both sides; while in Scotland one side of a carcass of 
beef has a great deal more bone than the other, all the spinous 
processes of the vertebrae being left upon it. The bony is 
called the lying side of the meat. In London, the divided 
processes in the fore-quarters are broken in the middle when 
warm, and chopped back with the flat side of the chopper, 
which has the effect of thickening the fore and middle ribs 
considerably when cut up. The London butcher also cuts the 
joints above the hind knee, and, by making some incisions 
with a sharp knife, cuts the tendons there, and drops the flesh 
of the hind-quarters on the flank and loins, which causes it to 
cut up thicker than in the Scotch mode. In opening the hind- 
quarter he also cuts the aitch bone or pelvis through the 
centre, which makes the rump look better. Some butchers in 
the north of England score the fat of the closing of the hind- 
quarter, which has the effect of making that part of both 
heifer and ox look like the udder of an old cow. There is far 
too much of this scoring practiced in Scotland, which prevents 
the pieces 7rom retaining — which they should, as nearly as 
possible — their natural appearance. 

Cutting Tip. — In cutting up a carcass of beef the London 
butcher displays great expertness; he not only discriminates 
between the qualities of the different parts, but can cut out any 
piece to gratify the taste of his customers. In this way he 
makes the best use of the carcass and realizes the largest value 
£or it, while he gratifies the taste of every grade of customers. 



CATTLE. 227 

A figure of the Scotch and English modes of cutting up a 
carcass of beef will at once show the difference; and, upon 
being informed where the valuable pieces lie, an opinion can be 
formed as to whether the oxen the farmer is breeding or feed- 
ing possess the properties which will enable him to demand the 
highest price for them: 




SCOTCH MODE. 



The sirloin is the principal roasting-piece, making a very- 
handsome dish, and is a universal favorite. It consists of two 
portions, the Scotch and English sides; the former is above 
the lumbar bones, and is somewhat hard in ill-fed cattle; the 
latter consists of the muscles under these bones, which are 
generally covered with fine fat, and are exceedingly tender. The 
better the beast is fed, the larger is the under muscle, better 
covered with fat and more tender to eat. The hook-bone and 
the buttocks are cut up for steaks, beef-steak-pie, or minced 
collops, and both these, together v/ith the sirloin, bring the 
highest price. The large round and the small round are both 
well known as excellent pieces for salting and boiling, and are 
eaten cold with great relish. The hough is peculiarly suited for 
boiling down for soup, having a large proportion of gelatinous 
matter. Brown soup is the principal dish made of the hough, 
but its decoction forms an excellent stock for various dishes, 
and will keep in a state of jelly for a considerable time. The 
thick and the thin flank are both admirable pieces for salting 
and boiling. The tail, insignificant as it may seem, makes a 
soup of a very fine flavor. Hotel keepers' have a trick of 
seasoning brown soup, or, rather, beef-tea, with a few joints of 
tail, and passing it off for genuine ox-tail soup. These are all 
the pieces which constitute the hind-quarter; and it will b^ 



238 



CATTLE. 



seen that they are valuable both for roasting and boiling, not 
containing a single coarse piece 

In the fore-quarter is the spare-rib, the six ribs of the back 
end of which make an excellent roast, and, when taken from the 
side opposite the lying one, being free of the bones of the 
spine, it makes a larger one; and it also makes excellent beef- 
steaks and beefsteak-pie. The two runners and the nineholes 
make excellent salting and boiling pieces, but of these, the 
nineholes is much the best, as it consists of layers of fat and 
lean without any bone; whereas the foreparts of the runners 
have a piece of shoulder-blade in them, and every piece 
connected with that bone is more or less coarse-grained. The 
brisket eats very well boiled fresh in broth, and may be cooked 
and eaten with boiled greens or carrots. The shoulder-lyar is 
a coarse piece, and fit only for boiling fresh to make into broth 
or beef-tea. The nap, or shin, is analogous to the hough of 
the hind leg, but not so rich and fine, there being much less 
gelatinous matter in it. The neck makes good broth; and the 
sticking-piece is a great favorite with some epicures, on 
account of the rich pieces of fat in it. It makes an excellent 
stew, as also sweet barley-broth, and the meat eats well when 
broiled in it. 




ENGLISH MODE. 



These are all the pieces of the fore-quarter; and it will 
be seen that they consist chiefly of boiling-pieces, and some of 
them none of the fin3st — the roasting-piece being confined to 
the six ribs of the spare rib, and the finest boiling piece, corned, 
only to be found in the nineholes. 

The loin is the principal roasting-piece; the rump is the 
favorite steak-piece; the aitch-bone, the favorite st^w; the 



CATTLE. 229 

buttock, the thick flank, and the thin flank are all excellent 
boiling-pieces when corned; the hock and the shin make soup 
and afford stock for the various requirements of the culinary- 
art; and the tail furnishes ox-tail soup — a favorite English 
luncheon. These are all the pieces of the hind-quarter, and 
they are valuable of their respective kinds 

In the fore-quarter, the fore-rib, middle-rib, and chuckle- 
rib, are all roasting pieces, not alike good; but in removing the 
part of the shoulder-blade, in the middle-rib, the spare-ribs 
below make a good broil or roast; the neck makes soup, being 
used fresh, boiled; the back end of the brisket is boiled, corned 
or stewed; the leg-of-mutton piece is coarse, but is as frequently 
stewed as boiled; the shin is put to the same use as the shin 
and hock of the hind-quarter. 

On comparing the two modes of cutting-up, it will be ob- 
served that in the English there are more roasting-pieces than 
in the Scotch, a large proportion of the fore-quarter being used 
in that way. The plan, too, of cutting the loin between the 
rump and aitch-bone in the hind-quarter, lays open the steak- 
pieces to better advantage than in the Scotch bullock. Extend- 
ing the comparison from one part of the carcass to the other, 
in both methods, it will be seen that the most valuable pieces — 
the roasting — occupy its upper, and the less valuable — the boil- 
ing — its lower part. Every beast, therefore, that lays on beef 
more upon the upper part of its body is more valuable than 
one that lays the same quantity of flesh on its lower parts. 

It is deemed unnecessary to enter into details as to the 
modes of cutting-up most in vogue in this country, as there is a 
needlessly great want of uniformity. 

Beef. — Beef is the staple animal food of this country, and it 
is used in various states — fresh, salted, smoked, roasted, and 
boiled. When intended to be eaten fresh, the ribs will keep 
the best, and with care will keep five or six days in summer, 
and in winter ten days. The middle of the loin is the next 
best, and the rump the next. The round will not keep long, 
unless it is salted. The brisket is the worst, and will not keep 
more than three days in summer, and in winter a week. In 
regard to the powers of the stomach to digest beef, that which 
is eaten boiled with salt only, is digested in two hours and forty- 



S30 CATTLE. 

five minutes. Beef, fresh, lean, and rarely roasted, and a beef- 
steak broiled, takes three hours to digest; that fresh, and dry- 
roasted, and boiled, eaten with mustard, is digested in three 
and a half hours. Lean fresh beef fried, requires four hours, 
and old, hard salted beef boiled, does not digest in less than 
four and a quarter hours. Fresh beef-suet boiled, takes five 
and a half hours. 

Its Preservation. — The usual mode of preserving beef is 
by salting; and, when intended to keep for a long time, such as 
for the use of shipping, it is always salted with brine; but for 
family use it should be salted only with good salt, for brine 
dispels the juice of meat, and saltpetre only serves to make the 
meat dry, and give it a disagreeable and unnatural red color. 
Various experiments have been made in curing beef with salt 
otherwise than by hand-rubbing, and in a short space of time; 
and also to preserve it from putrefacation by other means than 
salt. Some packers put meal in a copper which is rendered 
air-tight, and an air-pump then creates a vacuum within it, 
thereby extracting all the air out of the meat; then brine is 
pumped in by pressure, which, entiering into every pore of the 
meat formerly occupied by the air, is said to place it in a state 
of preservation in a few minutes. 

The OffaL — Cattle, when slaughtered, are useful to man in 
various other ways than by affording food from their flesh — 
their offal of tallow, hides, and horns, forming extensive articles 
of commerce. Of the hide, the characteristics of a good one 
for strong purposes, are strength in its middle, or butt, as it is 
called, and lightness in the edges or offal. A bad hide is the 
opposite of this — thick in the edges and thin in the middle. A 
good hide has a firm texture; a bad one, loose and soft. A hide 
improves as the summer advances, and it continues to improve 
after the new coat of hair in autumn until November or Decem- 
ber, when the coat gets rough from the coldness of the season, 
and the hide is then in its best state. It is surprising how a hide 
improves in thickness after the cold weather has set in. The 
sort of food does not seem to affect the quality of the hidej 
but the better it is, and the better cattle have been fed, and 
the longer they have been well fed, even from a calf, the bet- 
ter the hide. From what has been said of the effect of weather 



CATTLE. 331 

upon the hide, it seems a natural conclusion that a hide is bet- 
ter from an ox that has been fed in the open air than from one 
that has been kept in the barn. Dirt adhering to a hide injures 
it, particularly in stall-fed animals; and any thing that punc- 
tures a hide, such as warbles arising from certain insects, is also 
injurious. The best hides are obtained from the West 
Highlanders. The Short Horns produce the thinnest hides, 
the Aberdeenshire the next, and then the Angus. Of the same 
breed, the ox affords the strongest hide; but, as hides are ap- 
plied to various uses, the cow's, provided it be large, may be as 
valuable as that of the ox. The bull's hide is the least valu- 
able. Hides are imported from Russia and South America. 

Leather. — Hides, when deprived of their hair, are converted 
into leather by an infusion of the astringent property of bark. 
The old plan of tanning used to occupy a long time; but, such 
was the value of the process, that the old tanners used to pride 
themselves upon producing a substantial article — which is more 
than can be said in many instances under modern improved 
modes, which hasten the process, much to the injury of the 
article produced. Strong infusions of bark make leather brit- 
tle; one hundred pounds of skin, quickly tanned in a strong 
infusion, produce one hundred and thirty-seven pounds of 
leather, while a weak infusion produces only one hundred and 
seventeen and a half, the additional nineteen and a half pounds 
serving only, to deteriorate the leather, and causing it to con- 
tain much less textile animal solid. Leather thus highly 
charged with tanning is so spongy as to allow moisture to pass 
readily through its pores, to the great discomfort and injury of 
those who wear shoes made of it. The proper mode of tanning 
lasts a year, or a year and a half, according to the quality of 
the leather wanted and .the nature of the hides. A perfect 
leather can be recognized by its section, which should have a 
glistening marble appearance, without any white streaks in the 
middle. The hair which is taken off hides in tanning, is em- 
ployed to mix with plaster, and is often surreptitiously put into 
hair-mattresses. 

Method of Ascertaining the Weight of Cattle While Liv- 
ing. — This is of the utmost utility for all those who are not 
experienced judges by the eye; and, by the following directions, 



232 CATTLE. 

the weight can be ascertained within a mere trifle: Take a 
string, put it round the beast, standing square, just behind the 
shoulder-blade; measure on a foot-rule the feet and inches the 
animal is in circumference — this is called the girth; then, with 
the string, measure from the bone of the tail which plumbs the 
line with the hinder part of the buttock; direct the line along 
the back to the fore part of the shoulder-blade; take the di- 
mensions on the foot rule as before, which is the length, and 
work the figures in the following manner: Girth of the bullock, 
6 feet, 4 inches; length, 5 feet, 3 inches; which, multiplied to- 
gether, make 31 square superficial feet; that again multiplied 
by 23 (the number of pounds allowed to each superficial foot 
of cattle measuring less than 7 and more than 5 in girth), makes 
713 pounds; and, allowing 14 pounds to the stone, is 50 stone, 
13 pounds. AVhere the animal measures less than 9 and more 
than 7 feet in girth, 31 is the number of pounds to each super- 
ficial foot. Again, suppose a pig, or any small beast, should 
measure 2 feet in girth, and 2 feet along the back, which, mul- 
tiplied together, make 4 square feet; that, multiplied by 11 (the 
number of pounds allowed for each square foot of cattle meas- 
uring less than 3 feet in girth), makes 44 pounds; which, divided 
by 14, to bring it to stones, is 3 stone, 2 pounds. Again, sup- 
pose a calf, a sheep, &c., should measure 4 feet 6 inches in 
girth, and 3 feet 9 inches in length, which, multiplied together, 
make 16 1-2 square feet; that multiplied by 16 (the number of 
pounds allowed to all cattle measuring less than 5 feet, and 
more than 3, in girth), makes 264 pounds; which, divided by 14, 
to bring it into stones, is 18 stone 12 pounds. The dimensions 
of the girth and length of black cattle, sheep, calves, or hogs, 
may be as exactly taken this way, as is at all necessary for any 
computation or valuation of stock, and will answer exactly to 
the four quarters, sinking the offal; and which every man, who 
can get even a bit of chalk, can easily perform. A deduction 
must be made for a half-fatted beast, of i stone in 20, from 
that of a fat one; and, for a cow that has had calves, i stone 
must be allowed, and another for not being properly fat. 

Breaking Steers. — This should be commenced when two or 
three years old. Some begin with the calf, accustoming him to 
a light yoke and occasional training. This practice will do as 



CATTLE. 233 

a pastime for trustworthy boys, as it makes them gentle and 
manageable afterwards, but is hardly worth a man's time. If 
always carefully handled when young, they will be found 
tractable. 

They should at first be placed behind a pair of well-broke 
cattle, nor should they be put to hard labor until quite grown, 
strong, and perfectly accustomed to the yoke. If properly 
managed, cattle may be trained with all the docility, intelli- 
gence, and much of the activity of the horse. That they are 
not, is more frequently the fault of their masters. 

Management of Oxen. — To procure perfect working cattle, 
it is necessary to begin with the proper breed. Many parts of 
the country furnish such as are well suited to this purpose. A 
strong dash of Devon or Hereford blood is desirable, when it 
needs to be improved. A well-formed, compact, muscular 
body; clean, sinewy limbs; strong, dense bones; large, well- 
formed joints, with a mild, expressive eye, are essential for good 
working oxen. 

After breaking, they must be led along gently, and taught 
before they are required to perform their task; and never put 
to a load which they cannot readily move, nor dulled by pro- 
longing exertion beyond that period when it becomes irksome. 
A generous diet is necessary, to keep up the spirit and ability 
of cattle, when there is hard work to be done. The horse and 
mule are fed with their daily rations of grain, when at hard ser- 
vice, and, if the spirit of the ox is to be maintained, he should 
be equally well fed, when as fully employed. Great and per- 
manent injury is the result of niggardly feeding and severe toil, 
exacted from the uncomplaining animal. His strength declines, 
his spirit flags, and, if this treatment be continued, he rapidly 
becomes the stupid, moping brute, which is shown off in de- 
grading contrast with the more spirited horse, that performs, 
it may be, one-half the labor on twice his rations. 

The ox should be as little abused by threats and whipping, 
as by stinted feed and overtasked labor. Loud and repeated 
hallooing, or the severe use of the lash, is as impolitic as it is 
cruel and disgraceful. We never witness this barbarity with- 
out wishing the brutes could change places, long enough at 
least to teach the biped that humanity by his own sufferings 



234 CATTLE. 

which his reason and sensibility have failed to inspire. Clear' 
and intelligent, yet low and gentle words, are all that are neces- 
sary to guide the well-trained, spirited ox. The stick, or whip, 
is needed rather to indicate the precise movement desired, than 
as a stimulant or means of punishment. The ox understands a 
moderate tone more perfectly than a boisterous one, for all 
sounds become indistinct as they increase. 

It is of great advantage to have oxen well trained to back- 
ing. They may soon be taught, by beginning with an empty 
cart on a descent; then on a level; then with an increasing 
load, or uphill, till the cattle will back nearly the same load 
they will draw. 

Some oxen have a bad trick of hauling or crowding. Chang- 
ing to opposite sides, longer or shorter yokes, and, more than 
all, gentle treatment, are the only remedies, and those not un- 
frequently fail. Cattle will seldom contract this habit in the 
hands of a judicious, careful driver. The yokes should be 
carefully made and set easy, and the bows fitted to the necks 
and properly attached to the yoke. Cattle are liable to sore 
necks if used in a storm; and, when subject to this exposure, 
they must be well rubbed with grease, where the yoke chafes 
them, and respite from work should be allowed till the necks 
heal. 

Spaying. — The following description of the operation of 
spaying cows, its effects and advantages, is by the celebrated 
French veterinary surgeon, M. Morin: 

Young cows ought to receive that nourishment which favors 
the secretion of milk, and which in consequence renders active 
their lactiferous vessels. The cow is not usually in full pro- 
duction until after the third or fourth calf; she continues to 
give the same return up to the seventh or eight; from this time 
lactation diminishes after each new calving. On the other 
hand, from the moment that the cow has received the bull, and 
gradually as gestation advances, the quantity of milk progres- 
sively diminishes in most breeds, until three or four months 
before healthy parturition, the secretion of milk is almost noth- 
ing. It is to guard against this loss, and other inconvenience, 
that we lay down what we have obtained after some years' ex- 
perience in spaying the cow, and the happy results that we 
meet with daily 



CATTLE. 235 

Advantages of this Operation. — "The operation of 
spaying in the cow is productive of great advantages. 

" I. The cow spayed a short time after calving, that is to 
say, thirty or forty days afterward, and at the time when she 
gives the largest quantity of milk, continues to give the like 
quantity, if not during her whole lifetime, at least during many 
years, and at the time when the milk begins to dry wp the ani- 
mal fattens. We are able to add, moreover, at this day, cer- 
tain facts, the result of many years' experiment, that the milk 
of the spayed cow, although as abundant, and sometimes more 
so, than before the operation, is of a superior quality to that 
from a cow not spayed; that it is uniform in its character, that 
it is richer, consequently more buttery, and that the butter is 
always of a golden color. 

" We belive that we ought to remark in passing, that if we 
feed the spayed cow too abundantly, lactation diminishes, and 
that the beast promptly fattens. It is therefore important that 
the feeding should not be more than sufficient to enable us to 
obtain the desired result. 

"2. The spayed cow fattens more easily; its flesh, age con- 
sidered, is better than that of the ox; it is more tender and 
more juicy. 

"Indeed, no one is ignorant of the fact that all domestic 
animals, females as well as males, deprived of their procreative 
organs, fatten more quickly than those which retain them; 
that the flesh of the spayed females is more tender and more 
delicate than that of males. The same phenomena take place 
among spayed cows that occur among other females that have 
submitted to this operation; so, besides the advantage of fur- 
nishing a long continued supply, before commencing a course 
of fattening, of abundant milk, and butter of a superior quality, 
the cow fattens easily and completely, and a certain benefit 
follows this course. 

" 3. In spaying decrepit cows, that is to say of the age of 
from six to seven years, puny, small ones; those which, though 
fine in appearance, bear badly; those which are subject to mis- 
carriage; those which frequently experience difficult calving or 
delivery; those difficult to keep; and, finally, all those that are 
taurelieres, that is to say, constantly in heat — we have in addi- 



236 CATTLE. 

tion to an abundant production of milk and butter, and a 
facility of fattening, the advantage of preventing a degeneration 
of the species, and, moreover, of avoiding a crowd of accidents 
or maladies, which frequently take place during or after gesta- 
tion, and of diminishing those which happen during the period 
of heat, such as that of heavy cows mounting others or being 
jumped upon by too heavy bulls. 

" Except under peculiar circumstances, we should take care 
in spaying the cow, that its teats have acquired their complete 
development, and that the milk has the proper qualities. The 
most suitable time is after the third or fourth calving. 

"Many societies of agriculture, impressed with the important 
results that this operation effects, fix yearly at their agricultural 
meetings, premiums for the encouragement of the spaying of 
old cows. We doubt not that other societies who have not yet 
adopted this plan — not being convihced of its importance — 
when they are, will imitate their example. By this means they 
bestow upon the country a new source of products. 

" We have been engaged for four years in researches upon 
this valuable discovery; we believe that it is incumbent upon 
us to state the results that we have obtained up to the present 
time. In the number of twenty-seven cows, aged from six to 
fifteen years, that we have actually spayed, we have had the 
following results: i. Increase of milk in cows of six years; 
2. Constant production in those that have passed that age; 3. 
Milk richer than that of the cow not spayed, consequently 
more buttery, and the butter both of a uniformly golden color, 
and having an aroma and taste far superior that of a cow 
that has not undergone this operation. 

" In July we obtained as a subject of experiment, a cow 
from Brittany, of the small kind, twelve years old, calved about 
two months before, and which gave, when we obtained her, 
about six quarts of milk daily. The next day after we per- 
formed the operation of spaying, indeed the first eight days 
after that, the secretion of milk sensibly diminished, in conse- 
quence of the light diet on which she had been put; but, on 
the ninth day, the time at which the cure was complete and the 
cow put on her ordinary food, the milk promptly returned as 
to its former quantity, and she at the same time assumed a 



CATTLE. 337 

plunip.iess that she had not had previously. Customarily 
bringing together, the yield of three days butter-making being 
eighteen quarts, it produced constantly two kilograms of 
butter of the best quality. From the month of December to the 
following March, the quantity of milk diminished about one- 
third, and the butter proportionately, the cow during that time 
having been put on dry fodder. But so soon as we were able 
to turn her into pasture — about the beginning of April — the 
milk, after eight days of this new food, resumed its former 
course, and the animal continued daily to furnish the same 
relative amounts of milk and butter as before. 

** Three cows, two of which were fourteen years old, and 
the other fifteen, have dried up two years after the operation, 
and at the same time promptly fattened, without increase or 
change of food. 

" One cow, eight years old, plentifully supplied with trefoil 
and cabbage, gave, a short time after the operation, a quantity 
of milk nearly double that which she gave before, although she 
was kept on the same kind of food. She has during a year 
continued to furnish the same amount, and has in addition 
fattened so rapidly that the owner has been obliged, seeing her 
fatness, to sell her to the butcher, although she was- still very 
good for milk. 

" Another fact, no less worthy of remark, we must not pass 
over in silence, and which goes to prove the superior and 
unchanging quality of the milk of a spayed cow. It is, that a 
proprietor having spayed a cow five years old, recently calved, 
with the special intention of feeding with her milk a newly- 
born infant, the infant arriving at the age of six months, of a 
robust constitution, refused its pap since it had been accident- 
ally prepared with milk different from that of the spayed cow. 

" The other cows which had been spayed continued to give 
entire satisfaction to their owners, as well in respect to the 
quantity and quality of the milk, as also by their good con- 
dition. 

" Six cows manifested, shortly after the operation, and on 
divers occasions, the desire for copulation; but we have not 
remarked this peculiarity except among the younger ones. In 
other respects, the milk has not indicated the least alteration iu 
quantity or quality. 



238 CATTLE. 

'Indeed, the happy results that are daily attained from 
this important discovery are so conclusive and so well known 
at this time in our part of the country, that as we write, many 
proprietors bring us constantly good milch cows, since we have 
called upon them to do so, for us to practice the operation of 
spaying upon them. Every owner of cattle is aware that, from 
the time that the cow has received a bull, and in proportion as 
gestation advances, the milk changes and diminishes pro- 
gressively, until at last, two or three months before a healthy 
parturition, the animal gives very little or no milk, whence 
ensues considerable loss; while, at the same time, after the cows 
are subjected to the bull, the milk and butter are — for fifty 
days, at least — of a bad quality, and improper to be exposed 
for sale; but, in addition to this, breeding cows are generally 
subjected to such loss in winter, and their keepers find them- 
selves, during a great part of the year, entirely deprived of milk 
and butter, and at a time, too, when they most need them. 

" By causing the cows to undergo this operation, the owner 
will never fail of having milk and butter of excellent quality; 
fatten his animals easily when they dry up, and also will 
improve the race, an anxiety which is perceived in many pro- 
vinces in France. 

" In general, the means employed by farmers to obtain the 
best possible price for old cows, beyond being useful, or, to use 
a commercial term, not merchantable, as to bring them to the 
bull, intending that gestation shall give them more suitable 
plumpness, so that they may be sold on more advantageous 
terms to the butcher; but does this state of fictitious embon- 
point, or fatness, render the flesh of these beasts better? As- 
suredly not. It is merely bloated, flabby flesh, livid, and which 
easily taints. Broth made from it is not rich, is without flavor, 
and without an agreeable smell; the lean and fat are in a 
measure infiltrated with water, and are consequently of bad 
quality and difficult sale. These causes ought, then, to deter- 
mine farmers to adopt the advice we give; they, as well as 
the butcher and the consumer, will derive very great advantage 
from it. 

The Operation. — " Having covered the eyes of the cow 
to be operated upon, we place her against a wall provided 



CATTLE. 239 

with five rings, firmly fastened and placed as follows: The first 
corresponds to the top of the withers; the second to the lower 
anterior part of the breast; the third is placed a little distance 
from the angle of the shoulder; the fourth is opposite to the 
anterior and superior part of the lower region; and the fifth, 
which is behind, answers to the under part of the buttocks. 
We place a strong assistant between the wall and the head of 
the animal, who firmly holds the left horn in his left hand, and 
with his right, the muzzle, which he elevates a little. This 
done, we pass through and fasten the end of a long and strong 
plaited cord in the ring, which corresponds to the lower part 
of the breast; we bring the free end of the cord along the left 
flank, and pass it through the ring which is below and in front 
of the withers. We bring it down along the breast behind the 
shoulders and the angle of the fore leg to pass it through the 
third ring; from there, we pass it through the ring, which is 
at the top of the back; then it must be passed around against 
the outer angle of the left hip, and we fasten it, after having 
drawn it tightly to the posterior ring by a single bow-knot. 

"The cow being firmly fixed to the wall, we placed a cord, 
fastened by a slip-noose around its hocks to keep them together, 
in such a manner that the animal can not kick the operator, 
the free end of the cord and the tail are held by an assistant. 
The cow, thus secured, can not, during the operation, move 
forward, nor lie down, and the veterinary surgeon has all the 
ease desirable, and is protected from accident, 

M. Levrat advises that an assistant should hold a plank or 
bar of wood obliquely under the teats and before its limbs to 
ward off the kicks; but this method is not always without dan- 
ger, both to the operator and the animal, because, at the com- 
mencement, that is, when the surgeon makes the incision 
through the hide and muscles, the cow makes such sudden 
movements and tries so frequently to strike with its left hind 
foot, that it may happen that upon every movement the plank 
or the bar may be struck against the operator's legs. On the 
other hand, although the defense may be firmly held by the 
assistant, yet it may happen that, in spite of his exertions, he 
sometimes may be thrown against the operator by the move- 
ments she may attempt, and there may be an uncontrollable 



240 CATTLE. 

displacement of the plank or bar; and then it may happen that 
she becomes wounded, and at the same time prevents the ope- 
ration, while, by the mode we point out, there is no fear of 
accident, either to the operator or the beast. In case of the 
want of a wall provided with rings, we may use a strong pali- 
sade, a solid fence, or two trees a suitable distance apart, across 
which we fix two strong bars of wood, separated from each 
other, according to the size of the cow 

"There ^is another means of confining them that we have 
employed for some time past, where the cows were very strong 
and irritable, more simple than the preceeding, less fatiguing 
for the animal, less troublesome for the operator, and which 
answers perfectly. It consists: First. In leaving the cow almost 
free, covering her. eyes, holding her head by two strong assist- 
ants, one of whom seizes her nose with his hand and strongly 
pinches the nostrils whenever the animal makes any violent 
movements during the operation. Second. To cause another 
assistant to hold the two hind legs, kept together by means of 
a cord passed above and beneath the hocks; this assistant also 
holds the tail, and pulls it whenever the animal seeks to change 
its place. 

"The cow being conveniently disposed, and the instruments 
and appliances, such as curved scissors upon a table, a convex 
edge bistoury, a straight one, and one buttoned at the point, 
suture needle filled with double thread of desired length, 
pledgets of lint of appropriate size and length, a mass of tow 
(in pledgets) being collected in a shallow basket, held by an 
intelligent assistant, we place ourselves opposite to the left 
flank, our back turned a little toward the head of the animal, 
we cut off the hair whicn covers the hide in the middle of the 
flanks, at an equal distance between the back and the hip, for 
the space of thirteen or fourteen centimetres in circumference; 
this done, we take the convex bistoury, and place it opened 
between our teeth, the edge out, the joint to the left; then, 
with both hands, we seize the hide in the middle of the flank 
and form of it a wrinkle of the requisite elevation, and running 
lengthwise of the body. We then direct an assistant to seize 
with his right hand the right side of the wrinkle; we then take 
the bistoury that we held in our teeth and we cut the wrinkle 



CATTLE. 241 

at one stroke through the middle; the wrinkle having been 
suffered to go down, a separation of the hide is presented of 
sufficient length to enable us to introduce the hand; thereupon 
we separate the edges of the hide with the thumb and fore- 
finger of the left hand, and, in like manner, we cut through the 
abdominal muscles, the iliax (slightly obliquely) and the 
lumbar (across) for the distance of a centimetre from the lower 
extremity of the incision made in the hide; this done, armed 
with the straight bistoury, we make a puncture of the peri- 
toneum at the upper extremity of the wound; we then intro- 
duce the buttoned bistoury, and move it obliquely from 
above to the lower part, up to the termination of the incision 
made in the abdominal muscles. The flank being opened, 
we introduce the right hand into the abdomen and 
direct it along the right side of the cavity of the pelvis, behind 
the cul de saurumen (paunch) and underneath the rectum, 
where we find the cornes de I'uterus (matrix); after we have 
ascertained the position of these viscera, we search for the 
ovaires (organs of reproduction), which are at the extremity of 
the cornes, and when we have found them, we seize them be- 
tween the thumb and forefinger, detach them completely from 
the ligaments that keep them in their place, pull lightly, sep- 
arating the cord, and the vessels (uterine or fallopian tube) at 
their place of union with the ovarium, by means of the nail of 
the thumb and forefinger, which presents itself at the point of 
touch; in fact we break the cord and bring away the ovarium. 
We then introduce again the hand in the abdominal cavity, 
and we proceed in the same manner to extract the other 
ovaria. This operation terminated, we, by the assistance of 
the needle, place a suture of three or four double threads 
waxed at an equal distance, and at two centimetres, or a little 
less from the lips of the wound, passing it through the divided 
tissues, we move from the left hand with the piece of thread; 
having reached that point, we fasten with a double knot, we 
place the seam in the intervals of the thread from the right, 
and, as we approach the lips of the wound, we fasten by a sim- 
ple knot, with a bow, being careful not to close too tightly the 
lower part of the seam, so that the suppuration which may be 
established in the wound may be able to escape. This opera- 
14 



342 CATTLE. 

tion effected, we cover up the wound with a pledget of lint kept 
in its place by three or four threads passed through the stitches, 
and all is completed, and the cow is then led back to the stable. 

"It happens, sometimes, that in cutting the muscles, of 
which we have before spoken, we cut one or two of the arteries 
which bleed so much that there is necessity for a ligature be- 
fore opening the peritoneal sac, because, if this precaution be 
omitted, blood will escape into the abdomen, and may occasion 
the most serious consequences. 

After the Operation. — "The regimen that we prescribe 
during the first eight days following the operation, is a light 
diet, and a soothing, lukewarm draught; if the weather should 
be cold, we cover the cow with a woollen covering. We must 
prevent the animal from licking the wound and from rubbing 
it against other bodies. The third day after the operation, we 
bathe morning and evening about the wound, with water of 
mallows lukewarm, and in default of this, we annoint it with a 
salve of hog's lard, and we administer an emollient glyster dur- 
ing three or four days. 

"Eight days after the operation we take away the bandage, 
the lint, the fastenings and the threads; the wound is at that 
time completely cicatrized, as we have observed that a reunion 
takes place almost always by the first intention, as we have 
only observed suppuration in three cows, and then it was very 
slight. In this case we must use a slight pressure above the 
part where the suppuration is established, so as to cause the 
pus to leave it, and, if it continues more than five or six days, 
we must supply emollients by alcolized water, or chloridized, 
especially if it be in summer. We then bring the cow gradu- 
ally back to her ordinary nourishment. 

We have remarked in some cows a swelling of the body a 
short time after being spayed, a state that we have attributed 
to the introduction of cold air into the abdomen during the 
operation; but this derangement has generally ceased within 
twenty-four hours. If the contrary should occur, we adminis- 
ter one or two sudorific draughts, such as wine, warm cider, or 
a half glass of brandy, in a quart of warm water, treatment 
which suffices, in a short time, to re-establish a healthy state of 
the belly, the animal at the same time being protected by two 
coverings of wool. 



CATTLE. 243 

"The operation which we have been describing ought to be 
performed, as we have said before, thirty to forty days after 
calving, upon a cow which has had her third or fourth calf, so 
that we may have a greater abundance of milk. The only pre- 
caution to be observed before the operation is that on the 
preceding evening we should not give so copious a meal as 
usual, and to operate in the morning before the animal has fed, 
so that the operator shall not find any obstacle from the pri- 
mary digestive organs, especially the paunch, which, during 
its state of ordinary fullness, might prevent operating with 
facility. 

"From what has preceded, it is fixed and irrefutable. — i. 
That spaying induces permanency of milk, increase of quantity, 
and improvement of quality; richer, more buttery, superior 
color, finer taste and flavor. 2. The most suitable age is six 
years, and after the third or fourth calf. 3. The spayed cow 
fattens more easily, and furnishes beef of a better quality. 4. 
Cows that are bad breeders may be kept as good milkers, and 
the quality of good cattle kept up." 

Castration. — The period most commonly selected for this 
operation is between the first and third months. The nearer it 
is to the expiration of the first month, the less danger attends 
the operation. 

Some persons prepare the animal by the administration of 
a dose of physic; but others proceed at once to the operation 
when it best suits their convenience, or that of the farmer. 
Care, however, should be taken that the young animal is in 
perfect health. The mode formerly practiced was simple 
enough: — a piece of whip-cord was tied as tightly as possible 
around the scrotum. The supply of blood being thus com- 
pletely cut off, the bag and its contents soon becomes livid and 
dead, and were suffered to hang, by some careless operators, 
until they dropped off, or they were cut off on the second or 
third day. 

It is now, however, the general practice to grasp the scrotum 
in the hand, between the testicles and the belly, and to make 
an incision in one side of it, near the bottom, of sufficient 
depth to penetrate through the inner covering of the testicle, 
and of sufficient length to admit of its escape. The testicle 



244 CATTLE. 

immediately bursts from its bag, and is seen hanging by its 
cord. 

The careless or brutal operator now firmly ties a piece of 
small string around the cord, and, having thus stopped the cir- 
culation, cuts through the cord, half an inch below the ligature, 
and removes the testicle. He, however, who has any feeling 
for the poor animal on which he is operating, considers that 
the only use of the ligature is to compress the blood vessels 
and prevent after-hemorrhage, and, therefore, saves a great deal 
of unnecessary torture by including them alone in the ligature, 
and afterwards dividing the rest of the cord. The other tes- 
ticle is proceeded with in the same way, and the operation is 
complete. The length of the cord should be so contrived that 
it will immediately retract or be drawn back into the scrotum, 
but not higher, while the ends of the string hang out through 
the wound. In the course of about a week the strings will 
usually drop off and the wounds will speedily heal. There 
will rarely be any occasion to make any application to the 
scrotum, except any fomentation of it, if much swelling should 
ensue. 

A few, whose practice cannot be justified, seize the testicle 
as soon as it escapes from the bag, and, pulling violently, break 
the cord and tear it out. It is certain, that when a blood-vessel 
is thus ruptured, it forcibly contracts, and very little bleeding 
follows; but, if the cord breaks high up, and retracts into the 
belly, considerable inflammation has occasionally ensued, and 
the beast has been lost. 

The application of torsion — or the twisting of the arteries 
by a pair of forceps which will firmly grasp them — has, in a 
great degree, superseded every other mode of castration, both 
in the larger and smaller domesticated animals. The spermatic 
artery is exposed and seized with the forceps, which are then 
closed by a very simple mechanical contrivance; the vessel is 
drawn a little out from its surrounding tissue, the forceps are 
turned around seven or eight times, and the vessel liberated. 
It will be found to be perfectly closed; a small knot will have 
formed on its extremity; it will retract into the surrounding 
surface, and not a drop more of blood will flow from it; the 
cord may then be divided and the bleeding from any little 



CATTLE. 245 

vessel arrested in the same way. Neither the application of 
the hot iron, nor of the wooden clamps, whether with or with- 
out caustic, can be necessary in the castration of the calf. 

A new instrument was introduced in France, some few years 
since, for this purpose, called the acraseur — so constructed as 
to throw a chain over the cord, which is wound up by means 
of a screw working upon the chain, and at the same time the 
cord is twisted off. No bleeding follows this method of oper- 
ating. 

The advantages resulting from the use of this instrument 
over all methods are, that the parts generally heal within a 
week — the operation is not so painful to the animal-:— it is less 
troublesome to the operator — also to the owner of the animal 
— and, lastly, it is a safer and more scientific operation. Its 
success in France soon gave it a reputation in England, and it 
has been introduced into this country, and with the best results. 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 

Abortion. — Symptoms. — The cow is, more than any other 
animal, subject to abortion or slinking, which takes place at 
different periods of pregnancy, from half of the usual time to 
the seventh or almost the eighth month. The symptoms of the 
approach of abortion, unless the breeder is very much among 
his stock, are not often perceived; or, if perceived, they are 
concealed by the person in charge, lest he should be accused 
of neglect or improper treatment. 

The cow is somewhat off her feed — rumination ceases — she 
is listless and dull — the milk diminishes or dries up — the 
motions of the foetus become more feeble, and at length cease 
altogether — there is a slight degree of enlargement of the belly 
— there is a little staggering in her walk — when she is down she 
lies longer than usual, and when she gets up she stands for a 
longer time motionless. 

As the abortion approaches, a yellow or red glairy fluid runs 
from the vagina (this is a symptom which rarely or never 
deceives), her breathing becomes laborious and slightly convul- 
sive. The belly has for several days lost its natural rotundity, 
and has been evidently falling — she begins to moan — the pulse 
becoms small, wiry, and intermittent. At length labor comes 
on, and is often attended with much difficulty and danger. 

If the abortion has been caused by blows or violence, 
whether from brutality or the animal's having been teased by 
other cows in season or by oxen, the symptoms are more 
intense. The animal suddenly ceases to eat and to ruminate — 



246 CATTLE. 

is uneasy, paws the ground; rests her head on the tna) gcr 
while she is standing, and on her flank while she is lying down 
— hemorrhage frequently conies on from the uterus, or when this 
is not the case the mouth of that organ is spasmodically con- 
tracted. The throes come on, are distressingly violent, and 
continue until the womb is ruptured. If all these circumstances 
be not observed, still the labor is protracted and dangerous. 

Abortion is sometimes singularly frequent in particular 
districts or on particular farms, appearing to assume an 
epizootic or epidemic form. This has been accounted for in 
various ways. Some have imagined it to be contagious. It is, 
indeed, destructively propagated among the cows, but this is 
probably to be explained on a different principle from that of 
contagion. The cow is a considerably imaginative animal and 
highly irritable during the period of pregnancy. In abortion, 
the foetus is often putrid before it is discharged; and the 
placenta, or afterbirth, rarely or never follows it, but becomes 
decomposed, and, as it drops away in fragments, emits a peculiar 
and most noisome smell. This smell seems to be peculiarly 
annoying to the other cows; they sniff at it and then run 
bellowing about. Some sympathetic influence is exercised on 
their uterine organs, and in a few days a greater or less number 
of those that had pastured together likewise abort. Hence arises 
the rapidity with which the foetus is usually taken away and 
buried deeply, and far from the cowb; and hence the more 
effectual preventive of smearing the parts of the cow with tar 
or stinking oils in order to conceal or subdue the smell; and 
hence, too, the inefficacy, as a preventive, of removing her to a 
far-distant pasture. 

The pastures on which the blood or inflammatory fever is 
most prevalent are those on which the cows oftenest slink 
their calves. Whatever can become a cause of general excita- 
tion and fever, is likely, during pregnancy, to produce inflam- 
mation of the womb; or whatever would, under other circum- 
stances, excite inflammation of almost any organ, has, at that 
time, its injurious effect determined to this particular one. 

Some careful observers have occasionally attributed abor- 
tion to disproportion in size between the male and the female. 
Farmers were formerly too fond of selecting a great overgrown 
bull to serve thei.r dairy or breeding cows, and many a heifer 
or little cow was seriously injured; and she either cast her calf 
or was lost in parturition. The breeders of cattle in later years 
are beginning to act more wisely in this matter. 

Cows that arc degenerating into consumption are exceed- 
ingly subject to abortion. They are continually in heat; they 
rarely become pregnant, or, if they do, a great proportion of 
them cast their calves. Abortion, also, often follows a sudden 



CATTLE. 247 

change from poor to ixuriant food. Cows that have been out 
half-starved in the winter, when incautiously turned on rich 
pasture in the spring, are too apt to cast their calves from the 
undue general or local excitation that is set up. Hence it is 
that, when this disposition to abort first appears in a herd, it is 
naturally in a cow that has been lately purchased. Fright, 
from whatever cause, may produce this trouble. There are 
singular cases on record of whole lierds of cows slinking their 
calves after having been terrified by an unusually violent 
thunder storm. Commerce with the bull soon after conception 
is also a frequent cause, as well as putrid smells — other than 
those already noticed — and the use of a diseased bull. Besides 
these tangible causes of abortion, there is the mysterious agency 
of the atmosphere. There are certain seasons when abortion is 
strangely frequent and fatal; while at other times it disappears 
in a manner for several successive years. 

The consequences of premature calving are frequently of a 
very serious nature; and even when the case is more favorable 
the results are, nevertheless, very annoying. The animal very 
soon goes again to heat, but in a great many cases she fails to 
become pregnant; she almost invariably does so, if she is put 
to the bull during the first heat after abortion. If she should 
come in calf again during that season, it is very probable that 
at about the same period of gestation, or a little later, she will 
again abort; or that, when she becomes in calf the following 
year, the same fatality will attend her. Some say that this 
disposition to cast her young gradually ceases; that, if she does 
miscarry, it is at a later and still later period of pregnancy; and 
that, in about three or four years, she may be depended upon 
as a tolerably safe breeder. He, however, would be sadly 
inattentive to his own interests who keeps a profitless beast so 
long. 

The calf very rarely lives, and in the majority of cases it is 
born dead or putrid. If there should appear to be any chance 
of saving it, it should be washed with warm water, carefully 
dried, and fed frequently with small quantities of new milk, 
mixed, according to the apparent weakness of the animal, 
either with raw eggs or good gruel; while the bowels should, if 
occasion requires, be opened by means small doses of castor- 
oil. If any considerable period is to elapse before the natural 
time of pregnancy would have expired, it will usually be nec- 
essary to bring up the little animal entirely by hand. 

The Treatment. — The. treatment of abortion differs but 
little from that of parturition. If the farmer has once been 
tormented by this pest in his dairy, he should carefully watch 
the approaching symptoms of casting the calf, and, as soon as 
he perceives them, should remove the animal from the pasture 



*44B CATTLE. 

to a comfortable cow-house or shed. If the discharge be glairy, 
but not offensive, he may hope that the calf is not dead; he 
will be assured of this by the motion of the foetus, and then it 
is possible that the abortion may still be avoided. He should 
hasten to bleed her, and that copiously, in proportion to her 
age, size, condition, and the state of excitation in which he 
may find her; and he should give a dose of physic immediately 
after the bleeding. When the physic begins to operate, he 
should administer half a drachm of opium and half an ounce 
of sweet spirits of nitre. Unless she is in a state of great debility, 
he should allow nothing but gruel, and she should be kept as 
quiet as possible. By these means he may occasionally allay 
the general or local irritation that precedes or causes the 
abortion, and the cow may yet go to her full time. 

Should, however, the discharge be fetid, the conclusion will 
be that the foetus is dead, and must be got rid of, and that as 
speedily as possible. Bleeding may even then be requisite if 
much fever exists; or, perhaps, if there is debility, some stimu- 
lating drink may not be out of place. In other respects the 
animal must be treated as if her usual time of pregnancy had 
been accomplished. 

Much may be done in the way of preventing this habit of 
abortion among cows. The foetus must be got rid of immedi- 
ately. It should be buried deep and far from the cow-pasture. 
Proper means should be taken to hasten the expulsion of the 
placenta. A dose of physic should be given; ergot of rye 
administered; the hand should be introduced, and an effort 
made, cautiously and gently, to detach the placenta; all violence, 
however, should be carefully avoided; for considerable and 
fatal hemorrhage may be speedily produced. The parts of the 
cow should be well washed with a solution of the chloride of 
lime, which should be injected up the vagina, and also given 
internally. In the meantime, and especially after the expulsion 
of the placenta, the cow-house should be well washed with the 
same solution. 

The cow, when beginning to recover, should be fattened 
and sold. This is the first and grand step toward the preven- 
tion of abortion, and he is unwise who does not immediately 
adopt it. All other means are comparatively inefficient and 
worthless. Should the owner be reluctant to part with her, two 
months, at least, should pass before she is permitted to return 
to her companions. Prudence would probably dictate that she 
should never return to them, but be kept, if possible, on some 
distant part of the farm. 

Abortion having once occurred among the herd, the breed- 
ing cows should be carefully watched. Although they should 
be well fed, they should not be suffered to get into too high 



CATTLE. 249 

condition. Unless they are decidedly poor and weak, they 
should be bled between the third and fourth months of preg- 
nancy, and a mild dose of physic administered to each. If 
the pest continues to reappear, the owner should most carefully 
examine how far any of the causes of abortion that have been 
detected, may exist on his farm, and exert himself to thoroughly 
remove them. 

Garget. — This is an inflammation of the internal substance 
of the udder. One or more of the teats, or whole sections 
of the udder, become enlarged and thickened, hot, tender, and 
painful. The milk coagulates in the bag, and causes inflamma- 
tion where it is deposited, which is accompanied by fever. 
It most commonly occurs in young cows after calving, especi- 
ally when in too high condition. The secretion of milk is very 
much lessened, and, in very bad cases, stopped altogether. 
Sometimes the milk is thick, and mixed with blood. Often, 
also, in severe cases, the hind extremities, as the hip-joint, 
hock, or fetlock, are swollen and inflamed to such an extent 
that the animal cannot rise. The simplest remedy, in mild 
cases, is to put the calf to its mother several times a day. This 
will remove the flow of milk, and often dispel the congestion. 

Treatment. — Sometimes the udder is so much swollen 
that the cow will not permit the calf to suck. If the fever 
increases, the appetite declines, and rumination ceases. In this 
stage of the complaint, the advice of a scientific veterinary 
practitioner is required. A dose of purging medicine and 
frequent washing of the udder, in mild cases,, are usually suc- 
cessful. The physic should consist of epsom salts, one pound; 
ginger, half an ounce; nitrate of potassa, half an ounce; dis- 
solved in a quart of boiling water; then add a gill of molasses, 
and give to the cow lukewarm. Diet moderate; that is, on bran, 
or, if in summer, green food. There are various medicines for 
the different forms and stages of garget, which, if the above 
medicine fails, can be properly prescribed by a skillful vet- 
erinary practitioner. 

It is important that the udder should be .frequently exam- 
ined, as matter may be forming, which should be immediately 
released. Various causes are assigned for this disease, such as 
exposure to cold and wet, or the want of proper care or atten- 
tion in parturition. 

An able writer says that hasty drying up a cow often gives 
rise to inflammation and indurations of the udder, difficult of 
removal. Sometimes a cow lies down upon and bruises the 
udder, and this is another cause. But a very frequent source, 
and one for which there can be no excuse, is the failure to 
milk a cow clean. The calf should be allowed to suck often, 



250 CATTLE. 

and the cow should be milked at least twice a day as clean as 
possible, while suffering from this complaint. 

If the udder is hot and feverish, a wash may be used, con- 
sisting of eight ounces of vinegar and two ounces of camphor- 
etted spirit; the whole well and thoroughly mixed, and applied 
just after milking, to be washed off in warm water before milk- 
ing again. 

In very bad cases, iodine has often been found most effec- 
tual. An iodine ointment may be prepared by taking one 
drachm of hydriodate of potash and an ounce of lard, and 
mixing them well together. A small portion of the mixture, 
from the size of a pigeon's egg, in limited inflammations, to twice 
that amount, is to be well rubbed into the swollen part, morn- 
ing and night. 

When milk forms in the bag before parturition, so as to 
cause a swelling of the udder, it should be milked away; and 
a neglect of this precaution often leads to violent attacks of 
garget. 

Prevention is always better than cure. The reason most 
commonly given for letting the cow run dry for a month or two 
before calving is that after a long period of milking her system 
requires rest, and that she will give more milk and do better 
the coming season than if milked up to the time of calving. 

This is all true, and a reason sufficient in itself for drying 
off the cow some weeks before parturition; but there is another 
important reason for the practice, which is that the mixture of 
the old milk with the new secretion is liable to end in an ob- 
stinate case of garget. 

To prevent any ill effects from calving, the cow should not 
be suffered to get too fat, which high feeding, after drying off, 
might induce. 

The period of gestation is about two hundred and eighty- 
four or two hundred and eighty-five days. But cows some- 
times overrun their time, and have been known to go three 
hundred and thirteen days, and even more; while they now 
and then fall short of it, and have been known to calve in two 
hundred and twenty days. If they go much over the average 
time, the calf will generally be a male. 

False Presentation. — The cow, when about to calve, ought 
not to be disturbed by too constant watching. The natural 
presentation of the foetus is with the head lying upon the fore 
legs. If in this position, nature will generally do all. But, if 
the presentation is unnatural, and the labor has been long and 
ineffectual, some assistance is required. The hand, well 
greased, may be introduced, and the position of the calf 
changed; and, when in a proper position, a cord should be 
tied round the fore legs, just above the hoofs; but no effort 



CATTLE. 251 

should be made to draw out the calf till the natural throes are 
repeated. If the nostril of the calf has protruded, and the 
position is then found to be unnatural, the head cannot be 
thrust back without destroying the life of the calf. 

The false position most usually presented is that of the 
head first, with the legs doubled under the belly. A cord is 
then fixed around the lower jaw, when it is pushed back, to 
give an opportunity to adjust the fore legs, if possible. The 
object must now be to save the life of the cow. 

But the cases of false presentation, though comparatively 
rare, are so varied that no direction could be given which 
would be applicable in all cases. 

After calving, the cow will require but little care, if she is 
in the barn, and protected from changes of weather. A warm 
bran mash is usually given, and the state of the udder exam- 
ined. 

Puerperal or Milk Fever. — Calving is often attended with 
feverish excitement. The change of powerful action from the 
womb to the udder causes much constitutional disturbance and 
local inflammation. A cow is subject to nervousness in such 
circumstances, which sometimes extends to the whole system, 
and causes puerperal fever. This complaint is called dropping 
after calving, because it succeeds that process. The prominent 
symptom is a loss of power over the motion of the hind ex- 
tremities, and inability to stand; sometimes loss of sensibility 
in these parts, so that a deep puncture with a pin, or other 
sharp instrument, is unfelt. 

This disease is much to be dreaded by the farmer on account 
of the high state of excitement and the local inflammation. 
Either from neglect or ignorance, the malady is not discovered 
until the manageable symptoms have passed, and extreme de- 
bility has appeared. The animal is often first seen lying down, 
unable to rise; prostration of strength and violent fever are 
brought on by inflammation of the womb. But soon a general 
inflammatory action succeeds, rapid and violent, with complete 
prostration of all the vital forces, bidding defiance to the best 
selected remedies. 

Cows in very high condition, and cattle removed from low 
keeping to high feeding, are the most liable to puerperal fever. 
It occurs most frequently during the hot weather of summer, 
and then it is most dangerous. When it occurs in winter, cows 
sometimes recover. In hot weather they usually die. 

Milk fever may be induced by the hot drinks often given 
after calving. A young cow at her first calving is rarely at- 
tacked with it. Great milkers are most commonly subject to 
it; but all cows have generally more or less fever at calving. 
A little addition to it, by improper treatment or neglect, will 



352 CATTLE. 

prevent the secretion of milk; and thus the milk, being thrown 
back into the system, will increase the inflammation. 

This disease sometimes shows itself in the short space of 
two or three hours after calving, but often not under two or 
three days. If four or five days have passed, the cow may 
generally be considered safe. 

Symptoms. — The animal is restless, frequently shifting her 
position; occasionally pawing and heaving at the flanks. Muz- 
zle hot and dry, the mouth open, and tongue out at one side; 
countenance wild; eyes staring. She moans often, and soon 
becomes very irritable. Delirium follows; she grates her teeth, 
foams at the mouth, tosses her head about, and frequently in- 
jures herself. From the first, the udder is hot, enlarged and 
tender, and, if this swelling is attended by a suspension of milk, 
the cause is clear. As the case is inflammatory, its treatment 
must be in accordance; and it is usually subdued without much 
difficulty. 

Treatment. — A pound to one and a half pounds of epsom 
or Glauber's salts, according to the size and condition of the 
animal, should be given, dissolved in a quart of boiling water; 
and, when dissolved, add pulv. red pepper a quarter of an ounce; 
caraway, do. do.; ginger, do. do.; mix, and add a gill of mo- 
lasses, and give luke warm. If this medicine does not act on 
the bowels, the quantity of ginger, capsicum, and caraway, 
must be doubled. The insensible stomach must be aroused. 
When purging in an early stage is begun, the fever will more 
readily subside. After the operation of the medicine, seda- 
tives may be given, if necessary. 

The digestive function first fails, when the secondary or 
low state of fever comes on. The food discharged ferments; 
the stomach and intestines are inflated with gas, and swell 
rapidly. The nervous system is also attacked, and the poor 
beast staggers. The hind extremities show the weakness; the 
cow falls and cannot rise; her head is turned on one side, 
where it rests; her limbs are palsied. The treatment in this 
stage must depend on the existence and degree of fever. The 
pulse will be the only true guide. If it is weak, wavering, and 
irregular, we must avoid depleting, purgative agents. The 
blood flows through the arteries, impelled by the action of the 
heart, and its pulsations can be very distinctly felt by pressing 
the finger upon almost any of these arteries that is not too 
thickly covered by fat or the cellular tissues of the skin, espec- 
ially where it can be pressed upon some hard or bony sub- 
stance beneath it. The most convenient place is directly at the 
back part of the lower jaw, where a large artery passes over the 
edge of the jaw bone to ramify on the face. The natural pulse of 
a full grown ox will vary from about forty-eight to fifty-fiv9 



CATTLE. 353 

beats a minute; that of a cow is rather quicker, especially near 
the time of calving; and that of a calf is quicker than that of a 
cow. But a very much quicker rate than that indicated will 
show a feverish state or inflammation, and a much slower pul- 
sation indicates debility of some kind. 

Next in importance, as we have already stated, is the 
physic. The bowels must be opened, or the animal will fall a 
victim to the disease. All medicines should be of an active 
character, and in sufficient quantity; and stimulants should 
always be added to the purgative medicines, to insure their 
operation. Ginger, gentian, caraway, or red pepper in powder, 
may be given with each dose of physic. Some give a powerful 
purgative, by means of epsom salts, one pound; flour of sulphur, 
four ounces; powdered ginger, a quarter of an ounce; all dis- 
solved in a quart of cold water, and one-half given twice a day 
till the bowels are opened. The digestive organs are deranged 
in most forms of milk fever, and the third stomach is loaded 
with hard, indigestible food. When the medicine has operated, 
and the fever is subdued, little is required but good nursing 
to restore the patient. 

No powerful medicines should be used without discretion; 
for, in the milder forms of the disease, as the simple palsy of 
the hind extremities, the treatment, though of a similar charac- 
ter, should be less powerful, and every effort should be made 
for the comfort of the cow by providing a thick bed of straw, 
and raising the forequarters to assist the efforts of nature, 
while all filth should be carefully and promptly removed. She 
may be covered with a warm cloth, and warm gruel should be 
frequently offered to her, and light mashes. An attempt 
should be made several times a day to bring milk from the 
teats. The return of milk is an indication of speedy recovery. 

Milch cows in too high condition appear to have a consti- 
tutional tendency to this complaint, and one attack of it pre- 
disposes them to another. <? 

Simple Fever. — This may be considered as increased arte- 
rial action, with or without any local affection; or it may be 
the consequence of the sympathy of the system with the mor- 
bid condition of some particular part. The first is pure or 
idiopathic fever. Pure fever is of frequent occurrence in cattle. 
Symptoms as follows: Muzzle dry; rumination slow or entirely 
suspended; respiration slightly accelerated; the horn at the 
root hot, and its other extremity frequently cold: pulse quick; 
bowels constipated; coat staring and the cow is usually seen 
separated from the rest of the herd. In slight attacks, a cathar- 
tic of salts, sulphur and ginger is sufficient. But, if the common 
fever is neglected or improperly treated, it may assume, after a 
time, a local determination, as pleurisy or inflammation of the 



254 CATTLE. 

lungs or bowels. In such cases the above remedy would be 
insufficient, and a veterinary surgeon to manage the case would 
be necessary. Symptomatic fever is more dangerous and is 
commonly the result of injury, the neighboring parts sympa- 
thizing with the injured part. Cattle become unwell, are 
stinted in their feed, have a dose of physic, and in a few days 
are well; still a fever may terminate in some local affection. 
But in both cases pure fever is the primary disease. 

A more dangerous form of fever is that known as symptom- 
atic. As we have said, cattle are not only subject to fever of 
common intensity, but to symptomatic fever, and thousands 
die annually from its effects. But the young and the most 
thriving are its victims. There are few premonitory symptoms 
of symptomatic fever. It often appears without any previous 
indications of illness. The animal stands with her neck 
extended, her eyes protruding and red, muzzle dry, nostrils 
expanded, breath hot, base of the horn hot, mouth open, pulse 
full, breathing quick. She is often moaning; rumination and 
appetite are suspended; she soon becomes more uneasy; 
changes her position often. Unless these symptoms are speedily 
removed, she dies in a few hours. 

Treatment. — The name of the ailment, inflammatory or 
symptomatic fever, shows the treatment necessary, which must 
commence with .purging. Salts here, as in most inflammatory 
diseases, are the most reliable. From a pound to a pound and 
a half, with ginger and sulphur in a dose, dissolved in warm 
water or thin gruel. If this does not operate in twelve hours, 
give half the dose, and repeat once in twelve hours until the 
bowels are freed. After the operation of the medicine the 
animal is relieved. The sedative medicines may be given. 
Sal ammoniac, one drachm; powdered nitre, two drachms; 
should be administered in thin gruel two or three times a day, if 
required. 

Bronchitis. — The trachea and bronchial tubes are fre- 
quently the seat of inflammation, especially in the spring of 
the year — the symptoms of which are often confounded with 
those of other pulmonary diseases. This inflammation is fre- 
quently preceded by catarrhal affections; cough is often pres- 
ent for a long time before the more acute symptoms are 
observed. Bronchitis occasionally makes its appearance in an 
epizootic form. 

Symptoms. — A peculiarly anxious expression of the coun- 
tenance will be observed; respiration laborious; a husky, 
wheezing, painful cough; on placing the ear to the windpipe a 
sonorous rale is heard; symptomatic fever also prevails to a 
greater or lesser extent. 



CATTLE. 255 

Treatment. — Counter irritation should be early resorted 
to; strong mustard, mixed with equal parts of spirits of harts- 
horn and water, and made into a thin paste, should be applied 
all along the neck over the windpipe, and to the sides, and 
should be well rubbed in; or the tincture of cantharides with 
ten drops of castor-oil to each ounce, applied in the same man- 
ner as the former, will be found equally effective. Give inter- 
nally ten drops of Fleming's tincture of aconite every four 
hours until five or six doses have been given; after which give 
one of the following powders twice a day; Nitrate of potash, 
one ounce; Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; Jamaica ginger, half 
an ounce; pulverized-gentian root, one ounce; mix and divide 
into eight powders. If necessary a pound of salts may be 
given. 

Diseases of the Teats. — Obstruction at the Ends of 
THE Teats. — It occasionally happens that a fungous or watery 
excerescence makes its appearance at the end and centre of the 
teat, which obstructs the flow of milk, and is very annoying and 
painful to the animal. This should be removed by the scalpel, 
taking care to dissect away every portion of the morbid growth. 
The part is then to be sprinkled with powdered bloodroot, in 
order to prevent union of the edges of the the outlet of the 
teat. The milk-tube, well oiled, must now and then be intro- 
duced. 

Obstruction in the Teats. — A simple obstruction in the 
teats is frequently occasioned by imperfect union in the lining 
membrane. 

Treatment. — This is easily remedied by introducing a 
tube constructed for the purpose, which should be well lubri- 
cated with olive oil and allowed to remain in the lactiferous 
channel for several hours daily, or until all danger of readhe- 
sion has passed away. The lactiferous outlet is sometimes 
obstructed by false membranes running across its channel. 
These must be annihilated by the introduction of the tube. 

Tumors in the Teats. — Tumors are occasionally found 
in the teats. Their presence is determined by bulbous enlarge- 
ment, which, on manipulation, appear very evident. 

Treatment. — The method of operation in such cases is to 
introduce a tube, well smeared with iodine ointment, and 
repeat the operation two or three times daily, until the milk 
passes freely. 

Injuries to the Teats. — There are many cases of injury 
to the teats in the form of an incision, which occurred acci- 
dentally on the animal rising from the ground, cutting or lacer- 
ating the same with its own hoofs. 



256 CATTLE. 

Treatment. — ^When the accident is discovered shortly 
after it happens, the parts may be drawn together by uninter- 
rupted suture. The seam is then coated with collodion, and 
the milk must be evacuated wholly by the tube until the parts 
have united. Sometimes the union is not complete, but a small 
fistulous opening is left, through which the milk is constantly 
dribbling. The only way to remedy this is to convert the 
fistula into a simple flesh-wound. This is done by means of a 
sharp-pointed knife, which removes the thin callus forming the 
interior of the fistula. The raw edges are then to be brought 
together by suture, and collodion and the tube used as before. 

Sore Teats. — Treatment. — First, wash with warm water 
and Castile soap; then lubricate the parts with equal portions 
of lime-water and linseed oil. 

Chapped Teats and Chafed Udder. — Treatment. — 
Foment the parts daily with an infusion of camomile flowers 
for at least fifteen minutes at a time; then wipe dry and use 
the lime liniment. These temporary, or what might, with more 
propriety, be termed local, maladies, will, if the system be free 
from morbid matter, generally yield to local remedies. If, how- 
ever, no change for the better can be observed, the following 
aperient should be given : 

Cow-pox. — Two varieties of sore teats occur in the cow, in 
the form of pustular eruption. They first appear as small 
vesicles containing a purulent matter, and subsequently assume 
a scabby appearance, or small ulcers remain, which often prove 
troublesome to heal. This latter is the cow-pox, from which 
Ji^nner derived the vaccine matter. 

Treatment. — Foment the teats well with warm water and 
Castile soap; after which, wipe the bag dry, and dress with 
citrine ointment. The preparations of iodine have also been 
recommended, and they are very serviceable. 

Coryza. — In the spring, and late in the fall, catarrhal affec- 
tions are quite common, occurring frequently in an epizootic 
form. Coryza, or nasal catarrh, commonly called a cold in the 
head, is not very common among cows. As its name implies, 
it is a local disease, confined to the lining membrane of the 
nose; and, consequently, the general system is not usually 
disturbed. 

Symptoms. — The animal will be observed to sneeze; the 
schneiderian membrane (membrane of the nose) is heightened 
in color; cough sometimes accompanies; there is also a muco- 
purulent discharge from the nose. Neglect to attend to these 
early symptoms frequently occasions disease of a more serious 
nature. In fact, coryza may be regarded as the forerunner of 
all epizootic pulmonary disorders. 



CATTLE. 257 

Treatment. — The animal should be kept on a low diet 
for a few days; the nostrils occasionally steamed, and one of ihc 
following powders given night and morning, which, in most 
cases, will be all the medicine required: Nitrate of potassa, one 
ounce; digitalis leaves pulverized and tartrate of antimony, of 
each one drachm; sulphate of copper, two drachms. Mix, and 
divide into eight powders. Should the disease prove obstinate, 
give for two or three days two ounces of epsom salts at a dose, 
dissolved in water, three times a day. 

Diarrhcea. — Cattle are frequently subject to this disease, 
particularly in the spring of the year when the grass is young 
and soft. Occasionally it assumes a very obstinate form in 
consequence of the imperfect secretion of gastric juice; the 
fseces are thin, watery, and fetid, followed by very great 
prostration of the animal. 

The symptoms of diarrhoea are too well Icnown to require 
any detailed description. 

Treatment. — If in a mild form, the diet should be low; 
give two ounces of epsom salts twice a day. In a more obsti- 
nate form, give two drachms of carbonate of soda in the food. 
Oak-bark tea will be found very useful in these cases; or one 
of the following powders, twice a day, will be found very 
advantageous: Pulverized opium and catechu, each one and a 
half ounces; prepared chalk, one drachm; to be given in 
the feed. 

Calves are particularly subject to this disease, and it often 
proves fatal to them. It sometimes assumes an epizootic form, 
when it is generally of a mild character. So long as the calf is 
lively and feeds well, the farmer should entertain no fear for 
him; but if he mopes about, refuses his food, ceases to rumin- 
ate, wastes in flesh, passes mucus and blood with the faeces, and 
exhibits symptoms of pain, the case is a dangerous one. 

In such an emergency, lose no time, but give two or three 
ounces of castor-oil with flour-gruel, or two ounces of salts at a 
dose, followed with small draughts of oak-bark tea; or give, 
twice a day, one of the following powders: Pulverized catechu, 
opium, and Jamaica ginger, of each, half an ounce; prepared 
chalk, one ounce. Mix, and divide into twelve powders. 
Bran washes, green food, and flour-gruel should be given, 
with plenty of salt. 

Dysentery, — This disease is very frequently confounded 
with the foregoing. A distinction, however, exists, since inflam- 
mation appears in this disease, while it is absent in the former. 
In this affection, inflammation of the large intestines takes 
place, which is attended with diarrhoea. The faeces are covered 
with blood; the animal rapidly becomes prostrated, and death 
frequently comes to its relief 



358 CATTLE. 

It is, however, with dysentery that the practioner is most 
loth to cope, a disease that betrays thousands of cattle. This, 
also, may be either acute or chronic. Its causes are too often 
buried in obscurity, and its premonitory symptoms are disre- 
garded or unknown. There appears to be a strong predispo- 
sition in cattle to take on this disease. It seems to be the 
winding up of many serious complaints, and the foundation of 
it is sometimes laid by those that appear to be of the most 
trifling nature. It is that in cattle which glanders and farcy 
are in the horse — the breaking up of the constitution. 

Dysentery may be a symptom and concomittant of other dis- 
eases. It is one of the most fearful characteristics of murrain; 
it is the destructive accompaniment, or consequence, of phthisis. 
It is produced by the sudden disappearance of a cutaneous 
eruption; it follows the cessation of chronic hoose; it is the 
consequence of the natural or artificial suspension of every 
secretion. Were any secretion to be particularly selected, the 
repression of which would produce dysentery, it would be that 
of the milk. How often does the farmer observe that no sooner 
does a milch cow cease her usual supply of milk than she 
begins to purge! There may not appear to be anything else 
the matter with her; but she purges, and, in the majority of 
cases, that purging is fatal. 

It may sometimes, however, be traced to sufficient causes, 
exclusive of previous disease. Unwholesome food — exposure 
to cold — neglect at the time of calving — low and marshy situa- 
tions — the feeding in meadows that have been flooded, where 
it is peculiarly fatal — the grazing upon the clays lying over the 
blue lias rock — the neighborhood of Avoods and of half-stagnant 
rivers — the continuatiqn of unusually sultry weather — over- 
work, and all the causes of acute dysentery, may produce that 
of a chronic nature; an acute dysentery — neglected, or badly, 
or even most skillfully treated — may degenerate into an incur- 
able chronic affection. Half starve a cow, or overfeed her, 
milk her to exhaustion, or dry her milk too rapidly — and dysen- 
tery may follow. 

Symptoms. — The following will, probably, be the order of 
the symptoms, if they are carefully observed: There will be a 
little dulness or anxiety of countenance, the muzzle becoming 
short or contracted; a slight shrinking when the loins are 
pressed upon; the skin a little harsh and dry; the hair a little 
rough; there will be a slight degree of uneasiness and shiver- 
ing that scarcely attracts attention; then — except it be the 
degeneracy of acute into chronic dysentery — constipation may 
be perceived. It will be, to a certain extent, obstinate; the 
excrement will be voided with pain; it will be dry, hard, and 
expelled in small quantities. In other cases, perhaps, purging 



CATTLE. 259 

\vill be present from the beginning; the animal will be tor- 
mented with tenesmus, or frequent desire to void its excrement, 
and that act attained by straining and pain, by soreness about 
the anus, and protrusion of the rectum and sometimes by 
severe colicky spasms. In many cases, however, and in those 
of a chronic form, few of these distressing sym.ptoms are 
observed, even at the commencement of the disease; but the 
animal voids her fceces oftener than it is natural that she 
should, and they are more fluid than- in a state of health; while 
at the same time she loses her appetite and spirits and condi- 
tion, and is evidently wasting away. 

Treatment. — Give one drachm of the extract of bella- 
donna, three times a day, dissolved in water; or calomel and 
powdered opium, of each one drachm three times daily. As 
soon as the inflammatory stage passes by, give one of the 
following three times daily, in their gruel: Nitrate of potash pul- 
verized, gentian-root pulverized, of each one ounce; pulverized 
Jamaica ginger, one-half an ounce; pulverized caraway, oi 
anise seed, six drachms. A bottle of porter, given once o^ 
twice a day, will be found of very great advantage. 

The Hoove, or Hoven. — This is brought on by a derange^ 
ment of the digestive organs, occasioned by over- feeding on 
green and luxuriant clover, or other luxuriant food. It is 
simply the distension of the first stomach by carbonic acid gas. 
In later stages, after fermentation of the contents of the stom- 
ach has commencedj hydrogen gas is also found. The green 
food, being gathered very greedily after the animal has been 
kept on dry, and perhaps unpalatable hay, is not sent forward 
so rapidly as it is received, and remains to overload and clog 
the stomach, till this organ ceases or loses the power to act 
upon it. Here it becomes moist and heated, begins to ferment, 
and produces a gas which distends the paunch of the animal, 
which often swells up enormously. The cow is in great pain, 
breathing with difficulty, as if nearly suffocating. Then the 
body grows cold, and, unless relief is at hand, the cow dies. 

Treatment. — Prevention is both cheaper and safer than 
cure; but if by neglect, or want of proper precaution, the animal 
is found in this suffering condition, relief must be afforded 
as soon as possible, or the result will be fatal. 

A hollow flexible tube, introduced into the gullet, will 
sometimes afford a temporary relief till other means can be 
had, by allowing part of the gas to escape; but the cause is 
not removed either by this means or by puncturing the paunch, 
which is often dangerous 

In the early stage of the disease the gas may be neutralized 
by ammonia, which is usually near at hand. Two ounces of 



260 CATTLE. 

liquid ammonia, in a quart of distilled or rain water, given 
every quarter of an hour, will prove beneficial. A little tincture 
of ginger, essence of aniseed, or some other cordial, may be 
added, without lessening the effect of the ammonia. 

If the case has assumed an alarming character, the flexible 
tube, or probang, may be introduced, and afterwards take 
three drachms ether of the chloride of soda, dissolve in a pint 
of water, and pour it down the throat. Lime-water, potash, 
and sulphuric ether, are often used with effect. 

In desperate cases it may be found necessary to make an 
incision through the paunch; but the chloride of lime will, in 
most cases, give relief at once by neutralizing the gas. 

Choking. — This is often produced by feeding on roots, 
particularly round and uncut roots, like the potato. The ani- 
mal slavers at the mouth, tries to raise the obstruction from the 
throat. This method, if adopted, should be attended with 
great care and patience, or the tender parts will be injured. If 
the obstruction is low down, and a tube is to be inserted, a 
pint of olive or linseed oil first turned down will so lubricate the 
parts as to aid the operation, and the power applied must be 
steady. If the gullet is torn by the carelessness of the opera- 
tor, or the roughness of the instrument, a rupture generally 
results in serious consequences. A hollow tube is best, and if 
the object is passed on into the paunch, the tube should re- 
main a short time, to permit the gas to escape. In case the 
animal is badly swelled, the dose of chloride of lime, or am- 
monia, should be given, as for the hoove, after the obstruction 
is removed. 

Care should be taken, after the obstruction is removed, to 
allow no solid food for some days. 

Foul in the Foot. — Cows and other stock, when fed in low, 
wet pastures, will often suffer from ulcers or sores, generally 
appearing first between the claws. This is commonly called 
foul in the foot, and is analogous to foot-rot in sheep. It is 
often very painful, causing severe lameness and loss of flesh, 
and discharges a putrid matter or pus. Sometimes it first ap- 
pears in the form of a swelling near the top of the hoof which 
breaks and discharges foul matter. 

Treatment. — The rough and common practice among 
farmers is to fasten the foot in the same manner as the foot of 
an ox is fastened in shoeing, and draw a rough rope back and 
forth over the ulcerated parts, so as to produce a clean, fresh 
wound, and then dress it with tar or other similar substance. 

This is often an unnecessarily cruel operation. The loose 
matter may easily be removed by a knife, and then carefully 
wiped off with a moist sponge. The animal should then be re- 
nj9v?4 a-t once to a warm^ dry pasture, or kept in th^ barn, 



CATTLE. aei 

If the case has been neglected till the pasterns become 
swollen and tender, the sore may be thoroughly cleansed out, 
and dressed with an ointment of sulphate of iron, one ounce; 
molasses, four ounces; simmered over a slow fire till well mixed. 
Apply on a piece of cotton batting, and secure upon the parts. 
If any morbid growth or fungus appear, use equal parts of 
powdered blood-root and alum sprinkled on the sore, and this 
will usually effect a cure. 

Some also give a dose of flour of sulphur, half an ounce; 
powdered sassafras-bark, one ounce, and burdock, two ounces; 
the whole steeped in a quart of boiling water, and strained 
when cool; and, if the matter still continues to flow from the 
sore, wash it morning and night with chloride of soda, one 
ounce, or a tablespoonful of common salt dissolved in a pint 
of water. 

Foul in the foot causes very serious trouble, if not taken in 
season. The health of cows is injured to a great extent. 

The Mange. — This is commonly brought on by half-starving 
in winter, and by keeping the cow in a filthy, ill-ventilated 
place. It is contagious, and if one cow of a herd has it, the 
rest will be apt to get it also. Blaine says, "Mange has three 
origins — filth, debility and contagion." It is a disgrace to the 
farmer to suffer it to enter his herd from either of these causes, 
since it shows a culpable neglect of his stock. It is too com- 
mon in this country, especially in filthy barns. 

Symptoms. — The cow afflicted with the mange is hide- 
bound, the hair is dry and stiff, and comes of. She is con- 
stantly rubbing, and a kind of white scurfiness appears on the 
skin. It is most perceptible toward the latter part of winter 
and in spring, and thus too plainly tells the story of the winter's 
neglect. 

Treatment. — An ointment composed chiefly of sulphur 
has been found most effectual. Some mercurial ointment may 
be added if the cows are kept housed; but, if let out during the 
day, the quantity must be very small, else salivation is pro- 
duced by their licking themselves. 

The ointment may be made of flour of sulphur, one pound; 
strong mercurial ointment, two ounces; common turpentine, 
one-half pound; lard, one and a quarter pounds. Melt the tur- 
pentine and lard together, and stir in the sulphur as they begin 
to cool off; then rub down the mercurial ointment on some 
hard substance with the other ingredients. Rub the whole in 
with the hand, and take care to leave no places untouched 
once a day for three days; and, after this, if any places are left 
uncured, rub it in over them. There is no danger in this appli- 
cation if the animal is not exposed to severe cold. This will 



2G2 CATTLE. 

be pretty sure to effect a speedy cure, if aided by cieanliness, 
pure air and a nutritious diet. 

Another wash for mange is the following: Pyioligneous 
acid, four ounces; water, a pint: mix and apply. 

Lice. — Lice show unpardonable neglect of duty wherever 
they are suffered to exist. They crawl all over the stable floor 
and the stalls, on the pastures, and a touch is sufficient to give 
them to other animals. They worry the poor animal con- 
stantly, and no thriftiness can be expected where they are 
found. If the mange ointment does not completely destroy 
them, as it often will, take bees-wax, tallow and lard, in equal 
parts, and rub it into the hide in the most thorough manner, 
with the hand or brush, two and a half pounds for a small cow, 
three pounds for a large one. The next day it may be washed 
off in soft soap, and the lice will have disappeared from the 
animal, but not always from the barn. Some use a wash of 
powdered lobelia-seeds, two ounces, steeped iri boiling water, 
and applied with a sponge. Others hang up tobacco leaves 
over the stalls. This may do to keep them away, but after the 
animal is covered with them, they are not so easily scared. 

Warbles. — The gad-fly is very troublesome to cattle towards 
the end of summer. The fly alights on the back of the cow, 
punctures the skin, and lays her egg under it. A tumor is now 
formed, varying in size, which soon bursts and leaves a small 
hole for the grub already hatched to breathe through. Here 
the insect feeds on its surroundings and grows up to consider- 
able size. All this time the animal is probably suffering more 
or less pain, and often tries to lick or rub the part affected, 
if possible. Farmers often press them out with finger and 
thumb. The best way is to puncture the skin with a common 
pen-knife, and then press out the grub. They injure the hide 
more than most people are aware of. 

Loss of cud is a consequence of indigestion, and is often 
brought on by eating too greedily of food which the cow is 
not used to. Loss of cud and loss of appetite are synonymous. 
Gentle purgatives may be given, with such as salts, ginger and 
sulphur. But when a cow is surfeited, as already said, I should 
prefer to withhold food entirely, or for the most part, till the 
system can regulate itself. 

Epizootic Catarrh. — Catarrh frequently assumes an epizoo- 
tic form of a very virulent character, originating spontaneously 
and extending over a large section of country at or about the 
same time, A cold spring succeeding a mild winter is produc- 
tive of malignant catarrh. This is one of the most distressing 
and fatal diseases to which cattle are subject. 

Symptoms.- — The animal appears dull and unwilling to 



CATTLE. 203 

move about, staggering when forced to do so; obstinate costive- 
ness is usually one of the earliest symptoms, succeeded by 
diarrhoea, which is equally difficult of management; sometimes, 
however, diarrhoea is present from the first; the animal loses 
flesh rapidly; the coat is staring; the appetite is lost; tumors 
form about the head, neck, back, and joints, which appear to 
be filled with air, and upon pressure cause a crepitating sound; 
saliva flows from the mouth, becoming very fetid as the disease 
progresses. The animal always dies of putrefaction. 

Treatment. — This disease should be treated early, or not 
at all. Good nursing is very essential. When costiveness is 
present, give Barbadoes aloes, one ounce; croton-oil, ten drops; 
mix together; or give one pint of linseed oil, to which add from 
ten to twenty drops of castor-oil. If the bowels are not open 
in twenty-four hours, give four ounces of sulphate of magnesia 
every six hours until they are opened. Follow this with tinc- 
ture of aconite, ten drops in water every four hours, until the 
fever has abated. 

Bleeding has been recommended by some writers; but the 
author has failed to experience any benefit from resorting to 
it; but, on the contrary, has seen much injury result from the 
use — or, rather, the abuse — of the lancet. He is, indeed, 
inclined to attribute much of the fatality attending this dis- 
ease to indiscriminate blood-letting. 

When much debility exists, the animal should be sustained 
by stimulants. One ounce of nitric ether, and half an ounce of 
tincture of opium, given in a little water, will be found benefic- 
ial. It should be given twice a day. Pulverized gentian-root, one 
ounce; Jamaica ginger, half an ounce; pulverized cloves, half 
an ounce; mixed, and divided into four powders, one to be 
given at night and morning, will be found useful in place of 
the opium and ether. 

Gastro-Enteritis. — This disease — otherwise known as wood- 
evil, or moor-evil — arises from eating the buds of oak, young 
ash, and other trees, which are of a very highly stimulating or 
irritating character. As the intestinal canal is liable to inflam- 
matory action from irritant substances admitted into it, ani- 
mals are found to become diseased from eating too freely of 
these vegetable substances. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite and suspended rumination; 
mouth hot; skin dry; pulse from sixty to seventy; swelling and 
pain of the belly; obstinate constipation; fseces hard and cov- 
ered with blood; urine of a strong odor, highly colored, and 
voided with difficulty. 

Treatment. — The animal should be bled and a strong 
purgative administered, followed by aconite and belladonna, as 



2^4 CATTLE. 

in enteritis. Injections of Castile-soap and water should be 
freely used; the application of the mustard, hartshorn and 
water to the belly will also be found very beneficial. 

Inflammation of the Lungs. — Inflammation of the lungs, 
known also as pneumonia, is not usually so prevalent among 
the bovine as it proves to be in the equine species, excepting, 
however, milch cows, located in unventilated milking establish- 
ments. In such locations diseases of the lungs are often fear- 
fully prevalent, raging, at times, as an epizootic affection, which 
generally proves fatal when a large number of animals are con- 
fined in a small place. 

Among horses this disease is often occasioned by laborious 
work and feats of speed, which produce rapid and sometimes 
distressing respiration; but among cattle whose powers of 
speed and endurance are not often put to the test, we may rea- 
sonably infer that the exciting causes vary in their general 
character. 

The stimulating and morbid action of an impure atmos- 
phere may produce this disease by first creating irritation on 
the lining membrane of the respiratory passages. It has also 
been noticed that this disease frequently appears among cattle 
that have been driven a long distance and have also been com- 
pelled to go hungry and thirsty for many hours. Fortunately 
for the poor brute, this disease is not so painful as bronchitis, 
pleurisy and laryngitis; and, after having passed through the 
acute stage, it assumes a sort of mild, subacute or chronic type, 
which, apparently, appears less dangerous than the acute kind; 
yet, after all, is more so, as it is apt to terminate in altered 
structure, hepatization, induration, and tubercles. 

Pneumonia, now and then, terminates by metastasis; that 
is, by translation of the formidable lung difficulty to one 
equally formidable, which locates in the feet, known to veter- 
inarians as liminitis (fever in the feet). Among cattle, how- 
ever, this termination is rather rare, yet very frequent among 
horses. When the disease does not take this course it often 
ends in "resolution," which signifies a return to health, without 
leaving any perceivable evidence of altered structure; so that, 
after awhile, the animal may become sound as ever. 

Pneumonia is divided into several forms or stages, but, as 
they have reference to its degree or intensity, it seems unnec- 
essary to refer to them. It may, however, be proper to inform 
the reader that pneumonia may exist either as a state of con- 
gestion or of inflammation. Congestion signifies a distended 
or plethoric state of the blood-vessels of the parenchyma of 
the lungs, and slow motion of blood. Congestive pneumonia 
sometimes sets in as suddenly as that which is termed "inflam- 
matory," and among cattle the former is more prevalent. In 



CATTLE. jJG5 

the congestive stage, the symptoms are those of embarrassment, 
the blood courses through its channels sluggishly, and there is 
not the activity of heart and lungs which is perceivable in 
pneumonia. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms, in the early stage, are such as 
are generally observed at the commencement of any inflamma- 
tory affection; namely, coldness of extremities and shivering 
fits; loss of appetite; labored respiration, quick pulse, slight 
cough, mouth hot and clammy. The animal will not lie down, 
and refuses to move; the head is extended, perhaps drooping, 
and the fore-legs stand wide apart. As the disease progresses 
these symptoms vary, and the appearance of the membrane of 
the mouth, nose and eyes vary also, from the color of bright 
scarlet to that of a leaden hue. In the congestive stage, the 
pulse is more voluminous, yet less active, and the visible sur- 
faces are highly congested. A cough, slight or active, as the 
case may be, is usually noticed; it is a sort of deep-seated, 
half-suppressed cough, and sometimes is the first symptom 
which attracts the owner's attention to the ailing animal. 

Treatment. — It is very important, at the commencement 
of the treatment, that the patient shall be placed in a clean, 
comfortable location, where pure air abounds; for, under such 
circumstances, the condition favorable to the operation of 
Nature in the cure of the malady are secured. Should the 
animal labor under accelerated respiration, and full, strong 
pulse, administer one ounce of powdered nitre in a quart of 
cold water; after which, four ounces of the liquor acetate of 
ammonia may be given, every four hours. This agent also 
should have a quart of cold water added to it at every dose. 
The brisket and sides may be rubbed with a portion of the 
following: Powdered mustard and strong vinegar, enough of 
each to form a thin paste. When mixed, a small quantity of 
oil of cedar may be added. This application should be repeated 
two or three times in the course of twenty-four hours. Nause- 
ants are next administered, in view of relaxing capillary and 
muscular constrictions, and this is desirable, as such conditions 
tend to equalize the circulation of the blood and prevent an 
undue quantity accumulating in the pulmonary organs. 

A couple of quarts of infusion of lobelia may occasionally 
be thrown into the rectum. Considerable of the active princi- 
ple of lobelia may be absorbed within this gut, and, under the 
circumstances, it is much better to introduce the medicine into 
the system in this way than by the stomach. The proportions 
of the lobelia to the water are: 

2 ounces of lobelia (herb). 
2 quarts of boiling water. 

When cool, strain, and it is fit for usft 



266 CATTLE. 

It may be necessary to give a dose of medicine; if so, use 
the following: 

12 ounces of Glauber salts. 
1 drachm of ginger. 
1 quart of warm water. 

It should be known to all husbandmen that a disease of 
this character, located in such important organs as those of 
respiration, is very prostrating, and operates very unfavorably 
on the inherent vitality of parts; hence, as scon as the activity 
of the morbid phenomena is somewhat subdued, all active 
medication should cease. 

The affection is likely to continue for some days, and all 
we have to do is to try to keep the patient alive while the 
disease is running its course. Careful nursing, pure air and 
light diet are the remedies. After the first twenty-four hours, 
pay little attention to the pulse, but more to the patient, for 
there are but two conditions in this case — one acute, the other 
chronic. The very moment the acute condition subsides, it 
merges into the chronic, and requires life-sustaining agents. 
After the first twenty-four hours resort to the following 
medicine: 

8 ounces of glycerine. 
4 drachms of powdered bloodroot. 
1 ounce of powdered golden seal 
4 ounces of water. Mix. 

Dose, one tablespoonful, to be smeared on the tongue night 
and morning. 

Management Under Treatment. — As already intimated, 
a full supply of pure air must be insured; for a practitioner 
would be more likely to save an animal in the open air (pro- 
vided the weather is not too cold or tempestuous) than in the 
unventilated cow-house. Should the limbs at any time be cold, 
they are to be hand-rubbed and bandaged; the body being in 
the same condition, must also be clothed. Also give the chilled 
patient some warm ginger-tea, or any other non-alcoholic stim- 
ulant or carminative, in view of arousing the action of the 
heart and capillaries, by which means the red arterial and life- 
sustaining blood would be forced to the external surface, and 
extremities, imparting to them a genial warmth and thus 
insuring an equilibrium of the circulating fluid. The patient 
should be furnished constantly with a bucket of pure, cold 
water. When morbid thirst prevails, the water must be acidu- 
lated with either lemon juice, cream of tartar or acetic acid. 
Any symptoms of debility or lassitude are to be opposed by a 
few doses of some vegetable tonic. Tincture of golden seal 
or tincture of matico, in ounce doses every twelve hours, are 
the best remedies that I am acquainted with. 

Pharnygitis. — Sore Throat. — The term pharyngitis 



CATTLE. 26? 

signifies inflammation of the membrane lining in the pharyn- 
gitis inlet, or funnel-like entrance into the oesophagus, or gullet. 

Symptoms. — The subject is unable to swallow, and thus 
the food taken into the mouth is apt to be returned by the 
nostrils. This happens occasionally, although the passage of 
the nasal inlet is much smaller than it is in the horse. On 
exploring the interior region of the throat, from ear to ear, 
considerable swelling or tumefaction is encountered, yet the 
pharyngial muscles appear to be constricted. It generally, 
appears among cattle as a simple local affection, yet it often 
accompanies other diseases of the respiratory "character, and, 
whenever it does appear as a local malady, it is apt to merge 
into something else. It is a very distressing affection, and the 
animal gets but little relief until suppuration commences; then 
a free discharge takes place. 

Treatment, — Let the animals throat be rubbed twice 
daily with 

1 ounce oil of cedar, 

6 ounces of cod liver oil, 

2 drachms spirits of ammonia. Mix. 

Keep a sloppy bran-mash before the patient, or some flax- 
seed tea, into which stir a small quantity of powdered nitre of 
licorice. This will relieve the cough if any be present, and 
tend to lessen irritation of the lining membrane of the pharynx. 
When the patient begins to expectorate, or has the least 
discharge from the nose, give 

2 ounces balsam of tolu. 

3 ounces of sweet spirits of nitre. 

8 ounces of mucilage of gum arable. 

Dose, one wine-glassful twice daily. 

Pulmonary Appoplexy. — This disease occasionally appears 
among cattle in the Western States, It attacks animals 
irrespective of age, sex, or condition. It is generally sudden 
in its attacks, and death frequently ensues in the course of a 
few hours. 

Symptoms. — The pulse and respirations are very much 
accelerated, the former sometimes running as high as no; an 
augmented salivary secretion is observed to run from the mouth; 
the tongue is much swollen; so, also, are the eyelids, and tears 
run down each side of the face; various parts of the body are 
swollen and congested; the stomach is distended with gas, and 
the evacuations are profuse and watery. Post-mortem examin- 
ations reveal a highly congested state of the lungs; in fact, they 
are engorged with blood, and the muscles in the region of the 
tumefied parts are in a similar engorged condition. 

Treatment, — No time should be lost in administering the 



^(iS CAttLE. 

following drench, for it will preserve the tissues against decom- 
position, and, perhaps, save the animal: 

12 drachms of pyroligneous acid. 
1 pint of water. 
1 ounce of tincture of matico. 

Repeat the dose after a lapse of six hours, and rub the 
tumefaction occasionally 'yith 

1 ounce of oil of cedar. 

a ounces of tincture of capsicum. 

4 ounces of tincture of bayberry bark. Mix. 

It appears that in this disease there is a morbid impulse 
directed to various parts, which results in local accumulations, 
rendering the parts turgid. Then the blood is thrown out of 
the capillary vessels, and sometimes they suffer a rupture, which 
accounts for the engorgement and extravasation. 

Murrain. — This is one of the most malignant diseases to 
which cattle are liable. Fortunately, however, true murrain is 
comparitively rare in this great stock-raising country. 

Symptoms. — The entire system seems to partake of the dis- 
ease. The first indication of its approach is a feverish condition 
of the system, attended with a frequent and painful cough; 
the pulse is small, hard, and rapid. As the disease advances, 
the respiration becomes disturbed; the flanks heave; vesicular 
eruption is observed upon the teats, mouth, and feet; the horns 
are cold; the animal is sometimes lame; constipation and, 
sometimes, diarrhoea are accompanying symptoms; faeces black 
and fetid; the eyes weep and become much swollen; great 
tenderness along the spine; a brown, or bloody discharge from 
the nose and mouth; the animal moans incessantly, grinds his 
teeth, rarely lies down, but to get up again quickly; finally, the 
breath becomes very offensive; tumors make their appearance 
in various parts of the body, which, in favorable cases, sup- 
purate, and discharge a fetid matter. 

Treatment. — Give one-fourth of a pound of epsom salts, 
with one drachm of Jamaica ginger, twice a day, for two or 
three days. A bottle of porter, twice a day, will be found 
serviceable. Very little medicine is required internally in this 
disease, but much depends upon good nursing. External 
applications are chiefly to be depended upon. A solution of 
chloride of lime should be applied to the eruptions, or a solu- 
tion of the chloride of zinc, twenty grains to an ounce of water; 
or, of sulphate of zinc, two drachms to a pint of water; or pul- 
verized charcoal applied to the parts will be found useful. 

Navel-ill. — Inflammation of the navel in calves occasionally 
occurs, causing redness, pain, and sudden swelling in the part 



CATTLE. 269 

affected. This disease, if not promptly attended to, speedily 
carries off the creature. 

Treatment. — Foment the part well with warm, hop-tea; 
after which, the application of a cloth, well saturated with lead 
water and secured by bandages, should be applied. Internally, 
doses of epsom salts, of two ounces each, dissolved in half a 
pint of water, should be given until the bowels are acted upon. 
After the inflammation has subsided, to counteract the weak- 
ness which may follow, give a bottle of porter two or three 
times a day. 

Phrenitis. — Inflammation of the brain is one of those dread- 
ful diseases to which all animals are liable. It is known to the 
farmer as frenzy, mad staggers, etc. 

Symptoms. — The active symptoms are preceded by stupor; 
the animal stubbornly stands in one position; the eyes are full, 
red, and fiery; respiration rapid; delirium soon succeeds; the 
animal, bellowing, dashes wildly about, and seems bent on mis- 
chief, rushing madly at every object which comes in its way. 

The causes of this disease are overwork in warm weather, 
a plethoric condition of the system, and too stimulating food. 

Treatment. — As this is attended with considerable risk, 
unless it is taken prior to the frenzied stage, bleeding almost to 
fainting should be resorted to, and followed by a brisk purge. 
Take one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, and ten to fifteen drops of 
croton oil; mix the aloes with one pint of water and the oil, 
using the mixture as a drench. One pound of epsom salts will 
answer the purpose very well, in cases where the aloes and oil 
cannot be readily obtained. Application of bags of broken 
ice to the head is very beneficial. Spirits of turpentine, or 
mustard, together with spirits of hartshorn and water, should 
be well rubbed in along the spine, from the neck to the tail. 

Pleurisy. — This is an inflammation of the pleura, or the 
serous membrane which lines the cavity of the chest, and which 
is deflected over the lungs. Inflammation of this membrane 
rarely occurs in a pure form, but is more generally associated 
with inflammation of the tissue of the lungs. If this disease is 
not attended to at an early period, its usual termination is in 
hydrothorax, or dropsy of the chest. The same causes which 
produce inflammation of the lungs, of the bronchia, and of the 
other respiratory organs, produce also pleurisy. 

Symptoms. — The respiration is quick, short and painful; 
pressure between the ribs produces much pain; a low, short, 
painful cough is present; the respiratory murmur is much di- 
piinished; in fact, it is scarcely audible. This conditiQn i5 



270 CATTLE. 

rapidly followed by effusion, which may be detected from the 
dullness of the sounds, on applying the ear to the lower part of 
the lungs. The febrile symptoms disappear; the animal for a 
few days appears to improve, but soon Ijecomes weak, languid, 
and often exhausted, from the slightest exertion. 

Treatment. — The same treatment in the early stage is 
enjoined as in inflammatory pneumonia, which the reader will 
consult — counter irritation and purgatives. Bleeding never 
should be resorted to. When effusion takes place, it is neces- 
sary to puncture the sides with a trochar, and draw away the 
fluid, giving internally one of the following purges three times 
a day: Resin, eight ounces; saltpetre, two ounces; mix, and 
divide into eight powders. Half-drachm doses of the iodide 
of potash, dissolved in water, to be given three times daily, will 
be found useful in this disease. 

AphthL... — This disease is commonly known as "thrush," or 
sore mouth. It appears as a vesicular eruption on the tongue, 
gums, and on the buccal and palatine membrane. When the 
disease is mild, and confined to the above parts, it is easily 
cured by daily applications of a portion of the following: 

2 ounces of powdered golden seal. 

1 ounce of tincture of matico. 
4 ounces of honey. Mix. 

Apply by means of a swab or sponge. 

When the disease is violent, and of long standing, it it apt 
to extend through the whole course of the alimentary canal, 
from the mouth to the anus. If this be the case, the animal 
will purge, as if a powerful cathartic had been administered, 
and will be otherwise unwell. The method of cure, in this 
event, is to prescribe tonics and astringents. The remedies 
are tincture of matico, golden seal, and sulphur, in the follow- 
ing proportions: 

4 drachms of tincture of matico. 

2 drachm^ of powdered golden seal. 
2 drachms t'f sulphur. 

1 pint of water. Mix. 

The patient's diet should consist of oatmeal gruel, slightly 
alkalized with hyposulphite of soda. 

Milk taken from cows affected with this disease should 
never be drank, as it will most readily produce aphthae in man. 

Flatulent Colic. — This disease is generally occasioned by 
some derangement of the digestive organs, whereby the food, 
instead of being properly digested, undergoes fermentation, 
and thus carbonic acid gas, or sulphureted hydrogen, is evolved. 

Symptoms. — It is attended by considerable pain; the ani- 
mal will be very restless, continually lying down and getting 



CATTLE. 271 

lip again; discharges gas from the anus; strikes the belly- 
occasionally with the hind feet, and the abdomen is enlarged. 

Treatment. — This species of colic can generally be re- 
lieved as follows: Take one ounce of hyposulphite of soda, 
dissolve the same in a quart of water; then add tincture of gin- 
ger and tincture of golden seal, of each one ounce. Drench 
the animal with the same. Clysters of soapsuds, to which a 
little salt may be added, should be thrown into the rectum 
occasionally. The belly should be well rubbed with coarse 
straw, and, in severe cases, rub some mustard, moistened^with 
vinegar, on the lower part of the abdomen. After a lapse of 
two hours, should the patient appear unrelieved, a second dose 
of the colic drench may be given. Generally, however, one 
dose is sufficient. 

Spasm of the Bowels. — Spasm of the bowels, generally 
termed spasmodic colic, is occasioned by contraction of the 
longitudinal and circular fibres of the muscular tunic of the 
intestines. In this disease nearly the same symptoms are ob- 
served as those alluded to in flatulent colic, and he has periods 
of relaxation from pain which return at intervals with increased 
violence. It is supposed that this affection is caused by the 
presence of irritating matters in the intestinal canal, either in 
the form of bad food, poisonous plants, or water impregnated 
with lead. As the muscles of the intestines belong to that class 
known as involuntary, it follows that the state of spasm is the 
result of some excitability or deranged condition of the nerves 
of involuntary motion; hence antispasmodics are indicated 
To relieve the spasm: 

1 drachm of powdered assafoetida. , 

2 drachms of sulphuric ether. 
1 pint of thin gruel. Mix. 

Use as a drench; then administer, occasionally, an anti- 
spasmodic clyster, composed of warm water and a small quan- 
tity of powdered lobelia. 

Failing to relieve the animal by the above means, get him 
under the influence of sulphuric ether, to be applied to the 
nostrils by means of a sponge. There is no necessity for fully 
etherizing the animal, for, if kept in a partial state of stupefac- 
tion for about twenty minutes, the spasm will relax; after 
which, let the patient be kept on bran-mashes for a day or 
more. 

Constipation. — Constipation is generally the result of im- 
paired digestion; yet, now and then, it is the precursor of some 
definite malady. The old method of resorting to powerful 
cathartics generally aggravates the symptoms, and the animal 
dies unrelieved of the constipation. 



272 CATTLE. 

Treatmeny,^ — The best method of treating this affection 
is to administer, with an aperient, stimulants and bitters; in 
this way we arouse the action of the digestive organs, and 
create a lax state of the bowels. Let the following drench be 
given: 

12 ouacea of Glauber salts. 

8 drachms of powdered golden seal. 

2 drachms of powdered ginger. 

Dissolve the Glauber salts in one quart of tepid water; then 
add the other ingredients. After the lapse of eight hours, the 
animal should be walked about, have its belly rubbed, and an 
occasional clyster of warm soap suds may be thrown into the 
rectum. Should the medicine not operate at the expected 
time, administer two drachms of powdered mandrake, the same 
quantity of golden seal, and half an ounce of hyposulphite of 
soda, in about a quart of water. 

To prevent a recurrence of the constipation, let the animal 
have half an ounce of equal parts of golden seal and carbonate 
of soda daily, which may be mixed in the food. It is import- 
ant, also, in view of guarding against constipation, to make 
some change in the diet. Thus, if the animal has been long 
fed on meal, some coarser material (shorts) should be substi- 
tuted, for a brief period, at least. 

Rabies. — Hydrophobia in cattle is the result of the bite of 
a rabid dog, from which bite no animal escapes. The effects 
produced by the wound made by the teeth of such an animal, 
after the virus is once absorbed into the circulation of the 
blood, are so poisonous that all treatment is useless. The 
proper remedies must be instantly applied to prevent this 
absorption, or the case is utterly hopeless. Among men, nine 
out of every ten bitten by rabid dogs escape the terrible effects 
resulting from this dreadful disorder, without resorting to any 
applications to prevent it. It is a well established fact that 
men, when bitten by dogs, are generally wounded in some part 
protected by their clothing, which guards them from the dele- 
terious effects of the saliva which covers the teeth, and which, 
at such times, is deadly poison. The teeth, in passing through 
the clothing, are wiped clean, so that the virus is not intro- 
duced into the blood; hence the comparitively few cases of 
rabies occurring in man. When, however, the wound is made, 
upon an exposed surface, as the flesh of the hand, or of the 
face, this fatal disease is developed in spite of every precau- 
tion, unless such precautions are immediately taken. For this 
reason, cattle, when bitten, do not escape the disease. 

Symptoms. — The animal separates itself from the rest of 
the herd, standing in a kind of stupor, with the eyes half-closed; 
respiration natural; pulse quickened; temperature of body and 




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CATTLE. 273 

limbs natural, the slightest noise agitates, causing the eyes to 
glare and exciting bellowing; the bark of a dog produces the 
most violent effects; the animal foams at the mouth and stag- 
gers when it walks; if water is offered, the muzzle is plunged 
into it, but the victim cannot drink; in making the effort, the 
most fearful consequences are produced. The animal now 
seeks to do mischief — and the quicker it is then destroyed the 
better. 

Treatment. — This must be applied quickly or not at all. 
The moment the animal is bitten, that moment the wound 
should be searched for, and, when found, should be freely 
opened with a knife, and lunar caustic, caustic potash, or the 
per-manganate of potash at once applied to all parts of the 
wound, care being taken not to. suffer a single scratch to escape. 
This, if attended to in time, will save the animal 

Red Water. — This disease derives its name from the color 
of the urine voided in it. It is one of the most common com- 
plaints of horned cattle, and one of the most troublesome to 
manage. 

Symptoms. — Respiration hurried; rumination ceases; a 
high degree of fever presented; the animal moans, arches the 
back and strains in passing the urine, which is tinged with 
blood, or presents the appearance of pure blood. The cause 
is almost invariably feeding on turnips that have grown on 
damp, ill-drained land, and very often a change of diet stops 
the spread of this disease in the byre. Other succulent food, 
grown under similar circumstances, may produce the same 
symptoms, tending to disturb the digestive organs and the 
blood-forming process. 

In the course of investigations as to the cause of various 
cattle-diseases, and of red-water in particular, it has been 
found that it is unknown on well-drained farms and in dairies 
where turnips are used only in a moderate degree. The land of 
poor people furnish the roots most likely to induce this dis- 
order; it is a disease essentially attacking the poor man's cow; 
and, to be seen and studied, requires a practice extending into 
the less favorably situated parts of the country. On large farms, 
where good stock is well kept, and in town dairies, where arti- 
ficial food is used to supplement the supply of turnips, it is 
seldom now seen. 

Symptoms. — General derangement attracts the dairyman's 
attention, and, upon observing the urine which the animal has 
voided, it seems to be of a red, or of a reddish brown, or 
claret color; sometimes transparent, at others clear. The color 
increases in depth; other secretions are checked; the animal 
becomes hide-bound and the milk goes off. Appetite and 
16 



^4 CATTLE. 

rumination are suspended; the pulse becomes extremely feeble 
and frequent — as in all debilitating, or ansemic disorders — the 
heart's action is loud and strong, with a decided venous pulse, 
or apparent regurgitation, in the large veins of the neck. 

In some cases, if even a small quantity of blood be with- 
drawn, the animal drops in a fainting state. In red water, the 
visible mucous membranes are blanched and the extremities 
cold, indicating the languid state of the blood's circulation and 
the poverty of the blood itself. Constipation is one of the 
most obstinate complications, and many veterinary surgeons — 
aware that, if the bowels can be acted on, the animal is cured 
— have employed purgatives in quantities far too large, induc- 
ing at times even death. Occasionally diarrhoea is one of the 
first, and notof the unfavorable, symptoms. 

Treatment. — Give one pint of linseed-oil; clysters of soap 
and water should be freely used, and give plenty of linseed-tea 
to drink. When the urine is abundant, give one ounce of 
tincture of opium, with one drachm of powdered aloes, three 
times, at intervals of six or eight hours 

Rheumatisin. — This is a constitutional inflammatory affec- 
tion of the joints affecting the fibrous tissue and serous, or 
synovial, membrane. It is caused by exposure to cold and wet; 
being quite common in low, marshy sections. 

Symptoms. — Loss of appetite; upon forcing the animal to 
move, every joint seems stiffened; nose dry; coat staring; con- 
stipation is also an attendant symptom; the joints, one or more, 
become swollen and painful. This may be regarded as a 
metastic, or shifting disease; first one part, and then another, 
seems to be affected. 

Treatment. — Mild purgatives should be used; one-half- 
ounce doses of colchicum-root, pulverized, will be found useful; 
one-ounce balls of pine-tar may also be given with advantage. 
As a local application, the author has found nothing to equal 
kerosene oil, one pint, to two ounces of aqua ammonia, well 
rubbed in two or three times a day. 

Inflammation of the Kidneys. — Symptoms. — Cattle affected 
with inflammation of the kidneys will be observed to have some 
slight roaching of the back; that is to say, instead of the back 
or spinal column being straight or slightly concave, as it ought 
to be, it now presents a convexity, or, in other words, is arched 
in a upward or superior direction. The arching of the back is 
occasioned by tonic spasms of the psoas and iHac muscles, 
located above the kindeys in the lumbar region. These mus- 
cles are known to butchers as "tenderloin." On making pres- 
sure over the region of the kidneys, the animal will be observed 



CATTLE. 275 

to flinch, the parts appearing very tender and hot. The ani- 
mal is generally dull; the muzzle dry; a chilliness of the horns 
and external surface is observed, showing very clearly that 
there is an unequal circulation of the blood. There is gener- 
ally some difiiculty in passing the urine; the animal strains in 
the act of passing it, and it is redder than usual. The symp- 
toms vary as the disease progresses, but the above are the 
principal ones on which the diagnosis must be founded. 

Treatment. — Drench the animal with twelve ounces of 
Glauber salts, dissolved in a quart of warm water, then apply 
warm water bandages to the region of the loins, which may 
be retained in their place by encircling the body with a bandage. 
An emollient clyster of slippery elm should occasionally be 
thrown into the rectum, and the patient should be drenched 
with four ounces of the liquor acetate of ammonia every six 
hours, until an improvement takes place. Then give tincture 
of matico, in half-ounce doses, night and morning, until the 
patient is better. 

Inflammation of the Liver — Cattle and young stock, when 
fed^too high, or when allowed to luxuriate in a rich meadow, are 
often attacked with an acute disease of the liver. 

Symptoms. — The principal symptoms of this malady are 
yellowness of the membrane which lines the eyelids, and covers 
that part known as the "white of the eye." The visible sur- 
faces of the mouth are also of a yellow tinge. In addition to 
the above symptoms, the animal is feverish, thirsty; mouth and 
base of the horns hot; pulse accelerated; breathing rather 
laborious; rumination is suspended, and the animal is said to 
have "lost its cud." Some fullness will also generally be 
observed on the right side, in the region of the liver, and the 
animal will occasionally turn its head in that direction, as if it 
were the seat of pain, which is probably the case; yet the most 
reliable symptoms, in a disease of this character, are a yellow 
tinge of the visible surface, accompanied by febrile symptoms. 

Treatment.-— The most rational method of treating this 
disease is to endeavor to mitigate the inflammatory diathesis, 
and restore the normal function of the liver. To accomplish 
these desirable results use the following prescription: 

16 ounces of Glauber salta. 

2 drachms powdered mandrake. 

The salts should be dissolved in one quart of tepid water; 
then add the mandrake, and drench the animal by means of a 
common porter-bottle. This drench should be poured down 
the oesophagus in a gradual manner, so as to prevent its being 
received into the rumen, or paunch. 



276 CATTLE. 

The patient should, if possible, be dieted on green fodder. 
If this cannot be procured, some sliced cabbage, turnips, or 
carrots may be substituted. A teaspoonful of mandrake should 
be given daily in the food, until the visible surfaces assume 
their natural color. A curable case will generally yield under 
\he above treatment. 

This disease sometimes runs into a chronic type, and is 
known by the yellow cover of visible surfaces, dull, sleepy 
appearance of the subject, and absence of those acute symp- 
toms which are invariably present in the inflammatory stage. 
A chronic disease of this character may exist for months and 
even years without interfering very essentially with the general 
health. Finally, [however, the liver undergoes alterations in 
structure, becomes hardened or indurated, or else it becomes 
turberculous, or is the seat of hydatids, and the fluke-worm is 
often found in the ducts. The treatment for chronic disease 
of the liver is as follows: 

2 drachms powdered iodide of potassium. 
4 ounces powdered golden seal. Mix. 

Divide the mass into six equal parts, and give one in a little 
water, every morning, on an empty stomach. The medicine 
may be continued for some length of time without the least 
danger. If this treatment does not benefit the animal, the case 
is probably incurable. 

Gadflies. — The gadfly is known to naturalists as the oestns 
bovis. It punctures the integument of cattle, and then 
deposits its ova, or eggs. In this situation the ova mature, until 
they are capable of enjoying an independent existence. They 
then make their exit through the external outlet, fall to and 
burrow into the ground, and remain there until the period of 
their metamorphosis takes place, when they assume the form of 
winged insects. In this form they multiply the species by the 
deposit of their ova. They probably occasion much irritation; 
and, in view of getting rid of them, puncture the tumor, by 
means of a thumb-lancet, and squeeze out the parasite 

The gadfly not only persecutes healthy oxen by its bites, 
during summer, but also deposits its eggs in their skin, which 
give rise to tumors on the back and other parts, in which the 
larvae become developed. They live there on the succulent 
fluid which the soft parts secrete, and make their escape thence 
in the following spring, in order to become metamorphosed. 
The greater the number of tumors, the more is the strength of 
the animal diminished by the pain and suppuration. For this 
reason we should endeavor to free the animal, as soon as possi- 
ble, from these larvae pests, by frequently washing these tumors 
with camphorated brandy, or forcibly compressing them, which 
either crushes the insect or forces it to make its exit. When 



CATTLE. 277 

they have attained the size of a filbert, an incision must be 
made into the part, which is then to be covered with a pitch 
plaster. A few doses of sulphur are to be given internally. We 
are told that those oxen which have taken sulphur for a long 
period of time are not infested by gadflies. 

Yoke Galls. — The exciting cause is local irritation, occa- 
sioned by the yoke. 

Treatment. — So soon as an abrasion is discovered on the 
neck, the animal should be excused from duty for a few days. 
The abraded part should be lubricated, two or three times daily, 
with a small quantity of glycerine. In most cases, however, a 
few applications of tincture of aloes and myrrh will produce a 
healthy action, and thus restore the parts to soundness. Should 
there be no abrasion, yet some tumefaction, heat, and tender- 
ness, a cold water bandage, renewed as occasion seems to 
require, will, in most cases, have the desired effect. Occasion- 
ally the integuments are so bruised as to induce induration 
(hardening). Local induration in the neck is a morbid condi- 
tion of parts, known to the farriers of old as " sit-fast." The 
treatment consists in smearing the part with a portion of the 
following: 

Yz drachm of iodine. 
7 drachms of simple ointment. 
\i drachm of powdered bloodroot. Mix. 

A few applications of a portion of the above will have the 
effect of removing the sit-fast, or eschar, when a healthy gran- 
ulating surface will appear. 

Some animals, owing to a peculiarity of constitution, will 
" chafe," as the saying is, in those parts which come in contact 
with the yoke, and no human foresight or mechanical contri- 
vance can prevent it; therefore, in view of protecting the parts 
against the local irritation and its consequences, the following 
liquid cuticle is good: 

Equal parts of jCollo^^lo- 

After washing the abrasion with soap and water, wipe dry, 
and smear it all over with a portion of the above invaluable 
liquid cuticle. 



XH. Jll .Pi .t^ • 




3d " ^HO 

SKELETON OF THE SHEEP AS COVERED BY THE MUSCLES. 

1. — The intermaxillary bone. 2— The nasal bones. 3.— The upper jaw. 4. — The 
naioD of the nasal and upper jaw bones. 5. — The union of the molar and lachrymal 
bones. 6.— The orbits of the eye. 7.— The frontal bone. 8.— The lower jaw. 9.— The 
incisor teeth, or nippers. 10.— The molars or grinders. 11.— The ligament of the 
neck supporting the head. 12. — The seven vertebrre, or the bones of the neck. 13. — 
The thirteen vertebrae, or bones of the back. 14.— The six vertebroe of the loins. 
15. — ^The sacral bone. 16. — The bones of the tail, varying in different breeds from 
twelve to twenty-one. 17. — The haunch and pelvis. 18.— The eight true ribs with 
their cartilages. 19.— The five fal^ ribs, or those that are not attached to the breast- 
bone. 20. — The breast-bone. 21. — The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 22.— The hume- 
rus, bone of the arm, or lower part of the shoulder. 23. — The radius, or bone of the 
fore-arm. 24. — The ulna, or elbow. 25.— The knee with its different bones. 26.— 
The metacarpel or shank-bones — the larger bones of the leg. 27.— A rudiment of 
the smaller metacarpel. 28.— One of the aessamoid bones. 29. — The first two bones 
of the foot— the pasterns. 30. — The proper bones of the foot. 31.— The thigh-bone. 
82. — The stifle joint and its bone— the patella. 33.— The tibia, or bone of the upper 
part of the leg. 34.— The point of the hock. 35.— The other bones of the hock. 
86. — Metatarsal bones, or bone of the hind-leg. 37.— Rudiment of the small meta- 
tarsal. 38.— A sessamoid bone. 39.— <rhe first two bones of the foot— the pasterns. 
401.— The proper bones of the foot 



380 SHEEP. 

With the exception of the dog, there is not one of the brute 
creation which exhibits the diversity of size, color, form, 
covering and general appearance which characterizes the sheep, 
and none which occupies a wider range of climate or subsists 
on a greater variety of food. In every latitude, between the 
equator and the arctic, he ranges over sterile mountains, and 
through the fertile valleys. He feeds on almost every species 
of edible forage, the cultivated grasses, clovers, cereals and 
roots; he browses on aromatic and bitter herbs; he crops the 
leaves and bark from the stunted forest shrubs, and the pun- 
gent, resinous evergreens. In some parts of Norway and 
Sweden, when other resources fail, he subsists on fish or flesh 
during their long and rigorous winters, and, if reduced to 
necessity, he eats his own wool. He is diminutive like the Ork- 
ney, or massive like the Teeswater. He is policerate or many- 
horned; he has two large or small spiral horns like the Merino, 
or is polled or hornless like the long-wooled. He has a long 
tail like our own breeds; a broad-tail, like many of the East- 
ern, or a mere button of a tail, like the fat rumps, discernible 
only by the touch. His coat is sometimes long and coarse, 
like the Lincolnshire; short and hairy, like those of Mada- 
gascar; soft and furry, like the Angola, or fine and spiral, like 
the silken Merino or Saxon. Their color, either pure or fan- 
cifully mixed, varies from the white or black of our own 
country to every shade of brown, dun, buff, blue and gray, 
like the spotted flocks of the Cape of Good Hope and other 
parts of Africa and Asia. This wide diversity is the result of 
long domestication, under almost every conceivable variety of 
condition. 

Native Sheep. — Strictly speaking, there are no sheep 
indigenous to North America, excepting the Rocky Mountain 
sheep. Before the introduction of • the improved European 
breeds, during the past century, our sheep consisted generally 
of a hardy, long-legged, coarse, open-fleeced animal, which 
yielded, according lo attention and feed, from one and a half 
to four pounds of indifferent wool. We have seen numerous 
flocks, within the last thirty years, of the old natives, whose 
bellies were entirely destitute of wool, and sometimes the 
whole carcass was bare, excepting a mere strip or ridge like a 



SHEEP. 281 

mane, reaching from the head to the tail. The wool which 
was retained on the neck, back and sides, was frequently mat- 
ted almost as firmly as a leather apron; and that on the thighs, 
and sometimes on the sides, was often composed almost 
wholly of long hair. Although indifferently formed in com- 
parison with the best breeds of the present day, being thin in 
the breast and back, light quartered, and slow in coming to 
maturity, they yet possessed some good qualities. They were 
prolific, and made excellent nurses. 

There were occasionally some smutty-nosed, or brockle- 
faced, sheep among them, distinguished by their additional size, 
superior merits and courage. These were usually the leaders 
of the flock in their marauding expeditions on their neighbor's 
domains, and, in common with the others, were eminently 
adapted to purvey for themselves on the frontier settlements. 
There were, besides, some black, or dark chocolate-brown, 
members in every flock, which were much valued by the 
th rif ty housewife for their wool, which afforded an economical 
mixture for jackets, hose and trousers, known as sheep's gray. 
Our original stock were principally derived from England, 
where their counterparts may be seen at the present day, in 
the refuse breeds of that country. When these sheep were 
well selected and properly bred, there was rapid and satis- 
factory improvements, and from such flocks, mixed with some 
of the more recently improved varieties, have sprung many 
valuable animals. 

The Spanish Merino. — The Spanish sheep, in different coun- 
tries, has, either directly or indirectly, effected a complete 
revolution in the character of the fleece. The race is unques- 
tionably one of the most ancient extant. The early writers on 
agriculture and the veterinary art, describe various breeds of 
sheep as existing in Spain, of different colors — black, red, and 
tawny. The black sheep yield a fine fleece, the finest of that 
color which was then known; but the red fleeces of Baetica — a 
considerable part of the Spanish coast on the Mediterranean, 
comprising the modern Spanish provinces of Gaen, Cordova, 
Seville, Andalusia, and Granada, which was early colonized by 
the enterprising Greeks — was, according to Pliny, of still 
superior quality, and " had no fellow." 



282 SHEEP. 

The Merino race possess inbred qualities to an extent sur- 
passed by no others. They have been improved in the gen- 
eral weight and evenness of their fleece, as in the celebrated 
flock of Rambouillet; in the uniformity and excessive fineness 
of the fibre, as in the Saxons; and in their form and feeding 
qualities, in various countries; but there has never yet been 
deterioration, either in quantity or quality of fleece or carcass, 
wherever they have been transported, if supplied with suitable 
food and attention. Most sheep annually shed their wool if 
undipped; while the Merino retains its fleece, sometimes for 
five years, when allowed to remain unshorn. 

Conclusive evidence is thus afforded of continued breeding 
among themselves, by which the very constitution of the wool- 
producing organs beneath the skin have become permanently 
established; and this property is transmitted, to a great extent, 
even among the crosses, thus marking the Merino as an 
ancient and peculiar race. 

The first impression made by the Merino sheep, on one un- 
acquainted with its value, would be unfavorable. The wool 
lying closer and thicker over the body than in most other 
breeds, and being abundant in yolk — or a peculiar secretion 
from the glands of the skin, which nourishes the wool and 
causes it to mat closely together — is covered with a dirty crust, 
often full of cracks. The legs are long, yet small in the bone; 
the breast and the back are narrow, and the sides somewhat 
flat; the fore-shoulders and bosoms are heavy, and too much 
of their weight is carried on the coarser parts. The horns of 
the male are comparatively large, curved, and with more or less 
of a spinal form; the head is large, but the forehead rather low. 
A few of the females are horned; but, generally speaking, they 
are without horns. Both male and female have a peculiar 
coarse and unsightly growth of hair on the forehead and 
cheeks, which the careful shepherd cuts away before the shear- 
ing time; the other part of the face has a pleasing and charac- 
teristic velvet appearance. Under the throat there is a singu- 
lar looseness of skin, which gives them a remarkable appear- 
ance of throatiness or hollowness in the neck. The pile of 
hair, when pressed upon, is hard and unyielding, owing to the 
thickness into which it grows on the pelt, and the abundance 



SHEEP. 283 

01 the yolk, retaining all the dirt and gravel which falls upon 
it; but, upon examination, the fibre exceeds in fineness, and 
in the number of serrations and curves, that which any other 
sheep in the world produces. The average weight of the fleece 
in Spain is eight pounds from the ram, and five from the ewe. 
The staple differs in length in different provinces. When fatted, 
these sheep will weigh from twelve to sixteen pounds per 
quarter. 

The excellence of the Merinos consists in the unexampled 
fineness and felting property of their wool, and in the weight 
of it yielded by each individual sheep; the closeness of that 
wool, and the luxuriance of the yolk, which enable them to 
support extremes of cold and wet quite as well as any other 
breed; the readiness with which they adopt themselves to every 
change of climate, retaining, with common care, all their fine- 
ness of wool, and thriving under a burning tropical sun, and in 
the frozen regions of the north; an appetite which renders them 
apparently satisfied with the coarsest food; a quietness and 
patience into whatever pasture they are turned; and a gentle- 
ness and tractableness not excelled in any other breed 

Their defects — partly attributable to the breed, but more to 
the improper mode of treatment to which they are occasionally 
subjected — are, their unthrifty and unprofitable form; a ten- 
dency to abortion, or barrenness; a difficulty of yeaning, or giv- 
ing birth to their young; a paucity of milk; and a too frequent 
neglect of their lambs. They are likewise said, notwithstand- 
ing the fineness of their wool, and the beautiful red color of 
the skin when the fleece is parted, to be more subject to cu- 
taneous affections than most other breeds. Man, however, is 
far more responsible for this than nature. Everything was 
sacrificed in Spain to fineness and quantity of wool. These 
were supposed to be connected with equality of temperature, 
or, at least, with freedom from exposure to cold; and, there- 
fore, twice in the year, a journey of four hundred miles was 
undertaken, at the rate of eighty or a hundred miles per week 
— the spring journey commencing when the lambs are scarcely 
four months old. It is difficult to say in what way the wool of 
the migratory sheep was, or could be, benefited by these peri- 
odical journeys. Although among them is found the finest and 



284 SHEEP. 

most valuable wool in Spain, yet the stationary sheep, in cer- 
tain provinces — Segovia, Leon and Estremadura — are more 
valuable than the migratory flocks of others. Moreover, the 
fleece of some of the German Merinos — which do not travel at 
all, and are housed all the winter — greatly exceed that obtained 
from the best migratory breed — the Leonese — in fineness and 
felting property; and the wool of the migratory sheep has 
been, comparatively speaking, driven out of the market by that 
from sheep which never travel. With respect to the carcass, 
these harassing journeys, occupying one-quarter of the year, 
tend to destroy all possibility of fattening, or any tendency 
toward it, and the form and the constitution of the flock are 
deteriorated, and the lives of many sacrificed. 

The term Merino, it must be remembered, is but the gen- 
eral appellation of a breed, comprising several varieties, pre- 
senting essential points of difference in size, form, quality and 
quantity of wool. These families have generally been merged, 
by interbreeding, in the United States and other countries, 
which have received the race from Spain. Purity of Merino 
blood, and actual excellence in the individual and its ances- 
tors, form the only standard in selecting sheep of this breed. 
Families have, indeed, sprung up in this country, exhibiting 
wider points of difference than did those of Spain. This is 
owing, in some cases, doubtless, to particular causes of breed- 
ing; but, more often, probably, to concealed or forgotten infu- 
sions of other blood. The question, which has been at times 
raised, whether there are any Merinos in the United States, de- 
scendants of the early importations, of unquestionable purity 
of blood, hasibeen conclusively settled in the affirmative. 

The minor distinctions among the various families into 
which, as has already been intimated, the American Merino 
has diverged, are numerous, but may all, perhaps, be classed 
under three general heads. 

The first is a large, short-legged, strong, exceedingly hardy 
sheep, carrying a heavy fleece, ranging from medium to fine, 
free from hair in properly bred flocks; somewhat inclined to 
throatiness, but not so much so as the Rambouillets; bred t» 
exhibit external concrete gum in some flocks, but not com- 
monly so; their wool rather long on back and belly, and ex- 



SHEEP. 285 

ceedingly dense; wool whiter within than the Rambouillets; 
skin the same rich rose color. Sheep of this class are larger 
and stronger than those originally imported, carry much heavier 
fleeces, and in well-selected flocks, or individuals, the fleece is 
of a decidedly better quality. 

The second class embraces smaller animals than the pre- 
ceding; less hardy; wool, as a general thing, finer, and covered 
with a black, pitchy gum, on its extremities; fleece about one- 
fourth lighter than in the former class. 

The third class, bred at the South, mostly, includes animals 
still smaller and less hardy, and carrying still finer and lighter 
fleeces. The fleece is destitute of external gum. The sheep 
and wool have a close resemblance to the Saxon; and, if not 
actually mixed with that blood, they have been formed into a 
similar variety, by a similar course of breeding. 

The mutton of the Merino, notwithstanding the prejudices 
existing on the subject, is short-grained, and of good flavor, 
when killed at a proper age, and weighs from ten to fourteen 
pounds to the quarter. It is remarkable for its longevity, re- 
taing its teeth, and continuing to breed two or three years 
longer that the common sheep, and at least half a dozen years 
longer than the improved English breeds. It should, however, 
be remarked, in this connection, that it is correspondingly slow 
in arriving at maturity, as it does not attain its full growth be- 
fore three years of age; and the ewes, in the best managed 
flocks, are rarely permitted to breed before they reach that age. 

The Merino is a far better breeder than any other fine- 
woolled sheep, and its lambs, when newly dropped, are claimed 
to be hardier than the Bakewell, and equally so with the high- 
bred South-Down. The ewe, as has been intimated, is not so 
good a nurse, and will not usually do full justice to more than 
one lamb. Eighty or ninety per cent, is about the ordinary 
number of lambs reared, though it often reaches one hundred 
per cent, in carefully managed or small flocks. 

Allusion has heretofore been made to the cross between 
the Merino and native sheep. On the introduction of the 
Saxon family of the Merinos, they were universally engrafted 
on the parent stock, and the cross was continued until the 
Spanish blood was nearly bred out. When the admixture took 



286 SHEE?. 

place with judiciously selected Saxons, the result*; w-er^ not 
unfavorable for certain purposes. These instances of jndi- 
cious crossing were, unfortunately, rare. Fineness of wool 
was made the only test of excellence, no matter how scanty its 
quantity, or how diminutive or miserable the carcass. The con- 
sequence was, as might be supposed, the ruin of most of the 
Merino flocks. 

Breeding Merinos. — The general principles of breeding 
cattle and sheep, as laid down by the most approved authori- 
ties, must be taken with some exceptions, when applied to the 
Merino. Good form and breeding qualities are desirable in 
this breed, but they are not as essential as with others. Wool 
is the great object, and if this be sufficiently fine, even and 
abundant, something may be abated in the perfection of form. 
Early maturity, so much sought after in the mutton sheep, 
cannot be reconciled with great longevity and the prolonged 
productive powers of the Merino. We must content ourselves, 
therefore, with slowly engrafting such improvements on the 
breed as can be effected without prejudice to his other good 
qualities, and look to his crosses with others for such qualities 
as are irreconcilable with his nature. It is considered indis- 
pensable to the improvement of the Merino, that it be not bred 
too young. A vigorous ewe may bring her first lamb at two 
years old, but it is better that it be deferred till three. The 
ram should never be used till his second year, and then but 
.sparingly. From two and one-half to six years old is deemed 
the most vigorous age, though many may be safely used till 
eight or ten, and occasionally later. Both ewes and rams 
.have been known to breed till twenty years old. 

The ram should be large, stout and well made, carrying his 
'weight as compactly as possible. The nose should be convex; 
the face covered with soft, velvety hair, where not covered with 
wool; the eye lively and prominent; the veins near the lach- 
rymal glands of a clear red; the horns rough; short neck; pen- 
dent dewlap not objectionable; full chest; broad shoulders; 
broad, level back; large quarters; tail large and well set up; 
good legs and sound hoofs, with a firm, easy, regular gait; the 
head carried high, with a look of boldness and decision, with- 
out in any degree approaching to wildness or ferocity. The 



SHEEP. 287 

ewe should possess the characteristics generally, with S'Ucli 
modifications as are suited to the sex. Great care should be 
taken to breed from such as are most perfect in all the essential 
points of constitution, form and size, and weight, uniformity 
and fineness of fleece. The closest observation is requisite to 
select the best in all respects. 

Excessive use of rams can never be permitted without de 
cided injury to them and their progeny. If moderately grained 
before and during their use, and especially if kept up, and 
allowed to serve the ewes once only as they come in heat, the 
number may be largely increased. A vigorous ram will suffice 
for thirty-five or forty ewes, when running with the flock; ye^ 
his powers would not be more taxed by double or even treble 
this number, if admitted to each but once. If he is gentle^ 
which he should always be, he should be stabled at night and 
fed with grain. If young ewes have stolen lambs, they should 
be taken away from them immediately after yeaning, and tho 
nourishment supplied to the lamb by another ewe, or the milk 
of a cow. The tax of nursing is nearly equal to that of gesta- 
tion, and further injury to the dam may be avoided by this* 
practice. Merino ewes have had the reputation of being, 
indifferent nurses in Spain. This is owing to their fatigue in 
traveling, and frequently to scanty pasturage, instead of any 
constitutional deficiency. It is a frequent practice there to 
kill a part of the lambs and put one on to two ewes. This has 
never been found necessary in the countries where they have 
been transplanted, as generous feed for the dams has in- 
variably been found entirely adequate for their support of the 
young. 

The Saxon. — This, like some others, is one of [the varieties 
of the pure bred Merino, the foundation of which was laid by 
an importation of some of the choicest animals into Saxony, 
in 1765. The great care and attention bestowed upon these 
sheep by the , Elector, the nobility and the most intelligent 
farmers, soon carried them to a point of uniformity and excel- 
lence of fleece, never exceeded by the best of the original 
flocks. The breeders were selected with almost exclusive 
reference to the quality of the fleece. Great care was taken to 
prevent exposure throughout the year, and they were housed 



288 SHEEP. 

on every slight emergency. The consequence of this course 
of breeding and treatment has been to reduce the size and 
weight of fleece, and partially to impair that hardiness and 
vigor of constitution which universally characterized the orig- 
inal Transhumantes. In numerous instances, this management 
resulted in permanent injury to the character of their flocks, 
which America has severely felt in several importations of 
worthless animals, which a too great eagerness for improve- 
ment induced her flock-masters to use with the Spanish 
Merinos and their descendants, as a means for this object 
but which has resulted in the introduction of fatal diseases 
and serious deterioration in their flocks. 

The New Leicester. — The unimproved Leicester was a 
large, heavy, coarse-wooled breed of sheep, inhabiting the 
midland counties of England. It was a slow feeder, its flesh 
coarse-grained, and with little flavor. The breeders of that 
period regarded only size and weight of fleece. 

The improved Leicester is of large size, but somewhat 
smaller than the original stock, and in this respect falls con- 
siderably below the coarser varieties of Cotswold, Lincoln, etc. 
When there is sufficiency of feed, the new Leicester is unrivaled 
for its fattening propensities; but it will not bear hard stock- 
ing, nor must it be compelled to travel far in search of its food, 
It is, in fact, properly and exclusively a lowland sheep. In its 
appropriate situation — on the luxuriant herbage of the highly 
cultivated lands of England — it possesses unequalled earliness 
of maturity; and its mutton, when not too fat, is of a good 
quality, but is usually coarse, and comparitively deficient in 
flavor, owing to that unnatural state of fatness which it so 
readily assumes, and which the breeder, to gain weight, so gen- 
erally feeds for. The wethers, having reached their second 
year, are turned off in the succeeding February or March, and 
weigh at that age from thirty to thirty-five pounds to the 
quarter. The wool of the New Leicester is long, averaging, 
after the first shearing, about six inches; and the fleece of the 
American animal weighs about six pounds. It is of a coarse 
uuality, and little used in the manufacture of cloth, on account 
r ■ its length, and that deficiency of felting properties common, 
It a greater or less extent, to all English breeds. As a comb- 



SHEEP. 289 

ing wool, however, it stands first, and is used in the manufac- 
ture of the finest worsteds, and the like textures. 

In England, where mutton is generally eaten by the labor- 
ing classes, the meat of this variety is in very great demand; 
and the consequent return which a sheep possessing such fine 
feeding qualities is enabled to make renders it a general favorite 
with the breeder. Instances are recorded of the most extra- 
ordinary prices having been paid for these animals. They 
have spread into all parts of the British dominions, and been 
imported into the other countries of Europe and into the 
United States. The breed, however, has never proved a favor- 
ite with any large class of American farmers. Our long, cold 
winters — but, more especially, our dry, scorching summers, 
when it is often difficult to obtain the rich, green, tender feed 
in which the Leicester delights — together with the general 
deprivation of green food in the winter, rob it of its early ma- 
turity, and even of the ultimate size which it attains in England. 
Its mutton is too fat, and the fat and lean are too little inter- 
mixed to suit American taste. Its wool is not very salable, 
owing to the dearth of worsted manufactures in our country. 
Its early decay and loss of wool constitute an objection to it, 
in a country where it is often so difficult to advantageously 
turn off sheep, particularly ewes. But, notwithstanding all 
these disadvantages, on rich, lowland farms, in the vicinity of 
considerable markets, it will always, in all probability, make a 
profitable return. 

The head of the New Leicester should be hornless, long, 
small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting horizontally 
forward; the eyes prominent, but with a quiet expression; the 
ears thin, rather long, and directed backward; the neck full 
and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, so that 
there is, with the^ slightest possible deviation, one continued 
horizontal line from the rump to the poll; the breast broad and 
full; the shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or 
angular formation where the shoulders join with the neck or the 
back — particularly no rising of the withers, or hollow behind 
the situation of these bones; the arm fleshy throughout its 
whole extent, and even down to the knee; the bones of the leg 
small, standing wide apart; no looseness of skin about them, 
17 



200 SHEEP. 

and comparitively void of wool; the chest and barrel at once 
deep and round; the ribs forming a considerable arch from the 
spine, so as, in some cases — and especially when the animal is 
in good condition — to make the apparent width of the chest 
even greater than the depth; the barrel ribbed well home; no 
irregularity of line on the back or belly, but on the sides; the 
carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump; 
the quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the mus- 
cles extending down to the hock; the thighs also wide and full; 
the legs of a moderate length; and the pelt almost moderately 
thin, but soft and elastic, and covered with a good quantity of 
white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but considerably 
finer. 

The South-Down. — A long range of chalky hills, diverging 
from the chalky stratum which intersects England from Nor- 
folk to Dorchester, is termed the South-Downs. On thes« 
downs a certain breed of sheep has been produced for manj 
centuries, in greater perfection than elsewhere; and hence havt 
sprung those successive colonies which have found their way 
abroad and materially benefited the breed of short-woolled 
sheep wherever they have gone. It is only, however, within a 
comparatively recent period that they have been brought tc 
their present perfection. As recently as 1776, they were smal, 
in size, and of a form not superior to the common woolledl 
sheep of the United States; they were far from possessing a 
good shape, being long and thin in the neck, high on the 
shoulders, low behind, high on the loins, down on the rump, 
the tail set on very low, perpendicular from the hip bones, 
sharp on the back; the ribs flat, not bowing, narrow in the fore- 
quarters, but good in the leg, although having big bones. Since 
that period a course of judicious breeding has mainly contri- 
buted to raise this variety to its present value; and that, too, 
without the admixture of the slightest degree of foreign blood. 

This pure, improved family, it will be borne in mind, is 
spoken of in the present connection; inasmuch as the original 
stock, presenting, with trifling modifications, the same charac- 
teristics which they exhibited seventy-five years ago, are yet tc 
be found in England; and the intermediate space between 
these two classes is occupied by a variety of grades, rising 01 



SHEEP. 291 

falling In value, as they approximate to or recede from the im- 
proved blood. 

The South-Down sheep are polled, but it is probable that 
the original breed was horned, as it is not unusual to find 
among the male South-Down lambs some with small horns. 
The dusky, or at times, black hue, of the head and legs fully 
establishes the original color of the sheep, and, perhaps of all 
sheep; while the later period at which it was seriously at- 
tempted to get rid of this dingy hue proving unsuccessful, only 
confirms this view. Many of the lambs have been dropped 
entirely black. 

It is an upland sheep, of medium size, and its wool — which 
in point of length belongs to the middle class, and differs 
essentially from Merino wool of any grade, though the fibre in 
some of the finest fleeces maybe of the same apparent fineness 
with half or one-quarter blood Merino — is deficient in felting 
properties, making a fuzzy, hairy cloth, and is no longer used 
in England; unless largely mixed with the foreign wool, even 
for the lowest class of cloths. As it has deteriorated, however, 
it has increased in length of staple, in that country, to such an 
extent that improved machinery enables it to be used as a 
combing-wool, for the manufacture of worsteds. Where this 
has taken place it is quite as profitable as when it was finer and 
shorter. In the United States, where the demand for comb- 
ing-wool is so small that it is easily met by a better article, the 
same result would not probably follow. Indeed, it may well 
be doubted whether the proper combing length will be easily 
reached, or at least maintained in this country, in the absence 
of that high feeding system which has undoubtedly given the 
wool its increased length in England. The average weight of 
fleece in the hill-fed sheep is three pounds; on rich lowlands, 
a little more. 

The South-Down, however, is cultivated more particularly 
for its mutton, which for quality lakes precedence of all other— 
from sheep of good size — in the English markets. Its early 
maturity and extreme aptitude to lay on flesh, render it pecu- 
liarly valuable for this purpose. It is turned off at the age of 
two years, and its weight at that age is, in England, from eighty 
to ona hundred pounds High-fe4 wether? hav^ reached frorn 



293 SHEEP. 

thirty-two to even forty pounds a quarter. Notwithstanding its 
weight, it has a patience of occasional short keep, and an en- 
durance of hard stocking, equal to any other sheep. This gives 
it a decided advantage over the bulkier Leicesters and Lincolns, 
as a mutton sheep, in hilly districts, and those producing short 
and scanty herbage. It is hardy and healthy, though, in com- 
mon with the other English varieties, much subject to catarrh, 
and no sheep better withstands our American winters. The 
ewes are prolific breeders and good nurses. 

The Down is quiet and docile in its habits, and, though an 
industrious feeder, exhibits but little disposition to rove. Like 
the Leicester, it is comparatively a short-lived animal, and the 
fleece continues to decrease in weight after it reaches maturity. 
It crosses better with short and middle-woolled breeds than 
the Leicester. A sheep possessing such qualities, must, of 
necessity, be valuable in upland districts in the vicinity of 
markets. The desirable characteristics of the South-Down 
may be thus summed up: The head small and hornless; the 
face speckled or gray, and neither too long nor too short; the 
lips thin, and the space between the nose and the eyes narrow; 
the under jaw or chop fine and thin; the ears tolerably wide and 
well covered with wool, and the forehead also, and the whole 
space between the ears well protected by it, as a defence 
against the fly; the eye full and bright, but not prominent; the 
orbits of the eye, the eye-cap or bone not too projecting, that 
it may not form a fatal obstacle in lambing; the neck of a 
medium length, thin toward the head, but enlarging toward the 
shoulders, where it should be broad and high and straight in 
its whole course above and below. 

The breast should be wide, deep and projecting forward 
between the fore-legs, indicating a good constitution and a 
disposition to thrive; corresponding with this, the shoulders 
should be on a level with the back, and not too wide above; 
they should bow outward from the top to the breast, indicating 
a springing rib beneath, and leaving room for it; the ribs com- 
ing out horizontally from the spine, and extending far back- 
ward, and the last rib projecting more than others; the back 
flat from the shoulders to the setting on of the tail; the loin 
broad and flat; the rump broad, and the tail set on high, and 
nearly on a level with the soiaa 



SHEEP. 293 

The hips should be wide; the space between them and tho 
last rib on each side as narrow as possible, and the ribs gener- 
ally presenting a circular form like a barrel; the belly as 
straight as the back; the legs neither too long nor too short; 
the fore-legs straight from the breast to the foot, not bending 
inward at the knee, and standing far apart, both before and 
behind; the hock having a direction rather outward, and the 
twist, or the meeting of the thighs behind, being particularly 
full; the bones fine, yet having no appearance of weakness, and 
of a speckled or dark color; the belly well defended with wool, 
and the wool coming down before and behind to the knee and 
to the hock; the wool short, close, curled and fine, and free 
from spiry projecting fibres. 

The Cotswold. — The Cotswolds, until improved by modern 
crosses, were a very large, coarse, long-legged, flat-ribbed, 
variety, light in the fore quarter, and shearing a long, heavy, 
coarse fleece of wool. They have been extensively crossed 
with the Leicester sheep — producing thus the modern or im- 
proved Cotswold — by which their size and fleece have been 
somewhat diminished, but their carcasses have been materially 
improved, and their maturity rendered earlier. The wethers 
are sometimes fattened at fourteen months old, when they 
weigh from fifteen to twenty-four pounds to a quarter, and, at 
two years old, increase to twenty or thirty pounds. 

The wool is strong, mellow, and of good color, though rather 
coarse, six to eight inches in length, and from seven to eight 
pounds per fleece. The superior hardihood of the improved 
Cotswold over the Leicester, and their adaptation to common 
treatment, together with the prolific nature of the ewes, and 
their abundance of milk, have rendered them in many places 
rivals of the New Leicester, and have obtained for them, of 
late years, more attention to their selection and general treat- 
ment, under which management still farther improvement has 
been made. They have also been used in crossing other 
breeds, and have been mixed with the Hampshire Downs. 
Indeed, the improved Cotswold, under the name of the New, or 
Improved Oxfordshire sheep, have frequently been the suc- 
cessful candidates for prizes offered for the best long-wooled 
sheep at some of the principal agricultural meetings or shows 



294 SHEEP. 

in England. The quality of their mutton is considered superior 
to that of the Leicester; the tallow being less abundant, with a 
larger development of muscle or flesh. 

The degree to which the cross between the Cotswold and 
Leicester may be carried, must depend upon the nature of the 
old stock, and on the situation and character of the farm. In 
exposed situations, and somewhat scanty pasture, the old blood 
should decidedly prevail. On a more sheltered soil, and on 
land that will bear closer stocking, a greater use may be made 
of the Leicester. Another circumstance that should guide the 
farmer is the object which he has principally in view. If he 
expects to derive his chief profits from the wool, he will look 
to the primitive Cotswolds; if he expects to gain more as a 
grazier, he will use the Leicester ram more freely. 

The Cheviot. — On the steep, storm-lashed Cheviot hills, in 
the extreme north of England, this breed first attracted notice 
for their great hardiness in resisting cold, and for feeding on 
coarse, heathery herbage. A cross with the Leicester, pretty 
generally resorted to, constitutes the improved variety. 

The Cheviot readily amalgamates with the Leicester — the 
rams employed in the system of breeding, which has been 
extensively introduced for producing the first cross of this 
descent, being of the pure Leicester breed — and the progeny is 
superior in size, weight of wool, and tendency to fatten, to the 
native Chevoit. The benefit, however, may be said to end 
with the first cross, and the progeny of this mixed descent is 
greatly inferior to the pure Leicester in form and fattening 
properties, and to the pure Cheviot in hardiness of constitution. 

The improved Cheviot has greatly extended itself through- 
out the mountains of Scotland, and in many instances sup- 
planted the black-faced breed; but the change, though often 
advantageous, has in some cases been otherwise — the latter 
being somewhat hardier, and more capable of subsisting on 
heathy pasturage. They are a hardy race, however, well suited 
for their native pastures, bearing, with comparative impunity, 
the storms of winter, and thriving well on poor keep. The 
purest specimens are to be found on the Scotch side of the 
Cheviot hills, and on the high and stony mountain farms which 
lie between that range and the sources of the Teviot. These 



SHEEP. 295 

sheep are a capital mountain stock, provided the pasture 
resembles those hills, in containing a good proportion of rich 
herbage. Though less hardy than the black-faced sheep of 
Scotland, they are more profitable as respects their feeding, 
making more flesh on an equal quantity of food, and making 
it more quickly. 

They have white faces and legs, open countenances, lively 
eyes, and are without horns; the ears are large, and somewhat 
singular, and there is much space between the ears and eyes; 
the carcass is long; the back straight; the shoulders rather 
light; the ribs circular; and the quarters good. The legs are 
small in the bone, and covered with wool, as well as the body, 
with the exception of the face. The wether is fit for the 
butcher at three years old, and averages from twelve to 
eighteen pounds a quarter, the mutton being of a good quality, 
though inferior to the Southdown, and of less flavor than the 
black-faced. The Cheviot, though a mountain breed, is quiet 
and docile, and easily managed. 

The wool is about the quality of Leicester, coarse and 
long, suitable only for the manufacture of low coatings and 
flushings. It closely covers the body, assisting much in 
preserving it from the effects of wet and cold. The fleece 
averages about three and a half pounds. Formerly the wool 
was extensively employed in making cloths; but, having given 
place to the finer Saxony wools, it has sunk in price, and been 
confined to combing purposes. It has thus become altogether 
a. secondary consideration. The Cheviots have become an 
American sheep by their repeated importations into this 
country. 

The Lincoln. — The old breed of Lincolnshire sheep was 
hornless, had white faces, and long, thin, and weak carcasses; 
the ewes weighed from fourteen to twenty pounds a quarter; 
the three-year old wethers from twenty to thirty pounds; legs 
thick, rough and white; pelts thick; wool long — from ten to 
eighteen inches — and covering a slow-feeding, coarse-grained 
carcass of mutton. The improved Lincolns possess a rather 
more desirable'robustness,'^approaching, in some few specimens, 
almost to coarseness, as compared with the finest Leicesters; 
but they are more hardy and less liable to disease. 



9.9C) SHEEP. 

The Age. — The age of sheep is usually reckoned, not from 
the time they are dropped, but from the first shearing; although 
the first year may thus include fifteen or sixteen months, and 
sometimes more When doubt exists relative to the age, 
recourse is had to the teeth, since there is more uncertainty 
about the horn in this animal than in cattle; ewes that have 
been early bred, appearing always, according to the rings on 
the horn, a year older than others that have been long kept 
from the ram. 

The Teeth. — Sheep have no teeth in the upper jaw, but the 
bars or ridges of the palate thicken as they approach the fore 
part of the mouth; there, also, the dense, fibrous, elastic mat- 
ter, of which they are constituted, becomes condensed, and 
forms a cushion or bed, which covers the converse extremity 
of the upper jaw, and occupies the place of the upper incisor, 
or cutting teeth, and partially discharge their functions. The 
herbage is firmly held between the front teeth in the lower 
jaw and this pad, and thus partly bitten and partly torn 
asunder. Of this, the rolling motion of the head is sufficient 
proof. 

The teeth are the same in number as in the mouth of the 
ox. There are eight incisors or cutting teeth in the fore part 
of the lower jaw, and six molars in each jaw above and below, 
and on either side. The incisors are more admirably formed 
for grazing than in the ox. The sheep lives closer, and is 
destined to follow the ox, and gather nourishment where that 
animal would be unable to crop a single blade. This close 
life not only loosens the roots of the grass, and disposes them 
to spread, but by cutting off the short suckers and sproutings 
— a wise provision of nature — causes the plants to throw out 
fresh, and more numerous, and stronger ones, and thus is 
instrumental in improving and in increasing the value of the 
crop. Nothing will more expeditiously and more effectually 
make a thick, permanent pasture than its being occasionally 
and closely eaten down by sheep. 

The mouth of the lamb newly dropped is either without 
incisor teeth or it has two. The teeth rapidly succeed to each 
other, and before the animal is a month Id he has the whole 
of the eight. They continue to grow with his growth until he 



SHEEP. 297 

is about fourteen or sixteen months old. Then with the same 
previous process of dimunition as in cattle, or carried to a still 
greater degree, the two central teeth are shed, and attain their 
full growth when the sheep is two years old. 

In examining a flock of sheep, however, there will often be 
very considerable difference in the teeth of those that have 
not been sheared, or those that have been once sheared; in 
some measure to be accounted for by a difference in the time of 
lambing, and likewise in the general health and vigor of the 
animal. There will also be a material difference in different 
animals, attributable to the good or bad keep which they have 
had. Those fed on good land, or otherwise well kept, will 
generally take the start of others that have been half starved, 
and renew their teeth some months sooner than these. There 
are also irregularities in the times of renewing the teeth, not 
to be accounted for by either of these circumstances; in fact, 
nor to be explained by any known circumstance relating to the 
breed or the keep of the sheep. The want of improvement in 
sheep, which is occasionally observed, and which cannot be 
accounted for by any deficiency or change of food, may some- 
times be justly attributed to the tenderness of the mouth when 
the permanent teeth are protruding through the gums. 

Between two and three years old the next two incisors are 
shed; and, when the sheep is actually three years old, the four 
central teeth are fully grown; at four years old, he has six teeth 
fully grown; and at five years old — one year before the horse 
or the ox can be said to be full-mouthed — all the teeth are per- 
fectly developed. The Sheep is a much shorter lived animal 
than the horse, and does not often attain the usual age of the 
ox. Their natural age is about ten years, to which age they 
will breed and thrive well; though there are recorded instances 
of their breeding at the age of fifteen, and of living twenty 
years. 

The careless examiner may be sometimes deceived with 
regard to the four-year-old mouth. He will see the teeth per- 
fectly developed, no diminutive ones at the sides, and the 
mouth apparently full; and then, without giving himself the 
trouble of counting the teeth, he will conclude that the animal 
is five years old. A process of displacement, as well as of 



298 SHEEP. 

diminution, has taken place here; the remaining outside milk- 
teeth have not only shrunk to less than a fourth part of their 
original size, but the four-year-old teeth have grown before 
them and perfectly concealed them, unless the mouth is com- 
pletely opened. 

After the permanent teeth have all appeared and are fully 
grown, there is no criterion as to the age of the sheep. In 
most cases, the teeth remain sound for one or two years, and 
then, at uncertain intervals — either on account of the hard 
work in which they have been employed, or from the natural 
effect of age — they begin to loosen and fall out; or, by reason 
of their natural slenderness, they are broken off. When favorite 
ewes, that have been kept for breeding, begin to lose condition, 
at six or seven years old, their mouths should be carefully 
examined. If any of the teeth are loose, they should be ex- 
tracted, and a chance given to the animal to show how far, by 
browsing early and late, she may be able to make up for the 
diminished number of her incisors. It frequently happens that 
ewes with broken teeth, and some with all the incisors gone, 
will keep pace in condition with the best in the flock; but they 
must be well taken care of in the winter, and, indeed, nursed 
to an extent that would scarcely answer the farmer's purpose 
to adopt as a general rule, in order to prevent them from declin- 
ing to such a degree as would make it very difficult afterward 
to fatten them for the butcher. It may certainly be taken as a 
general rule that when sheep become broken-mouthed they 
begin to decline. 

Causes of which the farmer is utterly ignorant, or over which 
he has no control, will sometimes hasten the loss of the teeth. 
One thing, however, is certain — ^that close feeding, causing 
additional exercise, does wear them down; and that the sheep 
of farmers who stock unusually and unseasonably hard, lose 
their teeth much sooner than others do. 

The following is Professor Symonds* statement of the den- 
tition of the sheep as indicative of age: 







SHEEP. 


299 






DENTITION OP THE SHEEP. 






Table op 


Early Dentition. 


Table op Late Dentition. 


Yrs. 
1 

1 

3 


Months 


6 
8 



Central pair of 
temporary inci- 
sors replaced by 
permanent. 
Second pair " 
Third pair " 
Fourth pair " 


Yrs. Months. 
1 3 

3 
3 6 

3 9 


Two permanent 
inclBors. 

Four " 

Six 

Eight 



Breeding. — In the management of sheep, how to procure 
the most profit from the flock, is the greatest consideration. It 
is not exactly how to increase the flock most rapidly, nor to 
produce the heaviest carcasses or fleeces, but to produce such 
animals as will return the most money for the expenditure and 
labor involved. In some localities the sale of an early lamb 
will bring in more money than that of the mother with its fleece. 
Where there is a market for lambs, it is evidently the most 
profitable to keep such sheep, and to keep them in such a way 
as will produce the highest priced lambs. Where mutton is 
the most profitable, there a different management must be 
adopted, and frequently a different breed of sheep must be kept. 
Where wool only is the object, still another different course 
will be chosen. Whichever end is to be gained, the care of the 
breeding ewes and the lambs will be a subject of much solici- 
tude. But what would be a proper course in one case would 
not be at all proper in another. A few general principles are 
involved in the management of ewes and lambs, which will first 
be explained, after which the special management proper to be 
adopted for each special case will be considered. 

The period of gestation of the ewe is 150 to 153 days. Five 
months, in round numbers, may be taken as the period during 
which the ewe carries a lamb. The coupling of the ewes and 
rams should be so timed that the lamb may be dropped at the 
most desirable season. It will be found a great convenience 
to mark the rams and ewes, or such of them as may be selected 
to breed stock animals from. Where a small flock only is kept, 
or where special care is given to the improvement of the breed, 
every sheep should be marked by a number, that the time of 
its coupling may be noted and the date of the expected birth 



300 SHEEP. 

of the lamb be known. The best method of marking is by 
means of metallic ear marks, inserted in the ear in different 
ways, to distinguish the sexes easily. 

A ewe that produces a fine, large, active lamb, that is a 
good nurse, and that rears a profitable market lamb, or that 
rears twins successfully, is a valuable animal to retain in the flock 
so long as she remains productive. Such ewes have been 
kept untilio or 12, or even 16, years old, and to be able to 
identify a ewe of this kind is very necessary when the greatest 
profit is the object sought, and more especially in those cases 
when the special business is to rear market lambs or increase 
the flock rapidly. No more than 30 ewes should be appor- 
tioned to one ram in any season, unless he be a full grown one 
and in vigorous health, and it would be well to observe the rules 
laid down for the management of the ram at this season. If the 
ram is equal to the work, 50 ewes may be given to him, but it is 
better to err on the safe side in this matter, as overwork 
simply means barren ewes and loss of lambs. At the breeding; 
season the ram should be smeared upon the brisket every day 
with a mixture of raw linseed oil and red ocher, so that he will 
leave a mark upon each ewe that may be served. As the eweg 
are served they are to be drafted from the flock and placed in 
a field or yard by themselves. Two rams should not be kept 
together in a small breeding flock, as quarreling and fighting 
are certain to result and great damage may occur. If two rams 
are necessary, each may be used on alternate days. Wethers 
are a nuisance in a flock of ewes at this season, disturbing 
them and keeping them and themselves from feeding. A plan 
followed with advantage where the flock consists of heavy 
bodied sheep, and where the necessary attention can be given, 
is to keep the ram in a yard or paddock by himself, out of 
sight of the ewes, and to allow a wether to run with them. As 
each ewe comes in season, the wether singles her out and keeps 
company with her. On the return of the flock from the pas- 
ture at night, the ewe or ewes in season are turned in to the 
ram until they are served, when they may be removed at once, 
or left with him until the morning. In the morning, if any ewes 
have come into heat during the night, they may be served 
before the flock is turned into pasture. This is continued 



SHEEP. 301 

until 3t is known tliat all the ewes are in lamb. By this method 
a ram may be made to serve double the number of ewes that 
he would if allowed indiscriminate access to them, and exhaust 
himself in useless and repeated exertions. 

As soon as the ewes have been served, the time of each is 
entered in the record. They are carefully preserved from all 
worry by dogs and needless driving and handling. Peace and 
quietness at this season will tend to the production of quiet 
and, docile lambs. The shepherd should make himself very 
familiar with them, and by giving salt or meal in the hand, or 
a small dish, reduce them to a condition of perfect docility. 
Any ewes that have either refused the ram or have failed to 
breed, should be dosed with two ounces of epsom salts and be 
stinted in their feed for a few days to reduce their condition. 
This will generally be effective in bringing them into season. 
Good fair condition is better than an excess of fat, but ewes in 
poor condition cannot be expected to produce other than poor, 
weak lambs; neither will an excessively fat ewe produce a 
strong lamb. Some extra food will now be needed by the 
ewes, and should be given at first in small quantities. Bran, 
crushed malt, and crushed oats and corn mixed, are the best 
kinds of food. Oil-cake, either of cotton-seed or linseed, 
unless used with great caution, is not always healthful food for 
ewes in lamb. Any food that actively affects the bowels, 
either way, is to be avoided. Half a pint a day may be given 
of the first mentioned foods, and a change from one to another 
may be frequently made. So long as pasture is to be had, this 
allowance will be sufficient. When the winter feeding com- 
mences, the ration of grain should be gradually increased until, 
at the period when lambing time approaches, a pint daily is 
given. Cold watery food is highly dangerous at this time, and 
roots should not be given in large quantities, nor at all, unless 
pulped and mixed with cut hay and the grain. Turnips or 
other roots that have been highly manured with superphosphate 
of lime has been said by several experienced English breeders 
to be productive of abortion. Water should be given in small 
and frequent quantities. It is best to have running water or 
water from a well always at hand for the ewes. If the ewes 
have not heretofore been kept apart from the rest of the flock, 



303 SHEEP. 

they should now be separated. The general treatment of ewes 
up to this time should be such as will keep them free from all 
excitement, and in good, healthful condition. The record 
should now be consulted, and as the ewes near their time they 
should be removed into a part of the stables 'or sheep-barn, 
where each one can 'have a small pen to herself. These pens 
should be made so that light can be shut out if desired. Here 
they are permitted to drop their lambs in perfect quiet; by this 
means few ewes will disown their lambs, and no lambs will be 
lost by creeping into feed racks or out-of-the-way places. The 
pens should not be larger than 5x4 feet. 

The Lamb. — As soon as the lamb is dropped and the ewe 
has owned and licked it, and the lamb has once sucked, all 
danger, except from gross carelessness, is passed. The ewe 
will be greatly helped by a drink of slightly warm, thin oat- 
meal gruel well salted. The lamb will be benefitted by a 
teaspoonful of castor oil given in new milk, if the first evacua- 
tions do not pass away freely. These are apt to be very 
glutinous and sticky, and, by adhering to the wool, to close the 
bowel completely unless removed. Warm water should be 
used to soften and remove these accumulations. The anus 
and surrounding wool should then be smeared with pure castor 
oil. If the lamb is not sufficiently strong to reach the teats, 
and suck, it should be assisted once or twice. Any locks of 
wool upon the ewe's udder, that may be in the way, should be 
clipped. If the lamb is scoured, a teaspoonful of a mixture of 
one pint of peppermint water and one ounce of prepared chalk 
should be given every three hours, until it is relieved. When 
the ewe refuses to own the lamb, she may be confined between 
two small hurdles. Two light stakes are driven in the ground 
close together to confine the ewe's head and keep her from 
butting the lamb. If she is disposed to lie down, as some obsti- 
nate ones will do, a light pole is passed through the hurdles 
resting upon the lower bar, beneath her belly. Thus confined 
during the day, she is helpless, and, if the lamb is lively, it will 
manage to get its supply of food. The ewe should be released 
at night. One day's confinement is often sufficient to bring 
an obstinate ewe to reason. 

A twin lamb, or one deprived of iU dam, that may need to 



SHEEP. 303 

V reared by hand, ma}- easily be fed upon cow's milk. A fresh 
cow's milk is the best fitted for this purpose. Ewe's milk is 
richer in solid matter than that of the cow, and the addition of 
a teaspoonful of white refined sugar to the pint of cow's milk 
will make it more palatable to the lamb. At first not more 
'than a quarter of a pint of milk should be given at once. The 
milk shoald be freshly drawn from the cow and warmed up to 
ICO degrees before it is fed. A convenient method of feeding 
milk to a lamb is to use a small tin can with a long spout, such 
as is used for oil. An air-hole is punched in the cover or cork 
and a piece of sponge covered with a cloth is tied upon the 
end of the spout. The flow is thus made easy and equal, and 
the lamb sucks in a natural manner. A very short time is 
sufficient to familiarize the lamb with this kind of foster mother. 
To encourage the flow of milk in the ewe and the correspond- 
ing growth of the lambs, the food of the ewes should be of the 
best character. Clover hay, bran, and crushed oats, with some 
pea-meal, are the most preferable foods, producing a rich milk 
in abundance. The ewes must not be allowed to fall off in 
condition, or the lambs will fail. During mild weather, sugar 
beets may be given in moderate quantity with advantage, but 
mangels or Swede turnips (rutabagas) should be avoided, as 
too watery and deficient in nutriment, and productive of scours 
in the lamb. In cold weather roots are apt to reduce the 
temperature of the animal too suddenly if given in any but 
small quantities, and consequently decrease the flow of milk. 
Pea straw is a favorite and nutritious food for sheep, but it will 
be found profitable to give only the very best at hand to nurs- 
ing ewes. The after growth and condition of the lambs will 
greatly depend upon the maintenance of a thrifty and continu- 
ous growth during the first three months of their existence. 

Docking and Castrating. — At the age of a week the 
operations of docking and castrating the male lambs, may be 
safely performed. At this age the young animal suffers but 
little, there is no loss of blood, and the wounds heal by the first 
intention. The rough and ready method of clipping off the tail 
an inch from the rump, first drawing the skin upwards, and of 
clipping off the scrotum and testicles altogether with a pair of 
sharp sheep-shears, will be found perfectly safe if done before 



304 SHEEP- 

the lamb is two weeks old. The nerves being very slightly 
sensitive at this time, the painful, and, when later performed, 
dangerous operation of emasculation is only slightly felt, and 
within an hour a lamb bereft of tail and generative organs will 
frequently be seen skipping playfully in the sunshine. To 
dock an older lamb is a more troublesome operation. To do 
this with facility, a block of wood, about a foot high, a sharp, 
broad chisel, and a wooden mallet, are required. The opera- 
tor stoops with bended knees, the block being in front of him, 
takes the lamb with its head between his knees and its tail in 
his left hand, holding the chisel in his right hand.. Backing the 
lamb's rump up close to the block, he lays the tail upon it, and, 
drawing back the skin of the tail up to the rump, holds the 
chisel lightly upon the tail, close to and below the fingers of the 
left hand. When all is ready he directs an assistant to strike 
the chisel smartly with the mallet, by which the tail is instantly 
severed about two inches from the root. A pinch of powdered 
bluestone (sulphate of copper) is placed on the wound and the 
lamb is released. To castrate an old lamb with safety, the 
scrotum should be opened by a long, free incision with a sharp 
knife at the lower point, the animal being at the time turned 
upon its back and secured in that position. The scrotum should 
be held in the hand tightly enough to keep the skin tense. 
The cut should be made only through the skin and coats of 
the testicle, and not into the gland, by which a great deal of 
pain is spared to the animal. The gland will escape from the 
scrotum at once if the opening is made large enough. It may 
be taken in the left hand and the cord and vessels scraped 
apart, not cut, by which bleeding is prevented and healing 
made more certain and rapid. The opening being made at the 
bottom of the scrotum, allows the blood and any pus that forms 
in the wound, to escape freely. It might probably be bene- 
ficial to insert a small plug of tow in the wound, projecting out 
of it a short distance to prevent the edges from healing until 
the inflammation has subsided. This method of operation is a 
safe one, and, if it is neatly done, the losses need not be one 
per cent., while frequently three lambs out of five may be lost 
by any other method. 

Additional Food. — ^While the lambs are still with the 



SHEEP. 305 

ewes, and although the ewes may be we 11 fed with a special 
view to the thriftiness of the lambs, yet a supply of additional 
food for the latter will be of great advantage to them. To 
furnish a young animal with all the food that it can digest, and 
that of the choicest character, is to create a sturdy, thrifty, 
strong constitutioned animal that will be prolific in reproduc- 
tion and long lived. To advance the maturity of an animal is 
also to lengthen its life, for it matters not at which part of its 
productive career we add a year, it certainly, so far as profit 
is concerned, lives a year longer for us. If a yearling ewe can 
be made to produce a healthful, strong lamb, or a lamb can be 
brought by care to maturity for the market at eighteen months 
instead of thirty months, this result is simply equal to a profit 
of 40 per cent. And feed is the agent by which this profit is 
secured, of course made available by proper care in selecting 
the breeding stock. To provide the means whereby the lambs 
may procure the extra feed needed for their rapid development, 
many contrivances have been brought into use. Generally these 
are modifications of the plan of providing a pen or yard adjoin- 
ing that in which the ewes are kept, with "creep holes" in the 
fence through which the lambs can gain access to it. In this 
yard some feed, consisting of oats, rye, wheat bran ground 
together very finely, is placed in troughs or boxes, and lightly 
salted. They will soon find this, and will resort to it several 
times a day. But, by whatever means it may be done, the 
lamb should be supplied with some additional concentrated and 
nutritious feed. As a gentle laxative in case of constipation, 
a few ounces of linseed oil-cake-meal will be found sufficient, 
and far better than physic. Linseed oil (raw), or castor oil, a 
teaspoonful of either at a dose, will be found safe and effective 
for either constipation or diarrhoea, unless of a serious character. 
Weaning. — As lambs progress toward the period for wean- 
ing, the extra food should be gradually increased, unless they 
can be removed to a good pasture of short, tender grass. In 
this case even a small allowance at night, on their return to the 
fold, will be beneficial. The weaning should be very gradually 
done. The sudden removal of the lambs from their dams is 
injurious to both. It too abruptly deprives the lambs of their 
most easily digested and most agreeable food. It forces them 
18 



306 SHEEP. 

to load the stomach with food for which it is hardly yet pre- 
pared, and suddenly arrests their growth both by a stinting of 
food and by the nervous irritation consequent upon their sud- 
den deprivation. The dams in full flow of milk, thus at once 
deprived of the means of relief, are subjected to the engorge- 
ment of the udder, with the consequent congestion of all the 
organs connected therewith. This shock is very injurious, and 
frequently produces inflammatory disorders of the blood or 
garget. To avoid these ill effects of the sudden change, it is 
well to remove the lambs to a distant pasture, along with 
some dry ewes or wethers for company. The novel experi- 
ence of a fresh pasture will cause them to forget their dams, 
and they will utter no complaints nor manifest any uneasiness. 
At night they should be turned into the fold with ewes, whose 
full udders they will speedily relieve. By withdrawing any extra 
feed hitherto given to the ewes, somewhat gradually (in no case 
is it wise to make a sudden change in the management of 
sheep) their supply of milk will gradually decrease, and in two 
weeks the whole of the lambs may be weaned with perfect 
safety to themselves and the ewes. 

After having been weaned, the lambs should have the first 
choice of pasture and the best and tenderest cuttings of the 
fodder crops. Many farmers have found it advantageous in 
every way to turn newly weaned lambs into a field of corn in 
the month of August. The corn is too far grown to be injured, 
the suckers only will be nibbled by the lambs, and the weeds 
Avhich grow up after the corn is laid by, will be eaten closely. 
The lambs also have the benefit of a cool shade, and where 
such a field can be conveniently applied to this purpose, there 
are several reasons why it might well be done. 

Care of Ewes after Weaning. — The condition of the 
ewes must not be neglected at this time. The chief danger is 
in regard to those that are heavy milkers. Such sheep should 
be closely watched, and the milk drawn by hand from those 
whose udders are not emptied by the lambs. The first approach 
to hardness or heat In the udder should be remedied by an 
immediate dose of an ounce of epsom salts dissolved in water, 
and mixed with a teaspoonful of ground ginger. The next two 
days 20 grains of saltpetre should be given each morning and 



SHEEP. 307 

evening, to increase the action of the kidneys. These remedies 
will generally relieve the udder, and will tend ,to greatly reduce 
the secretion of milk. If hay is given in place of grass, and 
the ewe confined in a cool, darkened pen, the drying up of the 
milk will be hastened. 

Selection for Breeding. — As the improvement of the flock 
can be better made from within than by giving the sole atten- 
tion to bringing new blood from without, it will be very im- 
portant to select the best lambs, both of rams and ewes, for 
breeders. The selection should be made chiefly in reference 
to the purposes for which the flock is kept, and strength of 
constitution, rapidity of growth, size, tendency to fat; fineness, 
length or quality of wool, and prolificness and certainty of 
breeding, in the parents as well as, so far as can be judged of, 
in the lambs themselves, should be made the tests by which 
the selection is determined. If the production of early lambs 
for market is the object, the produce of those ewes which bring 
single lambs of large size and quick growth will be chosen to 
increase the flock; if the production of mutton sheep, then 
those lambs from ewes which drop twins, and are good nurses, 
ought to be kept; and if wool of any particular kind is desired, 
then the selection should be made chiefly in reference to that. 
On no account should weakly lambs, or those ewes which are 
poor nurses, or fail to breed, or which exhibit tenderness of 
constitution, or are wanderers, or of uneasy, restless disposi- 
tions, be retained; but such unprofitable animals should be 
closely weeded out and fattened for sale or for slaughter. The 
choice of ram lambs is of chief importance; for the influence 
of the ram runs through the flock, while that of the ewe is con- 
fined to her produce alone. To select a lamb for a stock ram 
is a matter requiring a knowledge of the principles of breeding, 
and some tact and experience. The latter qualifications can- 
not be acquired from books, but must be gained by practice. 

Winter Management and Food. — Sheep should be brought 
into winter quarters soon after the severe frosts occur, as these 
diminish the feed and materially impair its nutritious qualities. 
They ought also to be removed from the grass lands before 
they become permanently softened by the rains, as they will 
in}unouily affect their comfort and health; and it is equally 



308 SHEEP. 

objectionable from their poaching the sod. If the number be 
large when brought to the yards, they must be carefully divided 
into flocks of one hundred or less, according to the size of the 
yards and sheds. The young and feeble must be separated 
from the others, and the ailing ones placed by themselves, and 
that no one may suffer from the others, all should be classed 
as uniformly as possible, as to strength. The yards must be 
dry, well supplied with a trough of fresh water, and with com- 
fortable sheds to which they can retire when they choose. In 
snowy winters, if water be not handy, snow will supply its place 
quite well. 

Shelters. — These in northern climates are indispensable to 
profitable sheep raising, and, in every latitude north of the 
Gulf of Mexico, they would be advantageous. There is policy 
as well as humanity in the practice. An animal eats much less 
when thus protected; he is more thrifty, less liable to disease, 
and his manure is richer and more abundant. The feeding 
may be done in the open yard in clear weather, and under 
cover in severe storms. The shelters for sheep are variously 
constructed, to suit the taste or circumstance of the flock- 
master. Sheep barns built upon a side hill will afford under- 
ground floors, surrounded by three sides of wall, and opening 
to the south, with sliding or swinging doors to guard against 
storms, and sufifiicient storage for the fodder may be made by 
scaffolds; or they may be constructed with twelve or fifteen 
feet posts, on level ground, allowing them to occupy the lower 
part, with the fodder stored above. In all cases, however, 
thorough ventilation should be provided, for of the two evils, 
of exposure to cold or too great privation of air, the former is 
to be preferred. Sheep cannot long endure close confinement 
without injury. In all ordinary weather, a shed, closely 
boarded on three sides, with a close roof, is sufficient protec- 
tion, especially if the open side is shielded from bleak winds, 
or leads into a well enclosed yard. If the apartment above is 
used for storage, the floors should be made tight, ;hat no hay, 
chaff or dust can fall upon the fleece. 



SHEEP 



309 




Fig. 2.— Sheep Babn. 

A building which is well arranged and convenient is shown 

in figures 2, 3, and 4, It consists of a barn, shown at figure 2, 

about 20 feet wide, 16 feet high from basement to eaves, and 

as long as desirable. This is intended to store the hay or fod- 



der. The posts, sills, and plates are 




all 8 inches square, the 
girts and braces are 4 
inches square, the beams 

2 X 10, are placed 16 
inches apart, and are 
cross-bridged with strips 

3 inches wide. The hay 
is piled inside,so that the 
feed passage below, ove/ 
which there are trap- 
doors, is left uncovered. 
The hay is thrown down 
through these doors, 
and falls upon a sloping 
shelf, which carries it 



Fig. 3.— Section op Building. 



Fig. 4.— Hanging Doob 
FOR Bakn. 



into the feed racks below. (See figure 3). The basement under 
the barn is 8 feet high, and is of stone on three sides; the front 
is supported by posts 8 inches square, and 8 feet apart. Be 



310 SHEEP. 

tween each pair of posts a door is hung upon pins (figure 4), 
which fit into grooves in the posts, so that the door may be 
raised and fastened in such a manner as to close the upper 
half of the space between the posts; or be held suspended half 
way, leaving the whole open; or be shut down and close the 
lower half; or be removed altogether. By this contrivance 
at least half the front of the basement must be left open, 
whether the sheep be shut in or out. The floor of the base- 
ment should be slightly sloping from rear to front, so that it 
will always be dry. Figure 3 gives a section of the whole barn. 
The hay-loft is above, and the passage-way and the doors, by 
which the hay is thrown down to the feed-racks below; as well 
as the sloping shelf by v/hich the hay is carried into the feed- 
racks are shown. 

Below the feed-rack is the feed-trough for roots or meal. A 
door shuts off this trough from the sheep at the front, while the 
feed is being prepared, and, when it is ready, the door is raised, 
and held up to the feed-rack by a strap or a hook. The feed- 
rack is closely boarded behind, and this back part, which is in 
the feed-passage, slopes forward to the front, so as to carry the 
hay forward to the bottom. The front of the rack is of up- 
right slats, smoothly dressed, two inches wide, and placed three 
inches apart. The boards of the feed-trough are smoothly 
dressed and sand-papered, and all the edges are rounded, so 
that there is nothing by which the wool may be torn or rubbed 
off from the sheep's necks. It will be seen by this arrange- 
ment that there is no dangerous thing by which a sheep or a 
lamb might be hurt, nor a place where it can get into mischief. 
The root-cellar is at the rear of the basement, and is reached 
by the stairs already mentioned. 

Racks or Mangers.— Racks and mangers are indispensable 
to economical feeding. If the hay is fed on the,' ground, the 
leaves and seeds, the most valuable part of the fodder, are 
almost wholly lost, and, when wet, the sheep, in their restless- 
ness while feeding, will tread much of it into the mud. To 
make an economical box or rack, take six light pieces of 
scantling, say three inches square, one for each corner, and one 
for the center of each side. Boards of pine or hemlock, twelve 
or fifteen feet long and twelve or fourteen inches wide, may 



SHEEP. 



311 



then be nailed on to the bottom of the posts for the sides, 
which are separated by similar boards at the ends, two and 
one-half feet long. Boards twelve inches wide, raised above 
the lower ones by a space of nine to twelve inches, are nailed 
on the sides and ends, which completes the rack. The edges 
of the opening should be made perfectly smooth, to prevent 
chafing the wool. The largest dimensions above given are 
suitable for the larger breeds, and the smallest for Merinos, 
and still smaller are proper for their lambs. These should be 
set on dry ground, or under the sheds, and they can easily be 
removed whenever necessary. Some prefer the racks made 




Fig. 5.— Pobtable Feed Back. 
with slats, or smooth, upright sticks, in the form of the usual 
racks. There is no objection to this, but it should always be 
accompanied by a broad trough affixed to the bottom, to catch 
the fine hay which falls in feeding. These may be attached to 
the side of a building, or used double. A small lamb requires 
fiftevin inches of space, and a large sheep two feet, for quiet, 




Fig. 6.— Sheep Shed. 
comfortable feeding, and at least this amount of room should 
be provided around the racks for every sheep. 



313 



SHEEP. 




A very convenient rack is the one shown in figure 5. This 
is extremely portable, and may be moved from one part of the 
field to another with great ease. A shed that has been found 
very convenient in use is shown at figure 6. It is built at the 
center of four fields, and has doors opening into each of them, 
and is so arranged tha.t it may be entirely closed from all but 
the one which may be in use at the time. 

For the protection of the sheep 
at night, small paddocks may be 
fenced in around this shed, and 
safety from dogs secured by the use 
of dog guards. These consist of 
wires made to run above the fence, 
or at right angles with the top of it, 
i-iG. 7.— Dog Guard. as shown at figure 7. 

Food. — There is no better food for sheep than good 
upland hay, composed of the clover and nearly all the cultivated 
grasses. Bean and pea straw are valuable, and especially the 
former, which, if properly cured, they prefer to the best hay; 
and it is well adapted to the production of wool. All the 
other straws furnish good food, and sheep will thrive on 
them without hay, when fed with roots or grain. Roots ought 
to be given them occasionally for a change, and especially to 
the ewes after lambing, if this occur before putting them on to 
fresh pasture. They keep the stomach properly distended, 
the appetite and general health good, and they render their 
winter forage nearly equal to their summer feed. Much grain . 
is not suited to store sheep. It is too rich, and should be 
given sparingly except to the lambs, the old ewes or feeble 
sheep, or to restore the ram after hard service. For the above 
purposes, oats are the best; and, if any other grain, beans and 
peas are given, it should be given in small quantities. When 
there is a deficiency of hay and roots, grain may be used with 
straw. But the flock ought to be so fed as to receive the same 
amount of nourishment throughout every part of the year. The 
evenness and value of the fleece depends much upon this. 
When the amount of nutrition is great, the wool secreting 
organs are distended, and the fibre becomes enlarged; when 
limited, they necessarily contract, and the fibre is small. This 



SHEEP. 313 

produces a want of trueness, which the experienced wool 
stapler readily detects, and does not fail to estimate against 
the value of the fleece. Sheep ought to have a full supply of 
salt, and, if accessible, sulphur, ashes, tar and clay would fre- 
quently be nibbled by them when their stomach required 
either. Pine and hemlock boughs are a good substitute for tar, 
and afford a most healthful change in the winter food of sheep. 
Entire cleanliness and dryness are also essential to the health 
of the flock. The smaller sizes of sheep may be well sustained 
on two and a half pounds of hay, but larger sheep will consume 
from three and a half to four, or even five, pounds per day. 
Sheep, like all other animals, when exposed to cold, will con- 
sume much more than if well protected, or than during a 
warmer season. 

Summer Management, — As soon as warm weather ap- 
proaches and the grass appears, sheep become restive and 
impatient for the pasture. This instinct should be repressed 
till the ground has become thoroughly dry; and the grass has 
acquired substance. They ought, moreover, to be provided for 
the change of food, by the daily use of roots for a few days 
before turning out. It would also check the tendency to exces- 
sive purging, which is induced by the first spring feed, if they 
were housed at night, and fed for the first few days with a little 
sound, sweet hay. Or, if a well grown fall pasture be left 
the previous fall, we have found it equally good, as the sheep 
feed off the old grass, and the young herbage springing up 
through it, they gradually work from one into the other, and 
thus get on to their summer food without detriment. They 
must be provided with pure water, salt, etc., as in winter, for 
though they may sometimes do tolerably well without either, 
yet thrift and freedom from disease are cheaply secured by 
this slight attention. Dry, sweet pastures, and such as abound 
in aromatic and bitter plants, are best suited for sheep-walks. 
No animal, with the exception of the goat, crops so great a 
variety of plants. They eat many which are rejected by the 
horse and the ox, and which are even essential to their own 
wants. In this respect they are valuable assistants to the 
husbandman, as they feed greedily on dry mustard, burdocks, 
thistles, marsh-mallows, milk-weed and various other offending 



314 SHEEP. 

plants; and the Merino exceeds the more recent breeds in 
the variety of his selections. Many prepare artificial pastures 
for their flocks. This may be done with a number of plants. 
Winter rye, or wheat sown early in the season, may be fed off 
in the fall without injury to the crop; and in the following 
spring the rye may be pastured till the stalks shoot up and 
begin to form a head. This affords an early and nutritious food. 
Corn may be sown broadcast or thickly in drills, and either 
fed off in the fields, or cut and carried to the sheep in their 
folds. An experiment made with white mustard for feeding 
sheep, shows it to be a valuable crop for this purpose. Sheep 
love a wide range, and, when sufficient pasturage is afforded, 
which always should be, it is better to give them a steady feed- 
ing than to often change from dry to green, flashy food, causing 
them to scour. 

Cutting the Hoofs. — As the hoofs of fine wooled sheep 
grow rapidly, turning up in front and under at the sides, thev 
must be clipped as often as once 3 year, or they Decom:^ 
unsightly, give an awkward, hobbling gait to the animal, and 
the part of the horn which turns under at the sides holds dirt 
or dung in constant contact with the soles, and even prevents it 
from being readily shaken or washed out of the cleft of the 
foot in the natural movement of the sheep about the pastures, 
as would take place were the hoof in its proper place. This 
greatly aggravates the hoof-ail, and renders the curing of it 
more difficult; and it is thought by many to be the exciting 
cause of the disease. It is customary to clip the hoofs at 
tagging, or at or soon after the time of shearing. 

Washing. — Many judicious farmers object to washing sheep, 
on account of its tendency to produce colds and catarrhal 
affections, to which this animal is particularly subject; but it 
cannot well be dispensed with, as the wool is always rendered 
more salable; and, if the operation is carefully done, it need 
not be attended with injury. 

In most of that portion of the United States lying north of 
forty degrees, the washing is performed from the middle of 
May till the first of June, according to the season and climate. 
When the streams are hard, which is frequently the case in 
limestone regions, it is better to attend to it immediately after 



SHEEP. 



315 



an abundant rain, which proportionately lessens the lime 
derived from the springs. The climate of the Southern States 
would admit of an earlier time. The rule should be to wait 
until the water has acquired sufficient warmth for bathing, and 
until cold rains and storms and cold nights are no longer to be 
expected. 

The practice of a large majority of farmers is to drive their 
sheep to the watering-ground early in the morning, on a warm 
day, leaving the lambs behind. The sheep are confined on the 
bank of the stream by a temporary enclosure, from which they 
are taken, and, if not too heavy, carried into water sufficiently 
deep to prevent their touching bottom. They are then washed 
by gently squeezing the fleece with the hands, after which they 
are led ashore, and as much of the water pressed out as possi- 
ble before letting them go, as the great weight retained in the 
wool frequently staggers and throws them down. 

By the best flock-masters, sheep are usually washed in vats. 
A small stream is dammed up, and the water taken from it in 
an aqueduct, formed by nailing boards together, and carried 
till a sufficient fall is obtained to have it pour down a couple 
of feet or more into the vat. The body of water, to do the 







WASHING Apparatus. 

work fast and well, should be some twenty-four inches wide, 
and five or six deep; and the swifter the current the better. 
The vat should be some three and a half feet deep, and large 
enough for four sheep to swim in it. A yard is built near the 
vat, from the gate of which a platform extends to and encloses 



316 SHEEP. 

the vat on three sides. This keeps the washer from standing 
in the water, and makes it much easier to lift the sheep in and 
out. The yard is built opposite the corners of two fields — to 
take advantage of the angle of one of them to drive the sheep 
more readily into the yard, which should be large enough to 
contain the entire flock, if it does not exceed two hundred; 
and the bottom of it, as well as the smaller yard, unless well 
sodded over, should be covered with coarse gravel, to avoid 
becoming muddy. If the same establishment is used by a 
number of flock-masters, gravelling will always be necessary. 

As soon as the flocks are confined in the middle yard, the 
lambs are all immediately caught out from among them, and 
set over the fence into the yard to the left, to prevent their 
being trampled down, as often happens, by the old sheep, or 
straying off, if let loose. As many sheep are then driven out 
of the middle yard into the smaller yard to the right, as it will 
conveniently hold. A boy stands by the gate next to the vat, 
to open and shut it, or the gate is drawn together with a chain 
and weight, and two men, catching the sheep, commence plac- 
ing them in the water for the process of "wetting." As soon 
as the water strikes through the wool, which occupies but an 
instant, the sheep is lifted out and let loose. Where there are 
conveniences for so doing, this process may be more readily 
performed by driving them through a stream deep enough to 
compel the sheep to swim; but swimming the compact-fleeced, 
fine-woolled sheep for any length of time — as is practiced with 
the long- wools in England — will not properly cleanse the wool 
for steaming. The vat should, of course, be in an inclosed field, 
to prevent their escape. The whole flock should thus be 
passed over, and again driven round the field into the middle 
yard, where they should stand for about an hour before wash- 
ing commences. 

There is a large per centage of potash in the wool oil, 
which acts upon the dirt independent of the favorable effect 
which would result from thus soaking it with water alone for 
sometime. If washed soon after a good shower, previous wet- 
ting might be dispensed with; and it is not, perhaps, abso- 
lutely necessary in any case. If the water is warm enough to 
allow the sheep to remain in it for the requisite period, they 



SHEEP. 317 

may be got clean by washing without any previous wetting; 
though the snowy whiteness of fleece, which has such an influ- 
ence on the purchaser, is not so often nor so perfectly attained 
in the latter way. But little time is saved by dispensing with 
"wetting," as it takes proportionably longer to wash, and it is 
not so well for the sheep to be kept so long in the water at 
once. 

When the washing commences, two, and sometimes four, 
«heep are plunged in the vat. When four are put in, two soak 
while two are washed. This should not, however, be done, 
unless the water is very warm, and the washers are uncom- 
monly quick and expert; and it is, upon the whole, rather an 
objectionable practice, since few animals suffer so much from 
the effects of a chill as the sheep; and, if they have been pre- 
viously wetted, it is wholly unnecessary. When the sheep are 
in the water, the two washers commence kneading the wool 
with their hands about the dirtier parts — the breech, belly, etc, 
— and they continue to turn the sheep so that the descending 
current of water can strike into all parts of the fleece. 

As soon as the sheep are clean, which may be known by the 
water running entirely clear, each washer seizes his own ani- 
mal by the foreparts, plunges it deep in the vats, and, taking 
advantage of the rebound, lifts it out, setting it gently down on 
its breech upon the platform. He then — if the sheep is old 
and weak, and it is well in all cases — presses out some of the 
water from the wool, and, after submitting the sheep to a pro- 
cess presently to be mentioned, lets it go. 

There should be no mud about the vat, the earth not cov- 
ered with sod, being gravelled. Sheep should be kept on clean 
pastures, from washing to shearing — not where they can come 
in contact with the ground, burnt logs, and the like — and they 
should not be driven over dusty roads. The washers should 
be strong and capable men, and, protected as they are from 
anything but the water running over the sides of the vat, they 
can labor several hours without inconvenience. Two hundred 
sheep will employ two experienced men not over half a day, 
and this rate is at times much exceeded. 

It is a great object, not only as a matter of propriety and 
honesty, but even as an item of profit, to get the wool clean, 



318 SHEEP. 

and of a snowy whiteness, in which condition it will always sell 
for more than enough extra to offset the increased labor and the 
diminution in weight. The average loss in American Saxon 
wool in scouring, after being washed on the back, is estimated 
at thirty-six per cent.; and in American Merino forty-two and 
a half per cent 

Shearing, — The time which should elapse between washing 
and shearing depends altogether on circumstances. From four 
to six days of bright, warm weather is sufhcient; if cold, or 
rainy, or cloudy, more time must intervene. Sometimes the 
wool remains in a condition unfit for shearing for a fortnight 
after washing. The rule to be observed is that the water 
should be thoroughly dried out, and the natural oil of the wool 
should so far exude as to give the wool an unctious feeling, 
and a lively, glittering look. If it is sheared when dry, like 
cotton, and before the oil has exuded, it is very difficult to 
thrust the shears through, the umer is checked, and the wool 
will not keep so well for long periods. If it is left until it gets 
too oily, either the manufacturer is cheated, or, what more fre- 
quently happens, the owner loses on the price. 

Shearing, in this country, is always done on the threshing- 
floors of the barns — sometimes on low platforms, some eighteen 
or twenty inches high, but more commonly on the floor itself. 
The place where the sheep remain should be well littered down 
with straw, and fresh straw thrown on occasionally, to keep the 
sheep clean while shearing. No chaff or other substance which 
will stick in the wool should be used for this purpose. The 
shearing should not commence until the dew, if any, has dried 
off from the sheep. All loose straws sticking to the wool 
should be picked off, and whatever dung may adhere to any of 
the feet brushed off. The floor or tables used should be 
planed or worn perfectly smooth, so that they will not hold dirt, 
or catch the wool. They should all be thoroughly cleaned, 
and, if necessary, washed, preparatory to the process. If there 
are any sheep in the pen dirty from purging, or other causes, 
they should first be caught out, to prevent them from contam- 
inating others. 

The manner of shearing varies with almost every district: 
and it is difficult, if not impossible, to give intelligible practical 



SHEEP. 319 

instructions, which would guide an entire novice in skillfully 
shearing a sheep. Practice is requisite. The following direc- 
tions are as plain, perhaps, as can be made: 

The shearer may place the sheep on that part of the floor 
assigned to him, resting on its rump, and himself in a posture 
with his right knee on a cushion, and the back of the animal 
resting against his left thigh. He grasps the shears about half 
way from the point to the bow, resting his thumb along the 
blades, which gives him better command of the points. He 
may then commence cutting the wool at the brisket, and, pro- 
ceeding downward, all upon the sides of the belly to the 
extremity of the ribs, the external sides of both sides to the 
edges of the flanks; then back to the brisket, and thence 
upward, shearing the wool from the brisket, front, and both 
sides of the neck, but not yet the back of it, and also the poll, 
or forepart, and top of the head. Then "the jacket is opened" 
of the sheep, and its position, as well as that of the shearer, is 
changed by the animal's being turned flat upon its side, one 
knee of the shearer resting on the cushion, and the other gently 
pressing the fore-quarter of the animal, to prevent any strug- 
gling. He then resumes cutting upon the flank and rump, and 
thence onward to the head. Thus one side is complete. The 
sheep is then turned on the other side — in doing which great 
care is requisite to prevent the fleeces being torn — and the 
shearer proceeds as upon the other, which finishes. He must 
then take the sheep near to the door through which it is to pass 
out, and neatly trim the legs, leaving not a solitary lock any- 
where as a lodging place for ticks. It is absolutely necessary 
for him to remove from his stand to trim, otherwise the useless 
stuff from the legs becomes intermingled with the fleece wool. 
In the use of the shears, the blades should be laid as flat to the 
skin as possible, the points not lowered too much, nor should 
more than from one to two inches be cut at a clip, and fre- 
quently not so much, depending on the part, and the compact- 
ness of the wool. 

Good shearers will shear, on the average, twenty-five 
Merinos per day; but a new beginner should not attempt to 
exceed from one-third to one-half of that number. It is the 
last process in the world which should be hurried, as the 



320 SHEEP. 

shearer will, in that case, soon leave more than enough wool on 
his sheep to pay for his day's wages. Wool ought not to be 
sheared, and must not be done up, with any water in it. If 
wounds are made, as sometimes happen with unskillful opera- 
tors, a mixture of tar and grease ought to be applied. 

Cold Storms. — These occurring soon after shearing some- 
limes destroy sheep, in the northern portion of the country, 
especially the delicate Saxons; forty or fifty of which have, at 
times, perished out of a single flock, from one night's exposure. 
Sheep, in such cases, should be housed; or, where this is im- 
practicable, driven into dense forests. 

Sun-Scald. — When they are sheared close in very hot 
weather, have no shade in their pastures, and especially where 
they are driven immediately considerable distances, or rapidly, 
over burning and dusty roads, their backs are sometimes so 
scorched by the sun that their wool comes off. If let alone, 
the matter is not a serious one; but the application of refuse 
lard to the back will hasten the cure, and the starting of the 
wool. 

Ticks. — These vermin, when very numerous, greatly annoy 
and enfeeble the sheep in winter, and should be kept entirely 
out of the flock. The draft upon 
the vitality of lambs infested 
with ticks is very great, and suf- 
ficient to arrest their growth 
altogether. To rid the flock of 
these pests is therefore a neces- 
sary labor in the spring or early 
summer, and, if need be, again 
in the autumn. The easiest 
remedy is to dip both sheep and 
lambs, as soon as the sheep are ^''^- 8— Shebp-Tick and Pcpa. 
shorn, and again in August or September, in a decoction of 
tobacco mixed with sulphur. Coarse plug tobacco, or tobacco 
stems, which are cheaper than the leaves, and equally effective, 
are steeped in water at a boiling heat, but not boiling, 
at the rate of four pounds to twenty gallons of water. One 
pound of flowers of sulphur is then stirred in the liquid, 
which is brought to a temperature of 120 degrees, and kept so 




SHEEP. 831 

during the dipping by the addition of fresh hot liquor. During 
the dipping, the mixture is kept stirred i>. prevent the sulphur 




Fig. 9.— Dipping Sheep. 

from subsiding. The dip may be conveniently placed in a 
trough or a tub large enough to allow of the immersion of the 
sheep, or the lamb, which is taken by the feet by two men and 
plunged into the bath at the temperature mentioned, where it 
is held for a minute or two until the wool is thoroughly satur- 
ated. The animal is then placed in a pen with a raised floor 
sloping on each side to a trough in the middle, along which the 
superabundant liquor escapes into a pail or a tub placed to 
receive it. The method of dipping (shown at figures 9 and 
10), is calculated for small flocks, or for a few hundred lambs. 
For larger flocks, a larger tank is provided, 12 feet long, three 
feet wide, and four feet deep. A fenced platform leads from 
a pen in which the sheep are gathered, up to the edge of 
the dipping tank, and the sheep are taken one by one from 
the pen, led up the platform, and pushed into the tank 
in which the dip is sufiicienlly deep to cover them. As 
the sheep plunge into the dip, they are seized and kept 
beneath it, except the head, which alone is suffered to emerge 
above it. If, in their struggles, a little of the dip enters their 
nostrils, no harm results, but the hot tobacco water is, on the 
contrary, often beneficial to those sheep which are affected by 



333 



SHEEP. 




catarrh or grub in the head, and the violent sneezings which„ 
follow may help to free their from these troublesome parasites 
which often inhabit the nasal sinuses. The sheep are rapidly 
passed from hand to 
hand along the tank un- 
til they reach the end, 
where there is a sloping 
plank upon which they 
can walk up to another 
platform. Here they 
are allov/ed to remain . 
while the excess of dip 
is squeezed from their 
wool. From this the 
liquid drains into tubs, ^m. IO.-Trough fob Dipping Lambs. 

and is carried to the boiler to be reheated, and then returned 
to the tank for use again. The cost of dipping a large flock, 
numbering several thousands, in this manner twice in the sea- 
son, is five cents a head, and. the improveiaent in the quality of 
the wool, which results from the cleansing of the skin from 
dust, grease, and the accumulated refuse of its secretions, and 
its increase in quantity, consequent upon the greater comfort 
of the sheep, and their escape from the persecution of ticks 
and other parasites, is estimated at 20 cents per head, so that 
the cost is repaid more than three-fold. The comforting 
knowledge to the humane shepherd that his flock is freed from 
a most annoying torment, is also something, which, although it 
does not enter into a pecuniary calculation, and is not meas- 
ured by dollars and cents, yet is not on that account unworthy 
of consideration. 

Marking or Branding". — The sheep should be marked soon 
after shearing, or mistakes may occur. Every sheep-owner 
should be provided with a marking instrument, which will 
stamp his initials, or some other distinctive mark, such as a 
small circle, an oval, a triangle, or a square, at a single stroke, 
and with uniformity, on the sheep. It is customary to have 
the mark cut out of a plate of thin iron, with an iron handle 
terminating in wood; but one made by cutting a type, or raised 



SHEEP. 323 

letter, or character, on the end of a stick of light wood, such 
as pine or basswood, is found to be better. 

Various pigments are used for marking. Many boil tar 
until it assumes a glazed, hard consistency when cold, and 
give it a brilliant, black color by stirring in a little lamp-black 
during the boiling. This is applied when just cold enough not 
to burn the sheep's hide, and it forms a bright conspicuous 
mark all the year round. The manufacturer, however, prefers 
the substitution of oil and turpentine for tar, as the latter is 
cleansed out of the wool with some difficulty. It should be 
boiled in an iron vessel, with high sides, to prevent it from 
taking fire, on a small furnace or chafing-dish near which it is 
to be used. When cool enough, forty or fifty sheep can be 
marked before it gets too stiff. It is then warmed from time 
to time, as necessary, on the chafing-dish. 

Maggots. — Rams with horns growing closely to their heads 
are very liable to have maggots generated under them, particu- 
larly if the skin on the surrounding parts becomes broken by 
fighting; and these, unless removed, soon destroy the animal. 
Boiled tar, or the marking substance first described, is both 
remedy and preventive. If it is put under the horns at the 
time of marking, no trouble will ever arise from this cause. 

Sometimes when a sheep scours in warm weather, and clol- 
ted dung adheres about the anus, maggots are generated under 
it, and the sheep perishes miserably. As a preventive, the 
dung should be removed; as a remedy, the dung and maggots 
should be removed — the latter by touching them with a litile 
turpentine, and sulphur and grease afterward applied to tne 
excoriated surface. 

Shortening the Horns. — ^A convolution of the hom of a 
ram sometimes so presses in upon the side of the head or neck 
that it is necessary to shave or rasp it away on the under side, 
to prevent ultimately fatal results. The points of the horns of 
both ram and ewe frequently turn in so that they will grow 
into the flesh, and sometimes into the eye, unless shortened. 
The toe-nippers will often suffice on the thin extremity of a 
horn; if not, a fine saw must be used. The marking-time 
affords the best opportunity for attending to this operation, 



324 SHEEP. 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 

Administering Medicine. — The stomach into which medi- 
cines are to be administered is the fourth or digesting stom- 
ach. The comparatively insensible walls of the rumen, or 
paunch, are but slightly acted upon, except by doses of very 
improper magnitude Medicine, to reach the fourth stomach, 
should be given in a state as nearly approaching fluidity as may 
be. Even then it may be given in such a manner as to defeat 
the object in view. 

If the animal forcibly gulps fluids down, or if they are given 
hastily and bodily, they will follow the caul at the base of the 
gullet with considerable momentum, force asunder the pillars, 
and enter the rumen; if they are drunk more slowly, or admin- 
istered gently, they will trickle down the throat, glide over 
these pillars, and pass on through the maniplus to the true 
stomach. 

Bleeding. — Bleeding from the ears or tail, as is commonly 
practiced, rarely extracts a quantity of blood sufficient to do 
any good where bleeding is indicated. To bleed from the eye- 
Vein, the point of the knife is usually inserted near the lower 
extremity of the pouch below the eye, pressed down, and then 
a cut made inward toward the middle of the face. 

Bleeding from the angular or cheek vein is recommended 
in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of 
the fourth toot^ is placed, which is the thickest part of the 
cheek, and is marked on the external surface of the bone of 
the upper jaw, by a tubercle, sufficiently prominent to be very 
sensible to the finger when the skin of the cheek is touched. 
This tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein, which is 
placed below. The shepherd takes the sheep between his legs; 
his left hand more advanced than his right, which he places 
under the head, and grasps the under jaw near to the hinder 
extremity, in order to press the angular vein, which passes in 
that place, for the purpose of making it swell; he touches the 
right cheek at the spot nearly equidistant from the eye and 
mouth, and there finds the tubercle which is to guide him, and 
also feels the angular vein swelled below this tubercle; he then 
makes the incision from below upward, half a finger's breadth 
below the middle of the tubercle. When the vein is no longer 
pressed upon the bleeding will commonly cease; if not, a pin 
may be parsed through the lips of the orifice and a lock of 
wool tied around them. 

For thorough bleeding, the jugular vein is greatly to be pre- 
ferred. The sheep should be firmly held by the head by an 
assistant, and the body confined between his knees, with itg 
rump against a wall. Some of the wool is then cut away from 



SHEEf». 325 

the middle oi the neck over the jugular vein, and a ligature, 
brought in contact with the neck by opening the wool, is tied 
around it below the shorn spot near the shoulder. The vein 
will soon rise. The orifice may be secured, after bleeding, as 
before described. 

The good effects of bleeding depend almost as much on 
the rapidity with which the blood is abstracted as to the 
amount taken. This is especially true in acute diseases. Either 
bleed rapidly or do not bleed at all. The orifice in the vein, 
therefore, should be of some length, and made lengthwise with 
the vein. A lancet is by far the best implement; and even a 
sharp-pointed penknife is preferable to the bungling gleam. 
Bleeding, moreover, should always be resorted to, when it is 
indicated at all, as nearly as possible to the commencement of 
the malady. 

The amount of blood drawn should never be betermined 
by admeasurement, but by constitutional effect — the lowering 
of the pulse, and indications of weakness. In urgent cases — 
apoplexy, or cerebral inflammation, for example — it would be 
proper to bleed until tiie sheep staggers or falls. The quan- 
tity of blood in the sheep is less, in comparison, than that in 
the horse or ox. The blood of the horse constitutes about one 
eighteenth part of his weight; and that of the ox at least one- 
twentieth; while that of the sheep, in ordinary condition, is 
one-twenty-second. For this reason, more caution should be 
exercised in bleeding the latter, especially in frequently resort- 
ing to it; otherwise, the vital powers will be rapidly and fatally 
prostrated. Many a sheep has been destroyed by bleeding 
freely in disorders not requiring it, and in disorders which did 
require it at the commencement, but of which the inflamma- 
tory stage had passed. 

Rot, or Hydatids in the Liver. — This parasite, which affects 

the liver of sheep, is known as the fluke, and is usually found 
in the biliary ducts. Rot, in its advanced stage, is a disease of 
a very formidable character, and its associations, closely re- 
semble dropsy. A serous fluid accumulates beneath the skin, 
hence some people call it the water rot. 

Causes. — Wet pastures, and exposure to storms and changes 
of weather, with innutritious diet, are the exciting causes of 
this malady. 

Treatment. — If flukes are present, it is evident that in 
order to strike at the root of the malady we must get rid of 
them, which can only be effected by bringing about a healthy 
condition of the system. Nothing that can be done by the ap- 
plication of medicine will act on them to affect their vitality. 
It is only by strengthening the animal powers that we are en- 



326 SHEEP. 

abled to give sufficient tone to the system to throw off the 
flukes. For that purpose many advocate salt. Salt is an ex- 
cellent stimulative to the digestive organs, and may also be of 
service in restoring the biliary secretion, from the soda which 
it contains. So well is its stimulative action known, that some 
individuals always keep salt in the troughs containing animals' 
food. That this is a preventive they have good proof, seeing 
that it matters not how much the soil might be in salt marshes, 
no sheep are ever attacked by rot in them, while those sent 
there infected very often come back free. Salt, therefore, must 
not be neglected. But then comes the question, can they not 
do something more? They can. They must throw tonics into 
the system, especially those that are obtained in the mineral 
kingdom. The sulphate of iron (iron is found in animal mat- 
ter) is one of the constituents of the blood, and, used in the 
form of sulphate, it gives a greater tone and energy to the 
frame than in any other form. Its use, therefore, ought never 
to be neglected in the earlier stages of the disease. 

Yellows. — This term is used by shepherds to designate dis- 
ease of the liver. 

Symptoms. — The affected animal has a peculiar languid 
appearance, frequently shaking the head, as if parasites were in 
the nostrils; the head is pressed against any elevated ground, 
sometimes against the fence or a post; the animal moves lazily 
along, with its nose almost touching the ground; the mem- 
branes of the eyes and nose have a yellow tinge; the same is 
true of the skin; a marked yellowness is observed on the inside 
of the thigs and anus. As the disease advances, these morbid 
appearances are augmented. The patient grates its teeth; 
stands with the head pendulous, almost touching the ground; 
then soon falls, and dies without a struggle. 

The autopsy reveals the following: The liver has a mottled 
appearance, and its structure is easily broken down; the gall- 
bladder is usually full of dark-colored, tarry-looking bile; kid- 
neys, stomach, and intestines, tolerably healthy. Should any 
urine be found in the bladder, it will be of a dark color. The 
heart is pale and flabby; the lungs, healthy, yet the chest usu- 
ally contains a quart or more of dark-colored serum. On re- 
moving the skin, the surface of the body is yellow (jaundiced). 

Treatment. — Remove the diseased animals from the flock 
and put them in a dry shed. Then prepare the following: 

1 pound of fluid extract of leptandra (Culver's root). 
6 ounces of powdered hyposulphite of soda. 
1 quart of water. 

Dissolve the soda in the water, then add the leptandrin. 
Dose, one ounce (fluid) twice daily. Let the affected animals 
have salt; grass should also be cut and placed before them. 



SHEEP. 327 

Vertigo, or Giddiness. — Vertigo, or giddiness, is a disease 
of the nervous system, occasioned most frequently by a para- 
site located in the brain. The parasite is named csenarus cere- 
bralis, and belongs to the species know as the hydatids. Lambs 
from the age of two months, or from four to twelve months, 
are, when predisposed, apt to become the subject of it. The 
disease is very apt to end in organic disease of the brain and 
spinal marrow. 

The disease is of hereditary origin, and comes from faults 
or defects in one or both parents, and also from the too early 
practice of breeding, which often obtains in some sections of 
country. In order to guard against the disease, we must put 
out of the breeding fold both males and females that have 
shown any signs of the disorder, and not breed from the ewes 
under the age of thirty months, nor from rams until they have 
attained their second year. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of the disease, our object 
is to give tone to the system, and saturate the blood with some 
agent (sulphur) which is known to be obnoxious to parasites 
in general. Take 

1 pound of sulphur. 

6 ounces of powdered sulphate of iron. 

1 pound of powdered poplar bark. 

Let this be thoroughly mixed, place it in a stoppered bot- 
tle, and keep it in a dark place. Mix a tablespoonful daily in 
bran, and place it in the feed trough, or mix it in a table- 
spoonful of syrup, and administer it by means of an iron spoon. 

Some persons contend that turnips, when fed to sheep, are 
apt to produce hydatids. 

Foot Rot. — Causes. — General debility, exposure in wet pas- 
tures, contagion, foul habit of body. 

Symptoms. — The animal is observed to limp on one or 
both of the fore or hind legs. Sometimes the whole four are 
affected. The parts are hot, tender, and swollen, and exude a 
fetid fluid. The animal is now incapable of walking, and, if 
not speedily relieved, death ensues. The form of rot is con- 
tagious, so that, if the diseased are not separated from the 
healthy, the latter soon become infected. To propagate malig- 
nant rot, it is quite sufficient that a flock should pass over a 
place which has a little before been walked over by a diseased 
sheep. 

Treatment. — Endeavor to ascertain the exciting cause, 
and, if possible, remove it. If the disease has assumed a putrid 
type, the superfluous horn may be removed. The parts are 
then to be washed with 

4 ounces of pyroligneous acid. 

5 ounces of water. Mis. 



d2S SHEEP. 

A piece of lint is afterward to be saturated with the above, 
and applied as a dressing, and changed as occasion may re- 
quire. 

The local remedy will avail but little unless we sustain the 
living powers, and thus improve the secretions. Our usual 
remedies are: 

1 ounce of powdered golden seal. 
>/2 ounce of powdered sulphur. 
1 ounce of powdered charcoal. 

1 ounce of powdered sassafras. 

2 drachms of powdered assafoetida. 
2 pounds of flaxseed. 

Mix, and give a tablespoonful twice a day in the food. 
Supposing a number of animals to be affected, it would 
occupy too much time to treat them singly; hence, let them be 
made to walk slowly, or linger for some time in a wooden 
trough, the floor of which may be covered, to the depth of 
one inch, with the following: 

2 pints of linseed oil. 

4 pints of pyroligneous acid* 

1 pint of kerosene. "t, 

In the above proportions, the required quantity may be 
prepared. 

Grubs in the Nostrils. — Grubs in the nostrils are occasioned 
by the gadfly, which deposits her ova in the nostrils of sheep. 
After a short time the ova bring forth parasites in the larvseal 
state; the latter migrate within the interior of the nostrils, 
causing the sheep much pain and annoyance. When the larvae 
are capable of exercising an independent existence, they 
undergo the same evolution which obtains in the case of the 
bot parasite; namely, they burrow into the earth, and finally 
become metamorphosed into the gadfly. 

It seems that the gadfly selects its subjects, and the weakest 
and the most unpromising of the flock are usually its victims; 
hence close attention to the requirements and condition of a 
flock may, to a certain extent, act as a preventive. Some 
farmers, in view of preventing the gadfly, smear the nose of 
their sheep with common tar. Others plow up a piece of land 
where sheep are pastured, into which they thrust their noseS;, 
and then, for the time being, they baffle the gadfly. It is hardly 
good poUcy to attempt, either by mechanical or medicinal 
means, to dislodge the parasites; for the remedy might be 
worse than the disease. When the ova have arrived at maturity, 
the sheep themselves aid in the dislodgement with acts of 
snorting, sneezing, and coughing. 

Inflammation of the Eye. — Inflammation of the eye is very 
rapidly detected by an acute redness which pervades the lining 
membranes of the eyelids and that which affords a partial 



SHEEP. 329 

covering to the eyeball. The afflicted animal keeps the eye- 
lids partly closed; an effusion of tears runs over the lower 
angle of the eye; there is intolerance to light, and the animal 
appears to suffer considerable pain. 

Treatment. — Separate the patient from the flock, and 
bathe the eye occasionally with the following lotion: 

1 ounce of sugar of milk. 

1 drachm of fluid extract of hops. 
6 ounces of rain water. Mix. 

Should the disease run on to cataract, the sight cannot be 
restored. 

Inflammation of the Lungs. — Inflammation of the lungs is 
usually the result of exposure; or, it may arise in consequence 
of herding too many sheep together; sometimes it makes its 
appearance without any perceptible cause. An impure atmos- 
phere, however, may be set down as the ordinary exciting 
cause of this malady. 

Treatment. — Place upon the tongue ten drops of fluid 
extract of gelseminum, morning and evening. Dissolve one 
ounce of chlorate of potass in half a pint of flaxseed tea, and 
give it daily as a drench until the animal improves. Let the 
patient be placed in a secluded spot, under cover, and, if the 
case is curable, health will soon return. 

The most marked symptoms of pneumonia are panting and 
heaving at th j '^ iks, quickened respiration, discharge from the 
nose, and couga. There is also a cessation of rumination. In 
short, the same symptoms prevail in this disease as in pneumo- 
nia of cattle. 

Common Catarrh. — This affection prevails most extensively 
among sheep that have been exposed to rains and unpleasant 
weather. The disease manifests itself in the form of a deflux- 
ion from the nostrils of a muco-serous discharge, accompanied 
by frequent sneezing, and occasional cough. As soon as the 
disease is discovered, the affected animals should be placed in 
comfortable quarters. Then prepare the following drench: 

2 ounces of composition powder. 
1 quart of boiling water. 

Pour the boiling water on the powder; let the mixture stand 
in a warm place for an hour; pour off the clear liquor, and add 
two ounces of sugar of milk. Dose: A wine-glassful once or 
twice daily. 

Malignant epizootic catarrh may be treated in the same 
manner, with the addition of one ounce of chlorate of potass 
per day, which can be dissolved in the above drench. 

Diarrhoea and Dysentery. — Curable cases of the above 



330 SHEEP. 

character are brought to a favorable termination by using the 
following drench: 

1 ounce of finely pulverized animal charcoal. 
1 giU of scalded cow's milk. 

1 drachm of hyposulphite of soda. Mix. 

The above constitutes a dose. It may be repeated as often 
as the emergency seems to require; but/ should the subject be 
a young lamb, one-half the above quantity will suffice. 

Constipation of the Bowels. — Constipation is almost always 
the result of a deranged condition of the digestive organs. A 
deranged condition of the liver, for example, will result in 
costiveness, for which the following drench is recommended: 

2 ounces of Glauber salts. 

1 teaspoonf ul of fluid extract of leptandra. 
% pint of thin gruel. 

Dissolve the salts in the gruel, and drench the animal with 
the same. 

Tympanites. — This disease is very easily recognized by the 
bloated appearance of the animal. It is occasioned by the 
food running into fermentation and generating gas. The fol- 
lowing remedy is a sure cure for tympanites, administered as a 
drench: 

4 drachms of hyposulphite of soda. 

1 drachm of fluid extract of golden seal. 

2 drachms of fluid extract of ginger. 
1 wine-glassful of water. 

Colic. — Sheep are occasionally seen, particularly in the 
winter, lying down and rising every moment or two, and con- 
stantly stretching their fore and hind legs so far apart that 
their bellies almost touch the ground. They appear to be in 
much pain, refuse all food, and not unfrequently die unless 
relieved. This disease, popularly known as the "stretches," is 
erroneously attributed to an involution of one part of the 
intestine with another; it being, in reality, a species of flatulent 
colic induced by costiveness. 

Treatment. — Half an ounce of epsom salts, a drachm of 
Jamaica ginger, and sixty drops of essence of peppermint. The 
salts alone, however, will effect a cure; as will, also, an equiva- 
lent dose of linseed oil, or even hog's lard. 

Fractures — If there be no wound of the soft parts, the 
bone simply being broken, the treatment is extremely easy. 
Apply a piece of wet leather, taking care to ease the limb when 
swelling supervenes. W^hen the swelling is considerable, and 
fever present, the best course is to open a vein of the head or 
neck, allowing a quantity of blood to escape, proportioned to 
the size and condition of the animal, and the urgency of the 
symptoms. Purgatives in such cases should never be neglected. 



SHEEP. 331 

Epsom salts, in ounce doses, given either as a gruel or a drench, 
will be found to answer the purpose well. If the broken bones 
are kept steady, the cure will be complete in from three to four 
weeks, the process of reunion always proceeding faster in a 
young than in an old sheep. Should the soft parts be injured 
to any extent, or the ends of the bone protrude, recovery is 
very uncertain; and it will become a question whether it would 
not be better to convert the animal at once into mutton. 



S'^IISTE. 




Skblktok of thb Hoq as Covered bt the Muscles. 

1.— The lower jaw. 2.— The teeth. 3.— The nasal bones. 4.— The upper jaw. 5.— The 
frontal bone. 6.— The orbit or socket of the eye. 7.— The occipital bone. 8.— The 
first vertebrae of the neck. 9.— The vertebrae of the neck. 10.— The vertebra of the 
back. 11.— The vertebrae of the loins. 12.— The bones of the tail. 18,— 14.— The true 
and false ribs. 15.— The shoulder-blade. 16.— The round shoulder-bone. 17— The 
breast-bone. 18.— The elbow. 19.— The bone of the fore-arm. 20.— The navicular 
bone. 21.— The first and second bone of the foot. 22.— The bones of the hoof . 23.— 
The haunch bones. 24.— The thigh bone. 25.— The stifle bone. 26.— The upper bone 
of the leg. 27.— The hock bones. 28.— The navicular bone. 29.— The first digits of 
the foot. 30.— The second digits of the foot. 

American Swine. — In the United States, swine have been 
an object of attention since its earliest settlement, and, when- 
ever a profitable market has been found for pork abroad, it 
has been exported to the full extent of the demand. Swine 
are not, however, indigenous to this country, biit were doubt- 
less originally brought hither by the early English settlers; 
and the breed thus introduced may still be distinguished by 
the traces they retain of their parent stock. France, also, 



334 SWINE. 

as well as Spain, and, during the existence of the slave trade, 
Africa, have also combined to furnish varieties of this animal, 
so much esteemed throughout the whole of the country, as 
furnishing a valuable article of food. For nearly twenty 
years, following the commencement of the general European 
wars, soon after the organization of our national government, 
pork was a comparatively large article of commerce; but 
exports for a time diminished, and it was not until within s 
more recent period that this staple has been brought up to its 
former standard as an article of exportation to that country. 
The recent use which has been made of its carcass in con- 
verting it into lard oil, has tended to still further increase 
its consumption. 

They are read in every part of the Union, and, when 
properly managed, always at a profit. At the extreme North, 
in the neighborhood of large markets, and on such of the 
Southern plantations as are particularly suited to sugar or rice, 
they should not be raised beyond the number required for the 
consumption of the coarse or refuse food produced. Swine are 
advantageously kept in connection with a dairy or orchard; 
since, with little additional food, besides what is thus afforded, 
they can be put in good condition for the butcher. 

On the rich bottoms and other lands of the West, however, 
where Indian corn is raised in profusion and at small expense, 
they can be reared in the greatest numbers and yield the 
largest profit. The Scioto, Miami, Wabash, Illinois, and other 
valleys, and extensive tracts in Kentucky, Tennessee, Missouri, 
and some adjoining States, have for many years taken the lead 
in the production of swine; and it is probable that the climate 
and soil, which are peculiarly suited to their rapid growth, as 
well as that of their appropriate food, will enable them to hold 
their position as the leading pork producers of the North 
American Continent. 

The breeds cultivated in this country are numerous; and, 
like our native cattle, they embrace many of the best, and a few 
of the worst, to be found among the species. Great attention 
has been paid, for many years, to their improvement in the 
Eastern States; and nowhere are there better specimens than 
in many of their yards. This spirit has rapidly extended West 



SWINE. 335 

and South; and among most of the intelhgent farmers, who 
make them a leading object of attention on their rich corn- 
grounds, swine have attained a high degree of excellence. This 
does not consist in the introduction and perpetuity of any 
distinct races, so much as in the breeding up to a desirable 
size and aptitude for fattening, from such meritorious individ- 
uals of any breed, or their crosses, as come within their reach. 
The Byefleld. — This breed was formerly in good repute in 

the Eastern States, and did much good among the species 
generally. They are white, with fine curly hair, well made and 
compact, moderate in size and length, with broad backs, and 
at fifteen months attaining some three hundred to three 
hundred and fifty pounds net. 

The Bedford. — The Bedford or Woburn is a breed origin- 
ating with the Duke of Bedford, on his estate at Woburn, and 
brought to their perfection probably by judicious crosses of 
the Chinese hog on some of the best English swine. A pair 
was sent by the Duke to this country, as a present to General 
Washington; but they were dishonestly sold by the messenger, 
in Maryland, in which State, and in Pennsylvania, they were 
productive of much good at an early day, by their extensive 
distribution through different States. Several other importa- 
tions of this breed have been made at various times, and 
especially by the enterprising masters of the Liverpool packets, 
in the neighborhood of New York, They are a large, spotted 
animal, well made, and inclining to early maturity and fatten- 
ing. This is an exceedingly valuable hog, but nearly extinct, 
both in England and in this country, as a breed 

The Leicester. — The old Leicestershire breed, in England, 
was a perfect type of the original hogs of the midland counties; 
large, ungainly, slab-sided animals, of a light color, and spotted 
with brown or black. The only good parts about them were 
their heads and ears, which showed greater traces of breeding 
than any other portions. These have been materially improved 
by various crosses, and the original breed has nearly lost all 
its peculiarities and defects. They may now be characterized 
as a large, white hog, generally coarse in the bone and hair, 
great eaters, and slow in maturing. Some varieties differ 



336 SWINE. 

essentially in these particulars, and mature early on a moderate 
amount of food. The crosses with small compact breeds are 
generally thrifty, desirable animal 

The Yorkshire. — The old Yorkshire breed was one oi the 
very large varieties, and one of the most unprofitable for a far- 
mer, being greedy feeders, difficult to fatten, and unsound in 
constitution. They were of a dirty white or yellow color, 
spotted with black, had long legs, flat sides, narrow backs, 
weak loins and large bones. Their hair was short and wiry, 
and intermingled with numerous bristles about the head and 
neck, and their ears long. When full grown and fat, they 
seldom weighed more than from three hundred and fifty to four 
hundred pounds. 

These have been crossed with pigs of the improved Leices- 
ter breed; and where the crossings have been judiciously 
managed, and not carried too far, a fine race of deep-sided, 
short-legged, thin-haired animals has been obtained, fattening 
kindly, and rising to a weight of from two hundred and fifty to 
four hundred pounds, when killed between one and two years 
old; and, when kept over two years, reaching even from five 
hundred to seven hundred pounds. 

They have also been crossed with the Chinese, Neapolitan, 
and Berkshire breeds, and hardy, profitable, well-proportioned 
animals thereby obtained. The original breed, in its purity, 
size, and defectiveness, is now hardly to be met with, having 
shared the fate of the other large old breeds, and given place 
to smaller and more symmetrical animals. The Yorkshire 
white is among the large breeds deserving commendation 
among us. To the same class belong also the large Miami 
white, and the Kenilworth; each frequently attaining, when 
dressed, a weight of from six hundred to eight hundred 
pounds. 

The Chinese. — This hog is to be found in the south-eastern 
countries of Asia, as Siam, Cochin China, the Burman Empire, 
Cambodia, Malacca, Sumatra, and in Batavia and other East- 
ern islands; and is, without doubt, the parent stock of the best 
European and American swine. 

There are two distinct varieties, the white and the black; 



SWINE. 337 

both fatten readily, but from their diminutive size attain no 
great weight. They are small in limb, round in body, short 
in the head, wide in the cheek, and high in the chine; covered 
with very fine bristles growing from an exceedingly thin skin- 
and not peculiarily symmetrical, since, when fat, the head is so 
buried in the neck that little more than the tip of the snout is 
visible. The pure Chinese is too delicate and susceptible to 
cold ever to become a really profitable animal in this country; 
it is difficult to rear, and the sows are not good nurses; but 
one or two judicious crosses have, in a manner, naturalized it. 
This breed will fatten readily, and on a comparatively small 
quantity of food; the flesh is exceedingly delicate, but does 
not make good bacon, and is often too fat and oily to be 
generally esteemed as pork. They are chiefly kept by those 
who rear sucking-pigs for the market, as they make excellent 
roasters at three weeks or a month old. Five, and even seven, 
varieties of this breed are distinguished, but these are doubt- 
less the results of different crosses with our native kinds; 
among these are black, white, black and white, spotted, blue 
and white, and sandy. 

Many valuable crosses have been made with these animals; 
for the prevalent fault ,of the old English breeds have been 
coarseness of flesh, unwieldiness of form, and want of aptitude 
to fatten, an admixture of the Chinese breed has materially 
corrected these defects. Most of our smaller breeds are more 
or less indebted to the Asiatic swine for their present com- 
pactness of form, the readiness with which they fatten on a 
small quantity of food, and their early maturity; but these 
advantages are not considered, in the judgment of some, as 
sufficiently great to compensate for the diminution in size, the 
increased delicacy of the animals, and the decrease of number 
in the litters. The best cross is between the Berkshire and 
Chinese. 

The Suffolk. — The old Suffolks are white in color, long- 
legged, long-bodied, with narrow backs, broad foreheads, 
short hams, and abundance of bristles. They are by no means 
profitable animals. A cross between the Suffolk and Lincoln 
has produced a hardy animal, which ^attens kindly, and attains 
the weight of from four to five ^-andred and fifty, and even 
20 



338 SWINE. 

seven hundred, pounds. Another cross much approved by 
farmers is that of the Suffolk and Berkshire. 

There are few better breeds, perhaps, than the improved 
Suffolk — that is, the Suffolk crossed with the Chinese. The 
greater part of the pigs on the late Prince Albert's farm, near 
Windsor, were of this breed. They are well-formed, compact, 
of medium size, with round, bulky bodies, short legs, small 
heads, and fat cheeks. Many, at a year or fifteen months old, 
weigh from two hundred and fifty to three hundred pounds; at 
which age they make fine bacon hogs. The sucking-pigs are 
also very delicate and delicious. 

Those arising from Berkshire and Suffolk are not so well 
shaped as the latter, being coarser, long-legged, and more 
prominent about the hips. They are mostly white, with thin, 
fine hair; some few are spotted, and are easily kept in fine con- 
dition; they have a decided aptitude to fatten early, and are 
likewise valuable as store-pigs. 

The Berkshire. — The Berkshire pigs belong to the large 
class, and are distinguished by their color, which is a sandy or 
whitish brown, spotted regularly with dark brown or black 
spots, and by their having no bristles. The hair is long, thin, 
somewhat curly, and looks rough; the ears are fringed with 
long hair round the outer edge, which gives them a ragged or 
feathery appearance; the body is thick, compact, and well 
formed; the legs short, the sides broad, the head well set on, 
the snout short, the jowl thick, the ears erect, the skin exceed- 
ingly thin in texture, the flesh firm and well flavored, and the 
bacon very superior. This breed has generally been considered 
one of the best in England, on account of its smallness of bone, 
early maturity, aptitude to fatten on little food, hardihood, 
and the females being good breeders. Hogs of the pure 
original breed have been known to weigh from eight hundred 
to nine hundred and fifty pounds. 

Numerous crosses have been made from this breed; the 
principal foreign ones are those with the Chinese^ and Neapoil- 
tan swine, made with the view of decreasing the size of the 
animal, improving the flavor of the flesh, and rendering it more 
delicate; and the animals thus attained are superior to almost 
any other in their aptitude to fatten; but are very susceptiWe 



SWINE. 339 

to cold, from being almost entirely without hair. A cross 
with the Suffolk and Norfolk also is much improved, which 
produces a hardy kind, yielding well when sent to the butcher; 
although, under most circumstances, the pure Berkshire is the 
best. 

No other breeds have been so extensively diffused in the 
United States, within comparatively so brief a period, as the 
Berkshires, and they have produced a marked improvement in 
many of our former races. They weigh variously, from two 
hundred and fifty to four hundred pounds net, at sixteen 
months, according to their food and style of breeding; and 
some full-grown have dressed to more than eight hundred 
pounds. They particularly excel in their hams, which are 
round, full, and heavy, and contain a large proportion of lean, 
tender, and juicy meat, of the best flavor. 

None of our improved breeds afford long, coarse hair, or 
bristles; and it is a gratifying evidence of our decided improve- 
ment in this department of domestic animals, that our brush- 
makers are obliged to import most of what they use from 
Russia and northern Europe. This improvement is manifest 
not only in the hair, but in the skin, which is soft and mellow 
to the touch; in the finer bones, shorter head, upright ears, 
dishing face, delicate muzzle, and wild eye; and in the short 
legs, low flanks, deep and wide chest, broad back, and early 
maturity. 

Formation of the Teeth. — The hog has fourteen mokr 
teeth in each jaw, six incisors, and two canines; these latter are 
curved upward, and commonly denominated tushes. The 
molar teeth, are all slightly different in structure, and increase 
in size from first to last; they bear no slight resemblance to 
those of the human being. The incisors are so fantastic in 
form that they cannot well be described, and their destined 
functions are by no means clear. Those in the lower jaw are 
long, round, and nearly straight; of those in the upper jaw, 
four closely resemble the corresponding teeth in the horse; 
while the two corner incisors bear something of the shape of 
those of the dog. These latter are placed so near the tushes 
as often to obstruct their growth, and it is sometimes neces- 
sary to draw them, in order to relieve the animal and enable 
him to feed 



340 SWINE. 

The hog is born with two molars on each side of the jaw; 
by the time he is three or four months old, he is provided with 
his incisive milk-teeth and the tushes; the supernumerary 
molars protrude between the fifth and seventh months, as does 
the first back molar; the second back molar is cut at about the 
age of ten months; and the third, generally, not until the ani- 
mal is three years old. The upper corner teeth are shed at 
about the age of six or eight months; and the lower ones at 
about seven, nine, or ten months old, and replaced by the 
permanent ones. The milk tushes are also shed and replaced 
between six and ten months old. The age of twenty months, 
and from that to two years, is denoted by the shedding and 
replacement of the middle incisors, or pincers, in both jaws, 
and the formation of a black circle at the base of the tushes. 
At about two years and a half or three years of age, the adult 
middle teeth in both jaws protrude, and the pincers are becom- 
ing black and rounded at the ends. 

After three years, the age may be computed by the growth 
of the tushes; at about four years, or rather before, the upper 
tushes begin to raise the lip; at five they protrude through the 
lips; and, at six years, the tushes of the lower jaw begin to show 
themselves out of the mouth, and assume a spiral form. These 
acquire a prodigious length in old animals, and particularly in 
uncastrated boars; and. as they increase in size, they become 
curved backward and outward, and at length are so crooked 
as to interfere with the motion of the jaws to such a degree 
that it is necessary to cut off those projecting teeth, which is 
done with the file, or with nippers. 

Houses and Piggeries. — An inclosure, proportionate to the 
number of swine which you intend to keep, and, if possible, so 
managed as to admit of extending the accommodation, if ne- 
cessary, will be found the best for general purposes. It should 
be provided with a range of sheds, so situated as to be thor- 
oughly sheltered from north and east winds, and snow, rain, 
and inclement weather; paved or flagged at the bottom, and 
sloping outwards. We cannot too frequently reiterate our ob- 
servations relative to the paramount necessity of cleanliness 
and dryness; let, therefore, both enclosure and sheds possess 
the means of being kept so. To insure both these desiderata, 



SWINE. 



341 



as far as possible, very efficient drainage is absolutely neces- 
sary; and it will be a great advantage if the bottom is of con- 
crete as well as drained. The whole pig-cote should slope 
towards one corner, and be intersected by channels in the flag- 
stone or pavement; the former is by far the best, and to this 
a common metal stench-trap should be placed. This is in 
every respect the best. It admits of being taken up and re- 
placed, for the purpose of cleaning out the sediment which 
will from time to time accumulate. Connected with this drain 
should be a tank; or it might communicate with the drainage 
of the rest of the buildings. The interior or covered shed 
should be kept constantly littered;. and so indeed should be 
the court-yard, if the object of the pig-keeper be to convert his 
straw into manure. If not, it should be swept and washed 
clean, and occasionally sprinkled with fresh saw dust. There 
is no better absorbent — no cleanlier material than this, and it 
is cheaper than straw, when both have to be purchased, much 
more portable, easier obtained, carried or stowed away, and 
should be the sheet-anchor of the amateur pig-keeper. 

Here is a general plan of such a piggery for those who f ol- 




A. Sties. B. Doors at back. C. Doors in the front, and troughs. D. Drain. 
E. Tank. The stream to the right can be admitted at pleasure, to pass througn 
the piggery. 

low this branch of rural economy on a moderateb'' extensive 
scale. 

The ground on which the piggery is establishe<:l f'.iO\i.<! like- 
wise be divided into two parts by a drain, which should run 



342 SWINE. 

through it; and towards this drain each section should slope. 
This, the main drain, to which communication should Tdc 
established from the other already described, should be carried 
beyond the fold, and fall into a large tank or pit formed for 
that purpose. The reasons for this recommendation will, of 
course, be obvious to every person. The object in view is a 
double one, viz.: at once to keep the pig-fold and sties in a 
clean and dry state, and to preserve the valuable liquid manure 
which comes from the animals you keep. The value of liquid 
manure has been for some years neglected or lost sight of. It 
is now becoming generally understood and recognized; and in 
no available instance should measures for its proper collection 
and preparation be omitted. There are some who will probably 
inquire whether it would not rather be better to suffer the 
moisture to soak into earth or straw, or other substances on 
the floor, so to speak, of the inclosure, and then to clear it all 
away periodically, then to drain off the liquid into a tank. For 
the information of such persons, it may be observed that by 
drawing off the liquid you add to the cleanliness of your swine, 
and, in proportion, to their health and capacity for thriving; 
and, also, that the collection of liquid manure into tanks is 
less troublesome than the removal of substances saturated with 
it from the floor of the fold would be. The liquid contained 
in the tank (if you keep cows, of course they contribute their 
quota as well as the pigs) is not to be applied to the land in- 
tended to be manured in a liquid state, but is previously to be 
absorbed by suitable composts. This subject, however, is 
altogether foreign to the design of the present work; and there 
are, besides, many treatises on this point easily procurable and 
perfectly intelligible. It is therefore unnecessary that we 
should here enter upon such a disquisition. 

You should also have your sties so constructed as to admit 
of being closed up altogether when desirable; for swine, even 
of our hardiest breeds, are susceptible of cold; and,if they be 
exposed to it in severe weather, it will materially retard their 
fattening. The sty should be kept constantly supplied with 
clean straw. It will be found that carting the refuse into the 
tank will, in the form of manure, more than repay the value of 
the straw thus expended. 



SWINE. 



343 



Exercise is as necessary for swine as it is for horses, and 
the manure heap in the yard will be benefitted by their root- 
ing. The odd corns will be picked up, and the fermenting mass 
will form a warm and healthy bed, highly suited to the somno- 
lent habits of the pig in winter. Where this is adopted, the 
circular range of houses here given is well adapted to the pur- 
pose. 




DESCRIPTION. 

This piggery suits the largest size of farms, on which the 
roots and crops are grown, to feed swine in large numbers. 
There are seventeen sties, with yards, to accommodate two 
animals in each division; the inner wall being six feet, and the 
front wall three feet, in height. The boar and brood sows will 
occupy three sties; and two lots of fat pigs yearly from the 
other sties will accommodate fifty-six animals 

Points of a Good Hog. — It may not be amiss to group 
together what is deemed desirable under this head. No one 
should be led away by mere name in his selection of a hog. It 
may be called a Berkshire, or a Suffolk, or any other breed 



344 SWINE. 

most in estimation, and yet, in reality, may possess none />f 
this valuable blood. The only sure way to avoid imposition is 
to make name always secondary to points. If a hog is found 
possessing such points of form as are calculated to insure early 
maturity and faculty of taking on flesh, one needs to care but 
little by what name he is called; since no mere name can be- 
stow value upon an animal deficient in the qualities already 
indicated. 

The true Berkshire — that possessmg a dash of the Chinese 
and Neapolitan variety — comes, perhaps, nearer to the desired 
standard than any other. 

The chief points which characterize such a hog are the fol- 
lowing: — In the first place, sufficient depth of carcass, and such 
an elongation of body as will insure a sufficient lateral expan- 
sion. The loin and breast should be broad. The breadth of 
the former denotes good room for the play of the lungs, and, 
as a consequence, a free and healthy circulation, essential to 
the thriving or fattening of any animal. The bone should be 
small and the joints fine — nothing is more indicative of high 
breeding than this; and the legs should be no longer than, 
when fully fat, would just prevent the animal's belly from 
trailing upon the ground. The leg is the least profitable por- 
tion of the hog, and no more of it is required than is absolutely 
necessary for the support of the rest. The feet should be firm 
and sound; the toes should lie well together, and press 
straightly upon the ground; the claws, also, should be even, 
upright and healthy. 

The form of the head is sometimes deemed of little or no 
consequence, it being generally, perhaps, supposed that a good 
hog may have an ugly head; but the head of all animals is 
one of the very principal points in which pure or impure 
breeding will be most obviously indicated. A high-bred ani- 
mal will invariably be found to arrive more speedily at maturity, 
to take flesh more easily, and at an earlier period, and 
altogether to turn out more profitably than one of questionable 
or impure stock. Such being the case, the head of the hog is 
a point by no means to be overlooked. The description of 
head most likely to promise — or, rather to be the accompani- 
ment of — high breeding, is one not carrying heavy bones, not 



SWINE. 345 

too flat on the forehead or possessing a snout too elongated; 
the snout should be short, and the forehead rather convex, 
curving upward; and the ear, while pendulous, should incline 
somewhat forward, and at the same time be light and thin. 
The carriage of the pig should also be noticed. If this be dull, 
heavy, and dejected, one may reasonably suspect ill-health, if 
not some concealed disorder actually existing, or just about to 
break forth; and there cannot be a more unfavorable symptom 
than a hung-down, slouching head. Of course, a fat hog for 
slaughter, and a sow heavy with young, have not much spright- 
liness or deportment. 

Color is, likewise, not to be disregarded. Those colors are 
preferable which are characteristic of the most esteemed breeds. 
If the hair is scant, black is desirable, as denoting connection 
with the Neapolitan; if too bare of hair, a too intimate alli- 
ance with that variety may be apprehended, and a consequent 
want of hardihood, which — however unimportant, if pork be 
the object — renders such animals a hazardous speculation for 
store purposes, on account of their extreme susceptibility of 
cold, and consequent liability to disease. If white, and not 
too small, they are valuable as exhibiting connection with the 
Chinese. If light, or sandy, or red with black marks, the 
favorite Berkshire is detected; and so on, with reference to 
every possible variety of hue. 

Breeding. — In the selection of a boar and sow for breeding, 
much more attention and consideration are necessary than 
people appear generally to imagine. With a very little judgment 
and management, and much less expense than is generally 
incurred, it as easy to procure a good breed as an inferior one; 
and, as the former is infinitely more lucrative and remuner- 
ative, in proportion to the outlay, than the latter can ever be, a 
little attention to the subject may be advantageous. 

In choosing the parents of your future stock, you must 
diligently bear in mind the precise objects you may have in 
view, whether the rearing for pork or bacon; and whether you 
desire to meet the earliest market, and thus realize a certain 
profit, with the least possible outlay of money, or loss of time; 
or whether you mean to be contented to meet a heavier, 
although somewhat protracted return. 



••i46 SWINE. 

If bacon and the late market be your object, you will 
do well to select the large and heavy varieties, taking care to 
ascertain that the breed has the character of being at once 
possessed of those qualities most likely to ensure a heavy return, 
viz., growth, and facility of taking fat. 

If, on the other hand, your object be to produce pork, you 
will, of course, find your account in the smaller varieties; such 
as arrive with greatest rapidity at maturity, and which are likely 
to produce the most delicate flesh. In producing pork, it is 
not advisable that it should be too fat, without a corresponding 
proportion of lean; and, on this account, we would recommend 
that you rather take a cross-bred sow than a pure Chinese 
stock, from which the over-fattening results might be naturally 
apprehended. The Leicester or Berkshire, crossed with Chi- 
nese, is about the best porker. 

In every case, whether your object be pork or bacon, the 
points to be looked for are, — in the sow, a small, lively head, 
a broad and deep chest, round ribs, capacious barrel, a haunch, 
falling almost to the hough, deep and broad loin, ample hips, 
and considerable length of body in proportion to its height. 
Nor must the broad, flat, table-like back, the broad, thick, 
shoulders and ham be forgotten. The flesh should rise full 
and round behind the ears. One qualification should ever 
be kept in view, and, perhaps, should be the first point to 
which the attention should be directed, viz.: smallness of 
bone in proportion to the flesh, and fineness of the best parts, 
with lightness of offal. 

Let the boar be less in size than the sow, shorter and more 
compact in form, with a raise and brawny neck, lively eye, 
small head, firm, hard flesh, and, if of the large breed, his neck 
well furnished with bristles. In other respects, look for the 
same points as described in reference to the sow. Breeding 
within too close degrees of consanguinity, or, as it is technic- 
ally styled, breeding in and in, is sometimes said to be 
calculated to produce degeneracy in size, and also to impair 
the animal's fertility; it is certainly to be avoided where the 
breed is not of great culture, although some breeders maintain 
that a first cross does not harm; but, on the contrary, that it 
produces offsprings which are predisposed to arrive earlier at 



SWINE. 347 

maturity, and take fat with greater facility. This may, in some 
instances be the case; it is so with horned cattle, — but, as far 
as swine are concerned, it is a matter of some question, though 
it must be confessed the producers of the finest animals are 
very close breeders. 

Differences of opinion exist as to the precise age of boar 
and sow at which breeding is most advisable. They will, if 
permitted, breed at the early age of six and seven months; but 
this is a practice not to recommend. Good advice is, to let 
the sow be at least one year old, and the boar at least eighteen 
months; but, if the former have attained her second year, and 
the latter his third, a vigorous and numerous offspring are 
more likely to result. The boar and sow retain their ability to 
breed for about five years; that is, until the former is upwards 
of eight years old, and the latter seven. We do not recom- 
mend using a boar after he has passed his fifth year, nor a sow 
after she has passed her fourth, unless she has proved a peculi- 
arly valuable breeder; in which case she might be suffered to 
produce two or three more litters. When you have done with 
the services of the boar, have him emasculated — an operation 
that can be performed with perfect safety at any age — fatten 
and kill or sell him. When it is no longer desirable to breed 
from the sow, kill her also. Perhaps it is the most economical 
way, where the breeding and fattening of pigs are carried on 
simultaneously, to take no more than three litters from a sow 
before she is killed. If less are taken, she will not have 
arrived at her full maturity, — if more, she will be injured for 
bacon, A sow who has had but three litters, will be as fine 
bacon as an emasculated hog; but if she has more, she will be 
coarse and strong in flavor. Another objection to keeping 
sows to a great age is, that they usually become ravenous and 
voracious when they get old, and often take to the worrying of 
lambs and poultry. They are sometimes so gross and indo- 
lent as to lie upon their own offspring. Young pigs are like- 
wise far more matronly and active, and their litters have more 
energy and vital power than those of older animals, though the 
number of their produce is often smaller. 

If a sow be of a stock characterized by an unusual tendency 
t6 take on fat, it is well to breed from her at an early age (say 



348 SWINE. 

eight or nine months); for this tendency to fat in a breeeting 
sow is highly objectionable, as materially conducing to danger 
in parturition. Let her have the boar a couple of months after 
pigging, and let her breed as frequently as she is capable of 
doing. This will effectually check the tendency to fat; and, 
after having taken a few litters from her, you will find that the 
rapidity with which she will feed will soon adapt her to the 
butcher. In the case of such a sow, do not give her the boar 
before putting her up to fatten; but as soon as she is so fat as 
to be within six or eight weeks of being fit for the butcher, she 
should be sent to the boar. The reasons for this are obvious. 
Once in three weeks she, being highly fed and in a very vigor- 
ous condition of body, becomes in season, frets, gets excited, 
is often off her food, and loses several days of fattening; and 
if you should wish to kill her during these seasons of excite- 
ment, or a few days before or after, there is every probability 
of her bacon becoming bad, or, at any rate, a certainty of its 
flavor being injured. To put to the boar when first put up to 
feed would be injurious, because the nutriment of the foetus 
would abstract from the feeding of the mother, and it is best 
to risk the loss of the seasons of periodical disturbance; but 
later on gestation has a sedative effect, and no injury; but the 
greatest benefit will result from its having taken place in its 
early stages. It is manifest that any coarse, indifferent boar, 
in this case, will answer the purpose. 

Feed the breeding boar well; keep him in high condition, 
but not fat; the sow, on the other hand, should be kept some- 
what low, until after conception, when the quantity and 
quality of her food should be gradually and judiciously in- 
creased. The best times for breeding swine are the months of 
April and July or August. A litter obtained later than August 
has much to contend with, and seldom proves profitable. 
Some, indeed, state, that when such an occurrence does take 
place, whether from acident or neglect, the litter is not worth 
keeping. It is of little use, however, to throw anything away. 
Should you at any time have a late litter, leave them with the 
sow; feed both her and them with warm and stimulating food, 
and you will thus have excellent pork, with which to meet the 
the market when that article is at once scarce and dear, and 



SWINE. 349 

consequently profitable. By following this system of manage- 
ment you will not only turn your late litter to account, but 
actually realize almost as good a profit as if it had been pro- 
duced at a more favorable season. 

The period of gestation in the sow varies. The most usual 
period during which she carries her young is four lunar months, 
or sixteen weeks, or about one hundred and thirteen days. 

The sow produces from eight to thirteen young ones at a 
litter; some times even more. A sow cannot give nourishment 
to more young than she has teats; and, as the number of teats 
is twelve, when a thirteenth little one is littered, he does not 
fare very well, having to wait until some one of his more for- 
tunate brothers or sisters shall have had their fill. The suf- 
ferer on these occasions is, of course, the smallest and weakest, 
A too numerous litter are all generally undersized and weakly, 
and seldom or never prove profitable. A litter not exceeding 
ten, will usually be found to turn out most advantageously. 

On account of the discrepancy subsisting between the num- 
ber farrowed by different sows, it is a good plan, if it can be 
managed, to have more than one breeding at the same time, in 
order that you may equalize the number to be sucked by each. 
The sow seldom recognizes the presence of a strange little one, 
if it have been introduced among the others during her 
absence, and has lain for half an hour or so amongst her off- 
spring in their sty 

Moubray gives a very remarkable instance of a sow, which 
sucked nineteen pigs at the one time. This is very unusual, 
and can only be accomplished by dividing the litter into two 
divisions, and turning the sow to each alternately. Much 
greater care is also necessary in such cases, both of the pigs 
and their mother, than when the litter is smaller; and they 
require a warm house, amply, but not over littered, with fine, 
fresh hay. As soon as the inflammatory stage of pigging is 
over the mother must also be kept on the most nourishing 
food^ Neither new milk, bean meal, oatmeal, nor any other 
nourishing food must be grudged; for if it be worth while to 
keep the animals at all, it is desirable to sustain them as well as 
possible. 

Parturition. — The pig suffers the least from parturition, 



350 SWINE. 

and is the easiest delivered, of all domestic animals. She 
usually shows symptoms of uneasiness first by great anger at 
all other pigs within her reach, by collecting straw in her mouth, 
and carrying it to a remote corner of the yard in which she is 
running loose. She must not be stopped here. This wild 
instinct can be satisfied only by exhaustion. When the bed is 
made she must be removed to a rather dark house, well 
screened on every side, and about eight or nine feet square, so 
that she may have ample room to lie and turn in every direc- 
tion. One of the best contrivances is to have a lath run round 
the house, six inches from the ground and six from all sides of 
the house, well stayed below and on each side by perpendicu- 
lar and horizontal pieces of wood. She will thus be unable to 
lie close to any one side of the house, and cannot thereby 
crush to death any of her offspring during the throes of par- 
turition. 

A little attention will be necessary, in the first stage, to see 
that the delivery is perfect. She must be, at all events, kept 
lying as still as possible, unless she needs help, which will not 
take place in one case in a thousaud. These cases do, how- 
ever, occur; and as works on this matter are scarce, a few 
words may be acceptable. The difficulty can only occur in 
one of three ways, viz., a false presentation, a sinking of the 
pig into the uterus instead of its being presented in the vagina, 
or a contracted orifice. In the latter case a veterinary sur- 
geon of correct anatomical knowledge, is utterly indispensable. 

The most usual false presentation is when the pig comes 
sideways, and so chokes the passage. Here a mere turn with 
the hand, as soon as the effort has ceased, will set all right. If 
the pig has sunk down, it may be necessary to use more care; 
the best and safest plan is, to have a child's hand introduced, 
to raise up the young animal to its proper position. This will 
succeed when all other methods will fail. As soon as each pig 
is delivered it should be placed before its mother, and it will 
soon begin to select its teat. Once selected, it will generally 
keep to it, if its right ic not disputed by a stronger brother. In 
this case, as in others, the "weakest goes to the wall," and the 
weakest pig has to take to the first or last brace of teats, which 
are the least productive of milk. Thus the smallest and weak- 



SWINE. 351 

est are kept down. If any pig should be very weak, and the 
weather should be very cold, it may be taken near the fire and 
wrapped in flannel. This usually restores vigor. Some par- 
ties so confine all the first littered animals, when there is an 
apprehension of a scarcity of milk. This is by no means a bad 
contrivance. 

As soon as the pigging is over, she will begin to cleanse — 
or, in other words, eject the placenta. This is usually as easily 
got over as farrowing; but a little more watching will be neces- 
sary than even in pigging. It should be immediately removed, 
or she will begin to eat it, and may be thus taught to devour 
poultry, lambs, and very probably her own produce. 

As parturition usually produces thirst, let the sow have a 
quart of slightly warmed milk, and thickened with a little bran. 
This quenches thirst, keeps off constipation, and is one of the 
finest of medicines. As soon as she has cleansed, and all the 
young ones have been suckled, she should be gently driven 
out to stale; for such is the cleanliness of the pig, that she 
would damage herself, if she was not taken out, rather than 
spoil her bed by staling, or disturb her young ones. A little 
care of her bowels, plenty of bran and milk food, given in small 
quantities, frequently turning out for short periods in a shel- 
tered place, will be necessary at first. If much fever or con- 
stipation should take place, a little sulphur — two heaped tea- 
spoonfuls — in her milk will relieve her; nor will she refuse the 
milk which contains it, if it be thickened with a little wheat 
meal. Barley, and even oatmeal, must be avoided for the first 
three or four days. Afterwards she may have any kind of food 
whatever, except meal, which, useful as it is to store pigs, should 
never be given to those which are suckling. 

Feeding". — So long as the sow is carrying her young, feed 
her abundantly, and increase the quantity until parturition 
approaches within a week or so, when it is as well to diminish 
both the quantity and quality, lest the acquisition of fat should 
be productive of danger; but while she is giving suck you can- 
not feed too well. You may wean the young at eight weeks 
old, and should remove them for that purpose from the sow. 
Feed them well, frequently, abundantly, and sufficiently — but 
«ot more — on moist, nutritious food, and pay particular atten' 



3j2 swine. 

tion to their k^gmeul. A warm, dry, comfortable bed is of 
fully as much consequence as feeding, if not even of more. 
Should the sow exhibit any tendency to devour her young, or 
should she have done so on a former occasion, strap up her 
mouth for the first three or four days, and only release it to 
admit of her taking her meals. Some sows, as we have said, 
are apt to lie upon and crush their young. This may be best 
avoided by not keeping the sow too fat or heavy, and by not 
leaving too many young upon her. Let the straw forming the 
bed also be short, and not in too great quantity, lest the pigs 
get huddled up under it, and the sow unconsciously overlie 
them in that condition. 

The young pigs should be gradually fed before perfectly 
weaning them; and for first food nothing is so good as milk, 
which may be succeeded by ordinary dairy wash, thickened 
with oat or barley meal, or fine pollard; this is better scalded, 
or, better still, boiled. To the sow some dry food should be 
given once daily, which might consist of peas or beans. Swed- 
ish turnips, carrots, parsnips, or the like, either well boiled or 
raw, may be given; but the food should be always boiled, or, 
what is better, steamed. Some wean the pigs within a few 
hours after birth. It can hardly be conceived under what cir- 
cumstances this may be found advantageous; but the best 
mode of management is clearly to turn the boar into the hog 
yard a month or two after parturition, at which time it is proper 
to remove the sows for a few hours daily from the young, and 
let them accept their overtures when they please. It does not 
injure either the sow or her young if she take the boar while 
sucking; but some sows will not do so until the cessation of 
their milk, and this is much more natural. 

Swill Barrels and Troug-hs. — In some convenient place, 
near the pig pens, there should be a receptacle for the wash 
from the house, milk, whey, waste vegetables, and other refuse. 
This is often nothing more than an old pork or cider barrel. 
It is difficult to conceive of anything more inconvenient. It is 
too high, and too circumscribed. A far more convenient and 
inexpensive arrangement is to make a tub out of two-inch pine 
planks — say six feet long, tw6 and a half wide, and two feet, 
or two and a half or three feet high — according to the number 



SWINE. 



353 




Portable Swill Babrel. 



of pigs kept. Or, what is better still, make such a tub out of 
plank twelve feet long, and have a partition in the middle. In 
this way you have two tubs in one. The food for the store 
pigs can be kept in one, and that for the fattening pigs in the 
other. It is desirable to have two such tubs, each twelve feet 
long, and divided in the middle. Such tubs are often made 
flaring, being wider at the top than at the bottom. It should 
be put on with hinges, and made of planed and matched inch 
boards, and divided in the center of the tub, so that one part 
may be cl6sed while the other is open, if desired. 

At the house, a barrel should be placed in some convenient 

place, for the reception of all 
dish-water and refuse. If this 
barrel is set on wheels, as shown 
in the engraving, it can be 
easily conveyed to the pig pens, 
and emptied into one of the 
tubs above described. It should 
then be mixed with a little meal, 
and allowed to remain until 
the particles of meal become quite soft. It is then much more 
easily digested. If a slight fermentation takes place, by 
which the starch of the meal is converted into sugar, and a lit- 
tle of it into alcohol, the pigs appear to relish it all the better. 
A small amount of meal fed to store pigs in this manner, in 
summer, enables us to obtain much more benefit from the 
milk, whey, and house wash than when fed alone. Every pig 
pen should be provided 
with two troughs — one 
for food, and the other 
for water. 

Cast-iron pig troughs, 
of different patterns, are 
sold at the agricultural 
implement stores. One 
of them is shown in the Cast-ieon Piq Trough. 

cut; the weight of the one figured is one hundred and ten 
pounds. 

Castration. — In castrating hogs, let a person grasp the 
21 




354 SWINE. 

young pig, which should be from fourteen to twenty-one d s.f» 
old, by both its hind legs, with its face to the person, and so 
as to expose the tests on a level with the hands of the opera- 
tor. The skin of the tests is loose; and, with a lancet, or 
harp round-pointed knife — the latter being generally adopted 
-a longitudinal cut is given to the scrotum over each of the 
jstes. The finger and thumb are then pressed gently on each 
; b of the incision, until the testes protrudes, which is then 
gri ;ped gently by the other hand, and the spermatic cord sep- 
arated by the knife. The operation is very rapidly done, and 
need not occupy more than three minutes. It is desirable that 
the pigs should fast a few hours after the operation; but they 
seem to suffer so little from it, that they will seldom be even 
stiff the next morning. 

When the pig is a greater age, the operation is one of 
greater difficulty; with the aged boar, especially, it is a very 
difficult affair, as he cannot be held up in the way the young 
pigs can under a month old. It is thus necessary to lay him 
on his side, and have him well secured before the operation is 
perfc-med. He should also fast a little before the operation, 
as well as the following night, and be supplied only with bran 
and milk after. Sows in season should be kept from him till 
the wound is healed. 

There is more difficulty, however, in performing the opera- 
tion, either in the old or young, where there is a rupture, which 
is not unfrequently the case. Greater care must be taken in 
making a perfectly clean cut. The pigs should fast a day be- 
fore, and a night, at least, after the operation; and the scrotum 
should be carefully stiched up after the operation, otherwise 
inflammation will ensue. 

Spaying. — The spaying of female or gilt pigs, is a more 
difficult operation, and requires generally much more care. An 
ignorant operator often makes sad mistakes, and frequently 
produces irremediable injury. The operation is usually per- 
formed when about three weeks old, and the whole litter is cut 
at prices varying, in different localities. The animal is firs-t 
laid on its right side, so that the left, or near side, is upwards. 
The two hind legs are stretched out straight, so as to present 
the mid- flank fully exposed to the operation. An incision, 



SWINE. 355 

about two inches long, is then made with the round-pointed 
knife, and the tunib and finger are introduced to search for 
the ovaries, which are easily found, from their being separate 
at one end and presenting a convoluted or knotted appearance 
to the eye. These are collected together, and folded over the 
edge of the wound downwards, and when the operator is satis- 
fied that all are exposed, he cuts them by a little pressure of 
the knife towards the skin, and the uterus falls back into its 
place. He then proceeds to stitch up the orifice with three 
or four stiches, A little fasting for a short time is generally 
required, especially from large quantities of liquid food, and 
they usually very soon recover. The only care the operator 
has to take, is to clean his knife well after every cut, to secure 
the whole of the ovaria, and to avoid stiching up any of the 
intestines with the skin. If this be done, death is almost cer- 
tain to follow. Though an operation usually performed at 
or before a month old, both spaying and castrating may be safely 
done at any reasonable age of the animal. 

Weaning. — This usually takes place at six or eight weeks 
old. Long before this, a little new milk, or boiled skim-milk, 
should be placed before them, and they will soon be taught to 
drink. Hence the weaning, when it takes place, will be a 
much smaller privation to animals; and they will scarcely 
ever know it, if they previously eat well and have plenty of 
milk, with a little barley or bran meal. 

At weaning time the young pigs may be rung. This opera- 
tion must, of course, be to a certain extent a painful one, but, 
perhaps, scarcely so much so as the noisy demonstrations on 
the part of the little sufferers would seem to indicate. No young 
animals like to be rudely meddled with, and of all animals, the 
pig is about the least manageable as a patient. Ringing, is, 
however, absolutely necessary, unless the cartilage of the nose 
be cut away, a practice resorted to in substitution for it in 
some parts of the country. The latter practice is, however, 
far more cruel than ringing, and its efficacy is stated by many 
to be at the best questionable. A sow in pig should never be 
rung; it often produces epilepsy in the young pigs. 

After about five weeks' high and careful feeding, subse- 
quent to weaning, the young pigs may be put up for stores, 



856 SWINE. 

porkers, etc., according to the owner's views respecting them. 
Very young pigs, indeed, immediately after being weaned, if 
fed on the refuse of a dairy, will be brought up for delicious 
pork in five or six weeks: for the last week prior to killing, 
the addition of beans, peas, or bruised corn, will impart a 
degree of firmness to the flesh, which is considered an improve- 
ment. This is called " dairy fed pork," and it never fails to 
fetch an enhanced price, thereby amply remunerating the 
producer. 

Fattening, — Pigs designed for pork should not be fattened 
to the same extent as those designed for bacon. Porkers, 
when intended for domestic use, may be allowed to run at 
large. Grazing, or the run of a wood in which roots or nuts 
may be met with, is calculated, in an eminent degree, to 
improve the quality of their flesh. Of course, it will be neces- 
sary to give the pigs regular meals, independently of what they 
can thus cater for themselves; and the hours for so doing 
should be in the morning, before the pigs are let out, and in the 
evening, before they are returned to the sty. Pigs are more 
sagacious than they generally obtain credit for. They speedily 
become habituated to the afternoon hour of feeding, and regu- 
larly resort to the sties for their accustomed dinner, thus 
saving considerable trouble that would otherwise arise from 
the necessity of collecting and driving them home. But when 
pork feeding is carried on solely for profit, there can be no 
question that the sty is the only place where they should be 
kept. For the period they are confined, the want of exercise, 
even in young animals, does not at all interfere with their 
health, and they will lay on fat much more speedily and easily 
if they are confined. Sleep seems to be as necessary to the 
pig for fattening even as food. Hence, a warm, comfortable 
bed of hay will always compensate the pork-feeder, and so 
will a supply of earth, or, what is even better, small coals. 
When confinement is adopted, this is absolutely necessary; 
and the want of this is often so great that the sty is rooted up, 
and even the walls are attacked. When these symptoms take 
place, it is by no means indicative of a depraved appetite, to 
which the habit is generally attributed, but to a want of 
management in supplying edible alkalies to the animal to neu- 



SWINE. 



357 



tralize the acid and assist digestion. Too many swine should 
not be kept in one sty; and if a young one appears at any time 
to have become an object of persecution to the rest, he should 
be withdrawn. The introduction of strangers should likewise 
be avoided. 

Bacon pigs fatten best by themselves. They need no 
liberty; and it is only necessary to keep the sty dry and clean, 
and to feed abundantly, in order to prepare them for the 
knife. In order to fatten a pig, his comfort must, in every 
respect, be attended to; and there cannot be a more gratifying 
sound to the ears of the zealous pig-feeder than that peculiar 
self-satisfied, contented grunt, with which the huge hog, bask- 
ing, perhaps, beneath a summer's sun, announces to his admir- 
ing owner that all his wants and wishes have been gratified. 
This is the never-failing omen of success, and you may 
look for such weight and condition as will bring to your purse 
the remunerative commendation you have earned. 

Professor Johnston, who may always be safely quoted on 
all matters of agricultural science, gives a table of the com- 
parative nutritive elements of different kinds of food, and from 
which we select those materials used in pig-feeding, omitting 
the parts of the table not applicable: 



Hkat-producinq. 
starch, Sugar, Gum, 


&c. 


Flesh-and-boke-pro- 

DUCING. 

Gluten, albumen, legu 
men, &c. 


- 


FAT-PKODrCING. 

Fatty matter— per cent. 


Wheat 




55 

60 

60 

. 60 

. 70 

. 75 

. 4G 

. 50 

18 

. 9 

. 10 

11 


Wheat 

Barley 

Oats , 

Rye 

Indian corn 


••• 


15 
14 

16 
13 
12 

7 
26 
24 

2 

1.5 

1.5 

2 


Wheat 3 


Barley 

Oats 


Barley 2 

Oats 6 


Rye 




Rye 3 

Indian corn 7 


Rice 




Rice 

Beans 

Peas 




Kice 0.7 


Beans 

Peas .... 


Beans 3 

Peas 2.1 






Potatoes 0.3 


Turnips 

Carrots 

Mangel wurzel. 




Turnips 

Carrots 

Mangel wurzel... 




Turnips 0.3 

Carrots 0.4 

Mangel wurzel 



Now, as it is generally economical to combine roots with 
grain, potatoes are the most useful as a root and oats as a 
grain; and, therefore, they are usually selected by the best pig- 
feeders, and are the usual aliments where large and fat pigs 
are the desiderata. 

Wheat meal, now that grain can be purchased, husk and 
flour, cheaper than before, is by far the cheapest of all kinds 



358 SWINE. 

of grain; but it is hardly so well relished as oatmeal, because 
it adheres, from its glutinous character, to the teeth of the 
animals, and thus annoys them; and all disturbances invariably 
do harm to fattening animals. 

For store jiigs nothing more will be requisite than the pick- 
ings of the fold-yard (especially where cattle are fed on lin- 
seed cake, for they will carefully collect all the dung in this 
case and feed upon it), with a few chopped turnips and a little 
sour wash in winter. In summer they may run out in the 
grass-fields, and have a little wash, in which almost any refuse 
may be thrown. A very carefully selected breed of pigs were 
fattened on nothing but grass and water in several cases. As 
the pastures fail, and before the stubbles are ready, a handful 
of old dry beans in the morning, per animal, will exercise a 
very wonderful influence for the better; the binding character 
of the beans will counteract the too relaxing wash and grass; 
and, when the harvest is over, the stubbles are a very valuable 
auxiliary. When these are finished, the pigs should at once be 
put up to feed; and at first a large quantity of roots may be 
given. It is a great satisfaction, then, that diseased potatoes 
will not only have no injurious tendency on either the live 
animal or its bacon, but will be almost, if not altogether, as fat- 
tening as when they are sound. Hence the value of a stock of 
pigs. 

As the feeding progresses, barley or oatmeal should be given 
in increasing proportions; and, as the process becomes more 
nearly completed, the whole of the roots may be abstracted 
with advantage. Boiling and steaming the food is absolutely 
essential to pigs. 

The digestive powers of the pig are by no means strong. 
They partake of the sluggishness of his general organism. 
Hence he must have his roots broken down by steam or boil- 
ing, and his grain not merely crushed, but absolutely made 
into flour. He will feed better also on slop food, which has 
undergone one process of decomposition — fermentation — than 
when it is fresh. 

Those who make pig feeding a business, and consequently 
keep a number of these animals, should so manage as to be 
enabled to provide for their maintenance and fattening from 



SWINE. 359 

the produce of their crops. They should therefore cultivate 
for pig-feeding, beans, peas, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, flax, 
parsnips, carrots, cabbage, lettuce. Lucerne, Italian rye-grass, 
clover, rape, chicory, and vetches; they should also sow thistle 
— which is a most nutritious article of diet for pigs, but sc 
much neglected that it is as yet scarcely ever to be met with in 
a state of cultivation, or in any condition but that of a weed. 

Ere leaving this subject, we must mention one practice, too 
little known, or too much neglected by swine-feeders — a prac- 
tice, also, that will be found to conduct materially to that 
great object of all swine-feeders, the production of bulk and 
weight at the lowest possible outlay. The practice is washing. 
A hog washed weekly with soap and a brush will be found to 
thrive, and put up flesh in a ratio of at least five to three, ii. 
comparison with a pig not so treated. This fact has been well 
tried. There can be no possible question about its correct- 
ness; and the duty is not a very difficult matter to perform — 
for the swine, as soon as they discover the real character of 
the operation, are far from being disposed to resist; and after 
a couple of washings they submit to the ceremony with the 
best grace imaginable. 

In conclusion, we would request the reader to observe a few 
cautions in conjunction with the directions already given rela- 
tive to feeding. 

Avoid foul feeding. No feed fit for the table can pro- 
ceed from unclean feeding. 

Add salt in moderate quantities to the mess given; you 
will find your account in attending to this. 

Feed at regular intervals. Nothing is more essential 
to a healthy animal. 

Cleanse the trough previous to feeding, by washing 
out carefully. Without this precaution all other attempts at 
cleanliness will be in vain. 

Do not overfeed; give only as much as will be consumed 
at the meal. Never allow any to remain in the trough; clean 
it out for the store pigs. 

Vary your bill of fare. Variety will create, or, at all 
events, increase appetite, and it is farther most conducive to 
health. Let your variations be guided by the state of the dung 



360 SWINE. 

cast; this should be of medium consistence, and of a greyish- 
brown color; if hard, increase the quantity of bran and succu- 
lent roots; if too liquid, dimish or dispense with bran; give 
beans or acorns, and let the mess be firmer. If you can add a 
portion of corn, that which is spoiled, and thus rendered unfit 
for other purposes, will be found to answer perfectly well. 

Feed your stock separately, in classes, according to 
their relative conditions; keep sows in young by themselves; 
stores by themselves; and bacon pigs and porkers by them- 
selves. It is not advisable to keep your stores to high in 
flesh; for high feeding, however strange it may seem, is calcu- 
lated to retard development of form and bulk. It is better to 
feed pigs intended to be put up for bacon, loosely, and not 
too abundantly, until they have attained their full stature. 
You can then bring them into the highest possible condition in 
an inconceivably short space of time. It is by such a system 
of management as this that the monstrous swine are raised — 
their weight frequently exceeding twelve hundred pounds, or, 
at all events, half a ton. 

Do NOT REGRET THE LOSS OR SCARCITY OF POTATOES SO 

far as swine-feeding is concerned. The potato is capable of 
being replaced; and its loss has been the means of stimulating 
inquiry, and producing experiment, which has resulted in the • 
discovery that many other useful vegetables have been hitherto 
neglected, and foolishly passed aside. 

Do NOT NEGLECT TO KEEP YOUR SWINE CLEAN, DRY, AND 

WARM. These are essentials, and not a whit less imperative 
than feeding; for an inferior description of food will, by their 
aid, succeed far better than the highest feeding will without 
them; and while we speak of cleanliness, suffer us to reiterate 
the benefit derivable from washing your pigs; this will repay 
your trouble manifold. They are always washed for agricultu- 
ral shows, where they must be exhibited fat. 

Watch the markets. Sell v/hen you see a reasonable 
profit before you. Many a man has swamped himself by his 
avidity, and by desiring to realize an unusual amount of gain. 
Recollect how very fluctuating are the markets, and that a 
certain gain is far better than the risk of loss. Even great 
capitalists have fallen from over-avidity. Do you recollect two 



SWINE. 3G1 

homely proverbs, but not the less true: — "Make your hay while 
while the sun shines;" and "A bird in the hand is worth two in 
the bush." 

Slaughtering". — A pig that is to be killed should be kept 
without food for from twelve to sixteen hours previous to 
slaughtering; a little water must, however, be within his reach. 
He should, in the first place, be stunned by a blow on the 
head. Some advise that the knife should be thrust into the 
neck so as to sever the artery leading from the heart; while 
others prefer that the animal should be stuck through the 
brisket in the direction of the heart — care being exercised not 
to touch the first rib. The blood should then be allowed to 
drain from the carcass into vessels placed for the purpose; and. 
the more completely it does so, the better will be the meat. 

A large tub, or other vessel, has been previously got ready, 
which is now filled with boiling water. The carcass of the hog 
is plunged into this, and the hair is then removed with the 
edge of a knife. The hair is more easily removed if the hog is 
scalded before he stiffens, or becomes quite cold. It is not, 
however, necessary, but simply brutal and barbarous, to scald 
him while there is yet some life in him. Bacon-hogs may be 
singed by enveloping the body in straw, and setting the straw 
on fire, and then scraping it all over. When is this done, care 
must be observed not to burn or parch the cuticle. The en- 
trails should then be removed, and the interior of the body well 
washed with lukewarm water, so as to remove all blood and 
impurities, and afterward wiped dry with a clean cloth; the 
carcass should then be hung up in a cool place for eighteen or 
twenty hours, to become set and firm. 

For cutting up, the carcass should be laid on the back, upon 
a strong table. The head should then be cut off close by the 
ears, and the hinder feet so far below the houghs as not to dis- 
figure the hams, and leave room sufficient for hanging them 
up; after which the carcass is divided into equal halves, up 
the middle of the back-bone, with a cleaving knife, and, if 
necessary, a hand-mallet. Then cut the ham from the side by 
the second joint of the back-bone, which will appear on divid- 
ing the carcass, and dress the ham by paring a little off the 
flank, or skinny part, so as to shape it with a half round point, 



362 SWINE. 

clearing off any top fat which may appear. Next cut off the 
sharp edge along the back-bone with a knife and mallet, and 
slice off the first rib next the shoulder, where there is a bloody 
vein, which must be taken out, since, if it is left in, that part is 
apt to spoil. The corners should be squared off when the ham 
is cut. The ordinary practice is to cut out the spine or back 
bone. Some take out the chine and upper parts of the ribs in 
the first place; indeed, almost every locality has its peculiar 
mode of proceeding 

Pickling and Curing.— Bacon.— This is cured in very dif- 
ferent ways. For domestic use, it is usually laid upon a table, 
and salt, with a little nitre, added, well rubbed in, first on one 
side and then on the other, either with the bare hand or the 
salting glove. Some straw is then placed on the floor of an 
outhouse, a flitch is laid thereon, with the rind downwards — 
straw laid upon this, then another flitch, and so on. Above 
the whole is placed a board, and heavy stones or weights above 
all. In three weeks or a month the meat is sufiiciently salted 
and is hung up to hooks in the kitchen rafters. The general 
practice of burning wood and turf in some kitchens imparts a 
sweetness to the bacon thus saved that is not to be met with in 
any which you can purchase. 

Another mode is as follows: Prepare a pickle, by boiling 
common salt and nitre in water; mix, for a single pig of toler- 
able size, one pound of coarse brown sugar with half a pound 
of nitre, and, by mixing all the sugar and nitre you require to 
use in the first instance, you will prevent its being purloined 
by children or servants; rub this well in with the salting gloves; 
then put the meat into the pickle, and let it lie in this for two 
days; afterwards take it out of the pickle, and rub it with salt 
alone; then put it back into the pickle. 

For a Mild Cure. — Form sweet pickle by boiling molasses 
with salt and water; rub the meat with sugar and nitre; add a 
small portion of strong pickle to the meat; put the meat into 
this, and let it lie in it for three weeks. If there be any spare 
room in the cask, fill it up with molasses. Eight pounds of 
salt, one pound of nitre, and six pints of molasses, will about 
suffice for each hundred weight of meat, and will take about 
five gallons of water. In about three weeks — less or more 



SWINE. 363 

time being required accord-ng to size — take the meat out of 
pickle, and hang it in the drying house. While in the drying 
house the flitches should be hung neck downwards. You may 
cut out the ham and trim the flitch according to fancy. Nearly 
every county has, in this respect, a fashion of its own. Then, 
if you possess the means, remove your hams and bacon to the 
smoking house. They should not be suffered to touch each 
other. With this precaution you may hang them as closely as 
you please. Some houses are of every dimension: but the 
smallest answer as well as the mpst extensive. Before suspend- 
ing the meat in the smoke house, it should be previously well 
rubbed over with bran. The fire is made of saw-dust, which 
burns with a low, smouldering glow, giving out far more smoke 
than if actually flaming. In the process of smoking, your meat 
will lose from about fifteen to twenty pounds per hundred 
weight — a fact necessary to be borne in mind. 

Sometimes the pigs are killed before they arrive at full size, 
and their hair removed by singing; the bacon and hams of these 
are said to possess peculiar delicacy of flavor. 

The best saw-dust for smoking hams or bacon is that made 
from oak, and it should be thoroughly dry. The saw-dust of 
common deal imparts a flavor of a disagreeable character, not 
unlike that of red herrings. 

Westphalian Hams. — The genuine Westphalian bacon is 
particularly good; but all sold under that name is not genuine. 
In London, especially, spurious Westphalian hams are manu- 
factured to a considerable extent. The process of imitation is 
not difficult, and none but one of the trade can detect the im- 
posture. The fine quality of Westphalian bacon depends on 
several causes; the healthy and semi-wild life the swine are 
permitted to enjoy. — their relationship to the wild boar — and 
not being fattened to the fullest extent previous to the killing. 
A large portion of sugar and juniper-berries are used in curing, 
the proportion being usually one and one-half pounds of sugar 
to three of salt, and two ounces of nitre. The smoke is also 
applied in a cold state. This is, perhaps, the principal secret. 
The hams are hung at the top of a very lofty building, and by 
the time the smoke reaches them it is perfectly cold. 

The ham of the Westphalian hog closely resembles that of 



364 SWINE. 

the common old Irish breed; and the hams of that animal, 
when cured as has been described, could not be distinguished 
from those of Westphalian by the nicest judges, and are, there- 
fore, sometimes used to deceive. 

Yorkshire Bacon. — There are few counties where, upon 
the whole, a finer kind of bacon is procured than in this large 
county. Commencing by a pure breed — fed by farmers in the 
corn districts, and dairymen in the grazing valleys, on the very 
best milk and barley, with a small proportion of potatoes — it 
has none of those rancid and disagreeable flavors so often ap- 
plying to Irish and American bacon. The mode of curing 
adopted is the following: 

The pig, after hanging twenty-four hours, is thoroughly 
stiffened, and is then cut up in the ordinary mode. The 
shoulders are carefully searched for the large veins which pro- 
ceed from the jugular, and, as the last blood is frequently found 
in these veins, they are carefully extracted with a fork. The 
bacon is then removed to leaden bowls — salt wiped over the 
smooth side — the shanks carefully stopped for four to six in- 
ches deep with salt and saltpetre. This is one of the most im- 
portant facts in curing bacon. The skin side is then laid down- 
wards, and the whole flesh side covered with salt, and sprinkled 
with saltpetre. The same applies to the hams and the other 
sides, and the proportion of coarse salt — which is always used 
for the purpose in preference to the more finely powdered — 
allowed for a twenty stone pig, is one stone of salt and one 
pound of saltpetre; and so on in proportion. Two or three 
pigs may be laid in a leaden bowl exposed to a north aspect, 
with plenty of air, and in a clean place, especially free from 
putrifying matter. In three days all the sides are removed, the 
bottom ones placed uppermost, and the whole of the bare 
places in the flesh side are again covered with salt. In this 
way it is removed three or four times in a month, during which 
time it is said to be in pickle. At the end of this period it is 
taken out of the leaden bowl, set on an edge, and wiped with 
a cloth to dry off the extraneous salt. It is hung for three 
weeks more in the kitchen, and is then fit for storing away. 
This is generally done in sacks, strewed with bran, where it re. 
mains until taken out for use. 



SWINE. 



J65 



Limerick and Belfast Hams, — Limerick and Belfast 
hams are cured in the following manner: They are, as we have 
said, cut fresh from the pig, with the hip-bones left in them, 
and are placed on a flagged floor, the front of the second ham 
resting upon the shank of the first, and so on until all are 
placed; they are then sprinkled with strong pickle from a 
watering-pot, and a small quantity of salt is shaken over them. 
Next day the hams are taken up, well rubbed with salt and 
laid down as before, when saltpetre is shaken over them in 
quantities proportionate to their size; they are left so for two 
days, and then taken up and rubbed as before, when they are 
laid down again, according to the space they have to fill — 
from three to six hams in height, with layers of salt between. 
After six days, the hams are reversed in the piles; that is, 
those that were packed on the top are put at the bottom. 
They then remain for six days longer in the pile, when they 
are considered cured. They are then taken up and washed, 
and hung up to dry in the air. When they are to be smoked, 
they are placed in a house for that purpose, and smoked — in 
Belfast, with wheaten straw and saw-dust; in Limerick, with 
peat or turf. 



DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 




PIG TIED FOB "DRENCHING. 



Drenching Pigs. — A common form of administering medi- 
cine to cattle, sheep and pigs, is by " drenching " them. The 



3GG SWINE. 

medicinal ingredients of the " drench " are mixed with some 
fluid, as ale or some sort of gruel, and the mixture is usually 
administered by means of a horn, the base of which is cut off 
diagonally, so as to produce a large opening. The head of the 
animal is raised a little by an assistant, while the operator 
pulls away the cheek of the right side of the mouth, which 
forms a pouch or pocket, and into this the medicine can be 
poured without any danger of causing suffocation. Owing to 
their obstinate and contrary character, there is generally con- 
siderable more difficulty in drenching pigs than any other 
domestic animal. When small, the animal is usually seized by 
the ears, placed between the holder's legs, and the fore legs 
are raised a few inches from the ground. Another person, 
having the medicine properly mixed in a basin or other vessel, 
pours a quantity of it from time to time into the pig's mouth 
by means of a large spoon. The slight elevation forward at 
which the animal is held causes the liquid to flow backward 
and be swallowed without risk of choking. Larger animals 
are fastened to a post or rail by means of a running noose, as 
illustrated. Here the medicine is poured into the mouth on 
the right side, as in the case of the smaller pigs, the cord 
being raised with the left hand whenever the head has to be 
elevated. By this means, although the beast's dissatisfaction 
finds utterance in loud and frequent screams, the medicine 
can be readily administered. 

CatcMng the Pig. — Swine are very difficult animals to 
obtain any mastery over, or to operate on, or to examine. Sel- 
dom tame, or easily handled, they are at such periods most 
unmanageable — kicking, screaming, and even biting fiercely. 
The following method of getting hold of them has been 
recommended: Fasten a double cord to the end of a stick, and 
beneath the stick let there be a running noose in the cord; tie 
a piece of bread to the cord, and present it to the animal; and 
when he opens his mouth to seize the bait, catch the upper 
jaw in the noose, run it tight, and the animal is fast. 

Another method is to catch one foot in a running noose 
suspended from some place, so as to draw the imprisoned 
foot off the ground; or, to envelop the head of the animal in 
a cloth or sack. 

All coercive measures, however, should, as far as possible, 
be avoided, for the pig is naturally, so averse to being handled 
that in his struggles he will often do himself far more mischief 
than the disease which is to be remedied or investigated would 
effect. 

Bleeding. — The common mode of drawing blood from the 
pig is by cutting off portions of the ears or tail; this should 



SWINE. 367 

only be resorted to when local or instant blood-letting is 
requisite. The jugular veins of swine lie too deep, and are too 
much imbedded in fat, to admit of their being raised by any 
ligature about the neck; it is, therefore, useless to attempt to 
puncture them, as it would only be striking at random. 

Those veins, however, which run over the interior surface 
of the ear, and especially towards the outer edge, may be 
opened without much difficulty; if the ear is turned back on 
the poll, one or more of them may easily be made sufficiently 
prominent to admit of its being punctured by pressing the 
fingers on the base of the ear near to the conch. When the 
necessary quantity of blood has been obtained, the finger may 
be raised, and it will cease to flow. 

The palate veins, running on either side of the roof of the 
mouth, are also easily opened by making two incisions, one on 
each side of the palate about half way between the centre of 
the roof of the mouth and the teeth. The flow of blood may 
be readily stopped by means of a pledget of tow and a string, 
as in bleeding the horse. 

The brachial vein of the fore leg — commonly called the 
plate-vein — running along the inner side under the skin, affords 
a good opportunity. The best place for puncturing it is 
about an inch above the knee, and scarcely half an inch back- 
ward from the radius, or the bone of the fore-arm. No danger 
need be apprehended from cutting two or three times, if 
sufficient blood cannot be obtained at once. This vein will 
become easily discernable if a ligature is tied firmly around the 
leg just below the shoulder. 

This operation should always be performed with the lancet 
if possible. In cases of urgent haste, where no lancet is at 
hand, a small penknife may be used; but the fleam is a 
dangerous and objectionable instrument. 

Cleanliness. — This is the great point to be insisted upon in 
swine management; if this, and warmth, be duly attended to, 
the animal will not, in one case in a hundred, become affected 
with any ailment. 

The pig-feeder will find that in most cases his pigs will 
never ail anything from their birth to their slaughter. There 
may be a few attacked with disease; but the feeder will gen- 
erally find that the first symptoms of it will give way before a 
dose of flour of sulpur — say half an ounce for a large animal, 
combined with new milk, which he will generally drink, — with 
warmth and confinement. As it is almost impossible to admin- 
ister medicine by force, it is better thus to take the disease in 
its first stage, and give it them by enticement. 

As, however, even under the most careful system of man- 
agement, an occasional disappointment may occur, the reader 



3G8 SWINE. 

is furnished with the following brief view of the principal com- 
plaints, by which some are, under the most unfavorable 
circumstances, liable to be attacked, and also with the plainest 
effectual mode of sanatory treatment to be adopted: 

Fever. — The symptoms are redness of the eyes, dryness 
and heat of the nostrils, the lips and the skin generally; 
appetite gone, or very defective, and the presence, usually, of 
a very violent thirst. Of course, no symptom can be regarded 
as individually indicative of the presence of any particular 
disease; these, which we have named, might, individually, 
indicate the presence of many other diseases, nay, of no dis- 
order at all, but, collectively, they point to the presence of fever 
as their origin. 

Treatment. — Let the animal, as soon as possible after the 
appearance of these symptoms, be bled, by cutting the veins at 
the back of the ears. The pressure of the finger raises the 
vein, and you can then puncture it with a lancet. If the bleed- 
ing from this channel be not sufficiently copious, you must cut 
off a portion of his tail; and, after bleeding, let him be warmly 
housed; but, at the same time, while protected from colds and 
draughts, let the sty be well and thoroughly ventilated, and its 
inmate supplied with a constant succession of fresh air. The 
bleeding will usually be followed, in an hour or two, by such a 
return of appetite as to induce the animal to eat a sufficient 
quantity of food to admit of your making it the vehicle for 
administering such internal remedies as may seem advisable. 
The best vehicle is bread, steeped in broth. The pig, how- 
ever, sinks so rapidly, when once he loses his appetite, that no 
depletive medicines are in general necessary or suitable. The 
fever will usually be found to yield to the bleeding, and your 
only object need be the support of the animal's strength, by 
small portions of nourishing food frequently administered. 

Do not, however, at any time suffer your patient to'"eat as 
much as his inclination might prompt; the moment he appears 
to be no longer ravenous, remove the mess, and do not offer it 
again until after a lapse of from three to four hours. 

It is a singular fact, that as the hog surpasses every other 
animal in the facility with which he acquires fat, he likewise 
surpasses all others in the rapidity with which his strength 
becomes prostrated when once his appetite deserts him. The 
French veterinarian practice recommends the addition of pep- 
permint to the bread and broth. If the animal be not disgusted 
by the smell, it may be added; and, if the bowels be confined, 
the addition of castor and (unboiled) linseed oil, in equal 
quantities, and in the proportion of two to six ounces, accord- 
ing to the size of the pig, should not be omitted. 

If you find yourself unable to restore the animal's appetite. 



SWINE. 369 

the case is nearly hopeless, and you may legitimately regard its 
return as one of the most infallible symptoms of returning con- 
valescence. 

Leprosy. — The fact of the pig being subject to leprosy was 
by some persons supposed to be the reason for the Divine pro- 
hibition of pig's flesh to the peculiarly chosen Jews, as they 
were themselves subject to it in no small degree. Be this as it 
may, however, it often attacks the swine in very hot seasons 
in this country, where man is free from its ravages. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of this complaint usually com- 
mence with the formation of a small tumor in the eye, followed 
by a general prostration of spirits; the head is held down; the 
whole frame inclines toward the ground; universal languor 
succeeds; the animal refuses food, languishes, and rapidly falls 
away in flesh; blisters soon make their appearance,beneath the 
tongue, then upon the throat, the jaws, the head, and the en- 
tire body. The flesh of a leperous pig is said to possess mor^ 
pernicious qualities, and, independent of our disgust, to be 
wholly unfit for human food. If the animal be killed in the 
very first stage of the disease, however, the affection is only 
superficial, the flesh nothing the worse, but rather improved in 
tenderness, and, indeed, not to be distinguished from that of a 
perfectly sound animal. 

Treatment. — The cause of this disease is want of cleanli- 
ness, absence of fresh air, want of due attention to ventilation, 
and foul feeding. The obvious cure, therefore, is — first, bleed; 
clean out the sty daily; wash the affected animal thoroughly 
with soap and water., to which soda or potash has been added; 
supply him with a clean bed; keep him dry and comfortable; 
let him have gentle exercise and plenty of fresh air; limit the 
quantity of his food, and diminish its rankness; give bran with 
wash, in which you may add, for an average-sized hog, say one 
of twenty stone (8 lbs. to the stone), or i6o lbs. weight, a 
tablespoonful of the flour of sulphur, with as much nitre as 
will cover a sixpence, daily. A few grains of powdered anti- 
mony may also be given with effect. The animal, if in sum- 
mer, should be kept in the shade, and placed in a house facing 
the north, where it may have free access of air of the coolest 
kind. 

Murrain. — It resembles leprosy in its symptoms, with the 
addition of staggering, shortness of breath, discharge of viscid 
matter from the eyes and mouth. The treatment should consist 
of cleanliness, coolness, bleeding, purging, and limitation of 
food. Cloves of garlic have been recommended to be admin- 
istered in cases of murrain. Garlic is an antiseptic; and, as 
in. all those ferbile diseases, there exists a more or less degree 
22 



370 SWINE. 

of disposition to putrefaction, it is not improbable that it may 
be found useful. 

Measles. — This is one of the most common diseases to 
which pigs are liable. The symptoms are redness of the eyes, 
foulness of the skin, depression of spirits, decline or total de- 
parture of the appetite, small pustules about the throat, and red 
and purple eruptions on the skin. These last are more plainly 
visible after death, when they impart a peculiar appearance to 
the grain of the meat, with fading of its color, and distention 
of the fibre, so as to give an appearance similar to that which 
might be produced by puncturing the flesh. 

Treatment. — Suffer the animal to fast, in the first instance, 
for twenty-four hours, and then administer a warm drink, con- 
taining a drachm of carbonate of soda and an ounce of bole 
armenian; wash the animal, cleanse the sty, and change the 
bedding; give at every feeding, say thrice a day, thirty grains 
of flour of sulphur, and ten of nitre. It is to dirt, combined 
with a common fault, too little thought of, viz., giving the 
steamed food or wash to the pigs at too high a temperature, 
that this disease is generally to be attributed. It is a 
troublesome malady to eradicate, but usually yields to such 
treatment as described, and is rarely fatal. 

Jaundice. — Symptoms. — Yellowness of the conjunctive, or 
"white of the eye," a similar hue extending to the lips, with 
sometimes, but not invariably, swelling of the under part of 
the jaw. Bleed behind the ear, diminish the quantity of food, 
and give a smart aperient every second day. Aloes are, per- 
haps, the best, combined with colocynth; the dose will vary 
with the size of the animal. A decoction of woodbine leaves 
and shoots has 'been recommended by the French veterinar- 
ians. 

Foul Skin. — A simple irritability or foulness of skin will 
usually yield to cleanliness, and a washing with solution of 
chloride of lime; but, if it has been neglected for any length 
of time, it assumes a malignant character; scabs and blotches, 
or red and fiery eruptions appear, and the disease rapidly 
passes off. 

Mange. — If the foul hide, already described, had been pro- 
perly attended to, and the remedies necessary for its removal 
applied in sufficient time, this very troublesome^disorder would 
not have supervened. Mange is supposed, by most medical 
men, to owe its existence to the presence of a minute insect, 
called "acarus scabiei," or "mange-fly," — a minute creature 
which burrows beneath the cuticle, and in its progress through 
the skin occasions much irritation and annoyance. Other."?, 



SWINE. 371 

again, do not conceive the affection styled mange to be thus 
produced, but refer it to a diseased state of the blood, which, 
as is usually the case, eventually conveys its morbid influences 
to the superficial tissues. Much has been said and still might 
be said on both sides of the question; but such a discussion is 
scarcely suitable to the pages of a popular work. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of the disease are sufficiently 
well known. They consist of scabs, blotches, and sometimes 
multitudes of minute pustules, on different parts of the body. 
If neglected, these symptoms, will become aggravated; the dis- 
ease will rapidly spread over the entire surface of the skin; 
and, if suffered to proceed upon its course unchecked, it will, 
ere long, produce deep-seated ulcers and malignant sores, until 
the whole carcass of the poor affected animal becomes one 
mass of corruption. 

The causes of mange have been differently stated; some 
referring them to too high, and others to too low, a diet. How 
too low a description of diet can apply to swine it is not easy 
to conceive — the feeders of that animal never keeping him save 
for the purpose of making profit of him. Dogs, and other such 
animals, who are kept only for ornament or pleasure, might, 
indeed, be starved, or, at all events, placed by their unfeeling 
masters upon low diet; but most assuredly no swine feeder 
would commit such an egregious act of folly. The notion, 
therefore, of mange in swine being caused by under-feeding is 
not for a single instant to be entertained. No, the cause is to 
be looked for in dirt, accompanied by hot-feeding. Hot-feed- 
ing alone would, perhaps, be more likely to produce measles 
than mange; but dirt would unquestionably produce the latter 
disease, even if unaided by the concommitant error of hot- 
feeding. 

Pigs, however well and properly kept, will occasionally 
become affected with this, as well as with other disorders, from 
contagion. Few diseases are more easily propagated by con- 
tact than mange. The introduction of a single affected pig 
into your establishment may in one night cause the seizure of 
scores, and probably furnish you with a three months' hospital 
experience. Do not, therefore, introduce any foul-skinned 
pigs into your piggery; in fact, it would be a very safe, and 
scarcely a very troublesome, process, to wash every new pur- 
chase with a strong solution of chloride of lime — a prepara- 
tion to be had from any druggist or apothecary, if not, indeed, 
from most country grocers. This substance is very cheap, and 
a little trouble, when applied as a preventive, is surely prefera- 
ble to a great deal of trouble and perhaps disappointment, when 
you are compelled to resort to it as a cure. 

Treatment. — If a hog be only afflicted with a mange of 



372 SWINE. 

moderate virulence, and not of very long standing, the best 
mode of treatment to be adopted is — 

1. Wash the animal from snout to tail, leaving no portion of 
the body uncleansed, with soft soap and water. 

2. Put him into a dry and clean sty which is so built and 
situated as to command a constant supply of fresh air, without, 
at the same time, being exposed to cold or draught. Let him 
have a bed of clean fresh straw, 

3. Reduce his food, both in quality and in quantity. Let 
boiled or steamed roots, with buttermilk or dairy wash, supply 
the place of half-fermented brewer's grains, house wash or any 
other description of feeding calculated to prove of a heating or 
inflammatory character. It is, of course, scarcely necessary to 
add that those who have been feeding their swine on horse- 
flesh, or chandler's greaves, cannot be surprised at the occur- 
rence of the disease. Let them, at all events, desist from that 
rank and nasty mode of feeding, and turn to such as has been 
indicated. 

4. Let your patient fast for five or six hours, and then 
give, to a pig of average size, epsom salts, 2 ounces, in a warm 
bran wash. This quantity is, of course, to be increased or 
diminished as the size may require it. The above would suffice 
for a pig of from fifteen to twenty-stone weight (8 lbs. to the 
stone). It should be previously mixed with a pint of warm 
water. This should be added to about half a gallon of warm 
bran wash. It will act as a gentle purgative. 

5. Give in every meal afterwards — 

Of flour of sulphur, one tablespoonf ul ; 
Of nitre, as much as wiU cover a Bispence, 

for from three days to a week, according as you observe the 
state of the disease. When you observe the scabs begin to 
heal, the pustules to retreat, and the fiery sores to fade, you 
may pronounce your patient cured. But before that pleasing 
result will make its appearance, you will perceive an apparent 
increase of violence in all the symptoms — the last effort of the 
expiring malady, as it were, ere it finally yields to your care 
and skill. 

6. There are, however, some very obstinate cases of mange 
occasionally to be met with, which will not so readily be 
subdued. When the above mode of treatment has been put in 
practice for fourteen days without effecting a cure, prepare 
the following: 

1 pint of train oil ; 

2 drachms of oil of tar; 

2 drachms spirits of turpentine; 
1 drachm of naphtha, 

with flour of sulphur, as much as will form the above into the 
consistence of a thick paste. Rub the animal, previously 



SWINE. 373 

washed, with this mixture, and let no portion of the hide 
escape you. Keep the pig dry and warm after this application, 
and suffer it to remain on his skin for three entire days. On 
the fourth day, wash him once more with soft soap, adding a 
small quantity of soda to the water. Dry the animal well after- 
wards, and suffer him to remain as he is, having again changed 
his bedding for a day or so. Continue the sulphur and nitre 
as before. We have never known any case of mange, however 
obstinate, that would not, sooner or later, give way before this 
mode of treatment. 

7. Your patient being convalescent, whitewash the sty; 
fumigate it, by placing a little chloride of lime in a cup, or 
other vessel, and pouring a little vitriol upon it. In the 
absence of vitriol, however, boiling water will answer nearly as 
well. 

Finally: Recollect the trouble you have had in curing your 
patient, and, by proper attention to cleanliness of sty and 
diet, together with regularity in feeding your stock, take care 
that you do not have to incur the like on any future occasion. 
Recollect, also, that all mercurial applications are, as much as 
possible, to be avoided; but, above everything, avoid the use 
of ointments composed of hellebore, corrosive sublimate, or 
tobacco-water; or, in short, any poisonous ingredient what- 
ever. Very few cures have ever been effected by the use of 
these so-called remedies; but very many deaths have resulted 
from their adoption. 

Staggers. — Caused by excess of blood to the head. Bleed 
freely from behind the ears, and purge. 

Crackings — Will sometimes appear on the skin of a pig, 
especially about the root of the ears and tail, and at the flanks. 
These are not at all to be confounded with mange, as they 
never result from anything but exposure to extremes of temper- 
ature, when the suffering animal is not able to avail himself of 
such protection as, in a state of nature, instinct would have 
induced him to adopt. They are peculiarly troublesome in 
the heats of summer, if the hog be exposed to the hot sun for 
any length of time, without the advantage of a marsh or pool 
in which to lave his parched limbs and half-scorched carcass. 
This is an inconvenience sometimes also experienced by the 
hog'scongener, the rhinoceros; and the marshy or fenny swamp 
is also by him resorted to for relief. This will suffice to inform 
the reader of the proper means to be adopted in order to pre- 
vent the occurrence of cracked ears or skin. Should he desire 
to afford aid, where neglect has already done its work, let him 
anoint the cracked parts twice or thrice a day with tar and lard, 
well melted together. 



SH SWINE. 

Ratille, or Swelling of the Spleen. — The symptom mosi 
positively indicative of this disease is the circumstance of the 
affected animal leaning towards one side, cringing, as it were 
from internal pain, and bending towards the ground. The 
cause of the obstruction on which the disease depends is over- 
feeding, or permitting the pig to indulge its appetite to the 
utmost extent that gluttony may prompt, and the capacity of 
its stomach admit of. A very short perseverance in this over- 
feeding will produce this, as well as other maladies, which 
derive their origin from a depraved condition of the secretions 
and obstruction of the excretory ducts. 

Treatment. — On first perceiving the existence of the com- 
plaint, clear out the alimentary canal by means of a strong 
aperient. If you think you can manage it, you may adminis- 
ter this forcibly, by having the mouth kept oj^en by two cords, 
that attached to the upper jaw being thrown c.^ross a joist, and 
drawn just so tight as to compel the patieiit to support himself 
on the extremities of his fore-toes; but, if you are doubtful of 
success in the employment of violence, — and, if the pig be a 
large one, your doubts will be anything but unreasonable, — 
allow the animal to fast for from four to five hours; he will then 
take a little sweet v/ash or broth, and in it you may mingle a 
dose of epsom salts, proportioned to his bulk. This will gen- 
erally effect that which is desirable — a copious evacuation; and 
the action of this medicine on the watery secretions will further 
relieve the existing diseased state of the spleen. 

Many recommend bleeding; and, if the affection have con- 
tinued for any length of time, it should be resorted to at once. 
When the disease is, however, discovered ere it has attained 
any considerable head, the aperient will suffice. The French 
veterinarians recommend the expressed juice of the leaves 
and tof)s of wormwood and liverwort to be given, half a pint for 
a dose. The decoction of these plants, produced by boiling 
them in soft water for six hours, is more readily obtained than 
the expressed juice; and this may be given in doses of from 
half a pint to a pint and a half, according to the size, age, &c., 
of the patient. 

Scammony and rhubarb, mixed up in a bran mash or with 
Indian meal, may be given with advantage the following day, 
or equal portions of blue-pill mass and compound colocynth 
pill, formed into a bolus with butter, and the animal, having 
been kept fasting the previous night, will probably swallow it. 
If he will not do so, let his fast continue for a couple of hours 
longer, and he will be pretty sure to comply with your wishes. 
Lower the animal's diet, and keep him on reduced fare, with 
exercise, and, if you can manage it, grazing until the malady 
has quite passed away. If you then wish to fatten, remember 



SWINE. 375 

to do so gradually. Be cautious of at once restoring the patient 
to full diet. Indeed my advice to you would be to keep him 
for a month as a store; and then, when you do put him up to 
fatten, to feed at regular intervals and always remove whatever 
food is left from each meal. This is a practice which should 
never be neglected by pig-feeders; and they will find it not 
only highly preservative of health, but rapidly conducive to a 
full state of maturity for killing, and this in a degree which 
those who have not tried it will scarcely expect. 

Surfeit. — Another name for indigestion. The symptoms" 
are such as might be expected — panting, loss of appetite, swel- 
ling of the region about the stomach, &c., and frequently throw- 
ing up the contents of the stomach. This affection will gener- 
ally pass away, if only permitted to cure itself, and all food be 
carefully kept from the patient for a few hours. A small 
quantity of sweet grains, with a little bran-wash, may then be 
given, but not nearly as much as the animal would wish to 
take. For a few days the food had better be limited in quan- 
tity, and of a washy, liquid nature. You may then resume the 
ordinary food, only observing to feed regularly. As already 
directed, remove the fragments remaining after each meal. 

Lethargy. — Symptoms: torpor and desire to sleep, hanging 
of the head, and frequently redness of the eyes. The appar- 
ent origin of the disease is the same as the last, only in this 
instance acting upon the pig with a natural tendency to a re- 
dundancy of blood. Bleed at the back of both the ears as copi- 
oush'' as you can; and, if you cannot obtain a sufficient quantity 
of blood from these sources, have recourse to the tail. Admin- 
ister an emetic, of which a decoction of chamomile flowers will 
be the safest; but, if you have an intelligent apothecary from 
which to obtain it, he will, on your informing him of the size 
of your patient, be able to give you a sufficient dose of tartar 
emetic, and this will be far more certain. After this, as in the 
former case, reduce for a few days the amount of the animal's 
food, and administer a small portion of sulphur and nitre in 
each morning's meal. 

Heavings, or Inflammation of the Lungs. — This disease, 
which has acquired its name from the principal symptom by 
which it is characterized, is scarcely to be regarded as curable. 
If, indeed, it was observed in its first stage, when indicated by 
loss of appetite, and a short, hard cough, it might run some 
chance of being got under by copious bleeding, and friction 
with stimulating ointment on the region of the lungs. Minute 
and frequent doses of tartar emetic should also be given in 
butter, all food of a stimulating nature carefully avoided, and 
the animal kept dry and warm. Under these circumstances 



J76 SWINE. 

there would be no reason absolutely to despair of a cure; but 
it would be advisable at the same time, if the pig, when this 
primary stage of the malady was discovered, were not in very 
poor condition, to put him to death. If once the heavings se^ 
in, it may be calculated with confidence that the formation oi 
tubercles in the substance of the lungs has begun, and whep 
these are once formed they are very rarely absorbed. The* 
cause of this dir;ease is damp lodging, foul air, want of ventila- 
tion, and unwholesome food. 

Treatment. — It is difficult to suggest what should be don^ 
when matters have reached this pass, or what remedies wouk- 
prove of any service. It is now too late, in most cases, to re- 
sort to blood letting; and the hide of the hog is so tough that 
it is not easy to blister it for the purpose of counter-irritation. 
You may, however, try the following, though perhaps the knife 
might be best, if only to relieve the poor sufferer, and provide 
against the danger of infection. It may be as well to state 
that when once tubercular formation becomes established, the 
disease may be communicated through the medium of the 
atmosphere, as the infections influence depends upon the nox- 
ious particles respired from the lungs of the diseased animal. 
Nor is this the only danger to be apprehended. It is yet a 
question whether this complaint may not be thus communicated 
to other descriptions of live stock, producing among cattle a 
disease analogous to, if not identical with, that malignant epi- 
zootic which recently committed so much devastation. You 
may, however, try the following: Shave the hair away from the 
chest and beneath each foreleg; wet the part with spirits of tur- 
pentine, and set fire to it; you will, of course, have had the 
patient well secured, and his head well raised, and have at 
hand a flannel cloth, with which to extinguish the flame, when 
you conceive it has burned a sufficient time to produce slight 
blisters. If carried too far, a sore would be formed, which 
would be productive of no good effects, and cause the poor 
animal unnecessary suffering. Calomel may also be used, with 
a view to promote the absorption of tubercles; but the success 
is questionable. 

DiarrhOBa. — The symptoms, of course, require no comment, 
as they constitute the disease. Before attempting to stop the 
discharge — which, if permitted to continue unchecked, would 
rapidly prostrate the animal's strength, and probably terminate 
fatally — ascertain the quality of food the animal has recently 
had. In a majority of instances, you will find this to be the 
origin of the disease; and, if it has been perceived in its incip- 
ient stage, a mere change to a more binding diet, as corn, flour, 
&c., will suffice for a cure. If you have reason to apprehend 
that acidity is present, produced, in all probability, by the pig 



SWINE.. 377 

having fed upon coarse rank grasses ih swahipy places, give 
some chalk in the food, or powdered egg-shells, with about 
half a drachm of powdered rhubarb; the dose, of course, vary- 
ing with the size of the pig. In the acorn season, and where 
facilities for obtaining them exist, they will be found quite suf- 
ficient to effect a cure. When laboring under, this complaint, 
dry lodging is indispensible; and diligence will be necessary 
to maintain it, and cleanliness. 

Quinsy. — Shave away the hair, and rub with tartar emetic 
ointment. Steeping with very warm water is also useful. 
W^hen external suppuration takes place, you may regard it as 
rather a favorable symptom than otherwise. In this case, wait 
until the swellings are thoroughly ripe; then, with a sharp 
knife, make an incision through the entire length, press out 
the matter, wash with warm water, and afterwards dress the 
wound with any resinous ointment, which you can obtain from 
the nearest apothecary. If you cannot obtain anything of the 
kind, you may form a very tolerable substitute by blending 
yellow soap with coarse brown sugar. You should, however, 
never have your house without a good assortment of cattle 
medicines, distinctly labelled with their names and qualities, 
and a graduated scale of doses. These can be obtained from 
any respectable druggist, at a very .trifling expense, and may 
possibly save you the loss of many valuable animals. 

Tumors. — These hard swellings make their appearance on 
different parts of the animal's body. It would not be easy to 
state the cause which gave rise to these tumors, for they vary 
with circumstances. They are not formidable, and require 
only to be suffered to progress until they soften; then make 
a free incision, and press out the matter. Sulphur and nitre 
should be given in the food, as the appearance of these swel- 
lings, whatever be the cause, indicates the necessity of altera- 
tive medicines. 

Catarrh. — This is an inflammation of the- mucous mem- 
branes of the nose, &c., if taken in time, is easily cured by 
opening medicine, followed up by warm bran-wash, a warm, 
dry sty, and abstinence from rich grains, or stimulating farina- 
ceous diet. The cause has probably been exposure to drafts 
of air. 

Epilepsy. — This is a disease quite common, and often arises 
from the ringing of the mother during the period of gestation. 
It will manifest itself by trembling and staggering of the litter 
when young, and sometimes show its effects on the grown-up 
pigs. It is far best to pork the animals at once. If it mani- 
fests itself in store animals, full grown, anoint the back bone 
with turpentine and tallow in equal proportions, melted in 



378 SWINE. 

ether; and give half an ounce of sulphur, with a quart oi hot 
spiced ale. 

Colic. — This is not an uncommon disease, resulting from 
too much soured food. It is manifested by great and violent, 
but intermittent pains; the pig will roll about and kick its belly, 
then rise up and- walk about for a few minutes, and again have 
a recurrence of the paroxysm. Administer during the interval: 

1 gill of peppermint water. 
40 drops of tincture of opium. 

The animal is to be kept warm, and supplied with food 
(new milk, warm), until entirely better. 

Cholera. — The term "cholera" is employed to designate a 
disease which has been very fatal among swine in different 
parts of the United States; and, for the reason, that its symp- 
toms, as well as the indications accompanying its termination, 
are very nearly allied to what is manifested in the disease of 
that name which visits man. 

Epidemic cholera has, for several years past, committed 
fearful ravages among the swine of, particularly, Ohio, Indiana, 
and Kentucky. Indeed, many farmers who, until recently, 
have been accustomed to raise large numbers of these animals, 
are, in a great measure, disinclined to invest again in such 
stock, on account of the severe losses — in some instances to 
the extent of the entire drove upon particular places. 

Various remedies have, of course, been prescribed; but the 
most have failed in nearly every case where the disease has 
secured a firm foothold. Preventives are, therefore, the most 
that can at present be expected; and in this direction some- 
thing may be done. Although some peculiar change in the 
atmosphere is, probably, an impelling cause of cholera, its 
ravages may be somewhat stayed by removing other predis- 
posing associate causes. 

Granting that the hog is a filthy animal and fond of rooting 
among filth, it is by no means necessary to persist, for that 
reason, in surrounding him with all the nastiness possible; for 
even a hog, when penned up in a filthy place, in company with 
a large number of other hogs — particularly when that place is 
improperly ventilated — is not as healthy as when the animals 
are kept together in smaller numbers in a clean and well ven- 
tilated barn or pen. Look, for a moment, at a drove of hogs 
coming along the street, the animals all fat and ready for the 
knife. They have been driven several miles, and are scarcely 
able to crawl along, many of them having to be carried on 
drays, while others have died on the road. At last they are 
driven into a pen, perhaps several inches deep with the manure 
and filth deposited there by hundreds of predecessors; every 
hole in the ground has become a puddle; and in such a place 



SWINE. 379 

some one hundred or two hundred animals are piled together, 
exhausted from the drive which they have had. They lie down 
in the mud, and in a short time one can see the steam beginning 
to rise from their bodies in volumes, increasing their already 
prostrate condition by the consequent inhalation of the noxious 
gas thus thrown off from the system; the blood becomes im- 
pregnated with poison; the various functions of the body are 
thereby impared; and disease will inevitably be developed in 
one form or another. Should the disease, known as hog chol- 
era, prevail in the neighborhood, the chances are greatly in 
favor of their being attacked by it, and consequently perishing. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of cholera are as follows: 
The animal appears to be instantaneously deprived of 
energy; loss of appetite; lying down by himself; occasionally 
moving about slowly, as though experiencing som^e slight) 
uneasiness internally; the eyes have a very dull and sunken 
appearance, which increases with the disease; the evacuation; 
are almost continuous, of a dark color, having a fetid odor,, 
and containing a large quantity of bile; the extremities are 
cold, and soreness is evinced when the abdomen is pressed; 
the pulse is quickened, and sometimes hardly perceptible, 
while the buccal membrane — that belong the cheek — presents 
a slight purple hue; the tongue has a furred appearance. The 
evacuations continue fluid until the animal expires, which may 
be in twelve hours from the first attack, or the disease may run 
on for several days. 

In a very short time after death, the abdomen becomes of 
a dark purple color, and upon examination, the stomach is 
found to contain but a little fluid; the intestines are almost 
entirely empty, retaining a slight quantity of the dark colored 
matter before mentioned; the mucous membrane of the ali- 
mentary canal exhibits considerable inflammation, which some- 
times appears only in patches, while the other parts are filled 
with dark venous blood — indicating a breaking up of the capil- 
liary vessels in such places. 

Treatment, — As a preventive, the following will be found 
valuable: Flour of sulphur, six pounds; animal charcoal, one 
pound; sulphate of iron, six ounces; cinchona pulverized, one 
pound. Mix well together in a large mortar; afterwards give 
a tablespoonful to each animal, mixed with a few potato-peel- 
ings and corn meal, three times a day. Continue this for one 
week, keeping the animal at the same time in a clean, dry 
place, and not allowing too many together. 

Rabies. — This is one of those afflictive maladies which is, 
perhaps, developed in the greatest possible degree in the pig. 
All hope of recovery should be at once abandoned, and the pig 
at once slaughtered by shooting, and buried whole. 



380 SWINE. 

Lice. — These are sometimes troublesome in store pigs. Let 
them be well washed with soft soap and water; or, if this fails, 
with a decoction of tobacco. 

We have now given a summary of all the principal diseases 
to which swine are, even under the worst of circumstances, 
liable; and have certainly omitted none that it would be pos- 
sible for any but a skillful veterinary surgeon, personally exam- 
ining the patient, to treat with any hope of success. The 
instructions which have been given comprise all that the ama- 
teur could comprehend, as much as he will ever find necessary 
for domestic practice, and far more than he will ever find occa- 
sion to follow, if he have attended to what has been so fre- 
quently insisted upon — cleanliness, dry lodgings, regularity of 
feeding, the use of salt in the food, and the addition of occa- 
sionally a small quantity of sulphur and nitre to the morning's 
meal. Attention to these precautions will never fail to pre- 
serve your stock in health, and thus obviate the necessity of 
resorting to the use of physic. By thus consenting to take a 
very trifling amount of trouble, you will save yourself a vast 
deal of it; nay, you will not only save yourself trouble, but 
money, anxiety, and disappointment — and all by merely bear- 
ing in mind, and adopting in your practice, the old adage — 
"Prevention is better than cure." 



POULTRY. 



Choice varieties of fowls add a pleasant feature to the farm 
premises. They engage the attention and sympathy of the 
juvenile farmers, and the time bestowed to the poultry yard 
keeps them from mischief, is an agreeable and salutary relief 
for toil and study, and elicits the taste, the judgment, and the 
kindlier feelings of humanity, which are to be matured in the 
future accomplished breeder. When properly managed, poul- 
try are a source of considerable profit, yielding more for the 
food they consume than any other stock, although their value 
is not often considered. The agricultural statistics of the 
United States, for 1839 — forty-four years ago — gave its value 
at over $12,000,000, and the current value of the poultry in the 
United States is now probably thirty millions of dollars, and 
its annual product in eggs and flesh is much greater. It is esti- 
mated by McQueen that the poultry of England exceeds 
$40,000,000, and yet McCuUoch says she imports 60,000,000 
eggs annually from France (McQueen states it at near 70,000- 
000), and from other parts of the continent, 25,000,000; besides 
80,000,000 imported from Ireland. The people of the United 
States are much larger egg and poultry consumers than the 
English, and thus they are a considerable object of agricultural 
attention, and assume an important place among the other 
staples of the farmer. The following are the principal breeds: 

The Bantam. — The original of the Bantam is the Bankiva 
fowl. The small white, and also the colored Bantams, whose 
legs are heavily feathered, are sufficiently well-known to render 
a particular description unnecessary. Bantam-fanciers gener- 
ally prefer those which have clean, bright legs, without any 



382 POULTRY. 

vestige of feathers. A thoroughbred cock, in their judgment, 
should have a rose comb; a well feathered tail, but without the 
sickle feathers; a proud, lively carriage; and ought not to 
exceed a pound in weight. The nankeen-colored and the 
black are general favorites. 

These little creatures exhibit some peculiar habits and 
traits of disposition. Amongst others, the cocks are so fond 
of sucking the eggs laid by the hen that they will often drive 
her from the nest in order to 'obtain them; they have even 
been known to attack her, tear open the ovarium, and devour 
its shell-less contents. To prevent this, first a hard-boiled, and 
then a marble egg, may be given them to fight with, taking care, 
at the same time, to prevent their access either to the hen or to 
any real eggs. Another strange propensity is a passion for 
sucking each other's blood, which is chiefly exhibited .when 
they are moulting, when they have been known to peck each 
other naked, by pulling out the new feathers as they appear, 
and squeezing with their beaks the blood from the bulbs at the 
base. These fowls being subject to a great heat of the skin, 
its surface occasionally becomes hard and tightened; in which 
cases the hard roots of the feathers are drawn into a position 
more nearly at right-angles with the body than at ordinary 
times, and the skin and superficial muscles are thus subjected 
to an imusual degree of painful irritation. The disagreeable 
habit is, therefore, simply a provision of nature for their relief, 
which may be successfully accomplished by washing with warm 
water, and the subsequent application of pomatum to the skin. 

The Bolton Gray. — These fowls — called, also, Dutch Every- 
day Layers, Pencilled Dutch fowl, Chittaprats, and, in Penn- 
sylvania, Creole fowl — were originally imported from Holland 
to Bolton, a town in Lancashire, England, whence they were 
named. 

They are small sized, short in the leg and plump in the 
make; color of the genuine kind, invariably pure white in the 
whole cappel of the neck; the body white, thickly spotted with 
black, sometimes running into a grizzle, with one or more black 
bars at the extremity of the tail. A good cock of this breed 
may weigh from four to four and a half pounds; ^nd a hen 
from three to three and a half pounds. 



POULTRY. 383 

The superiority of a hen of this breed does not consist so 
much in rapid as in continued laying. She may not produce 
as many eggs in a month as some other kinds, but she will, it 
is claimed, lay more months in the year than, probably, any 
other variety. They are said to be very hardy; but their eggs, 
in the judgment of some, are rather watery and innutritious. 

The Cocllill China. — Tl- e Cochin China fowl are said to 
have been presented to Queen Victoria from the East Indies. 
In order to promote their propagation, her majesty made pres- 
ents of them occasionally to such persons as she supposed 
likely to appreciate them. They differ very little in their 
qualities, habits and general appearance from the Shanghaes, 
to which they are undoubtedly nearly related. The egg is 
nearly the same size, shape, and color; both have an equal de- 
velopment of comb and wattles — the Cochins slightly differing 
from the Shanghaes, chiefly in being somewhat fuller and 
deeper in the breast, not quite so deep in the quarter, and be- 
ing usually smooth-legged, while the Shanghaes, generally, are 
more or less heavily feathered. The plumage is much the 
same in both cases; and the crow in both is equally sonorous 
and prolonged, differing considerably from that of the Great 
Malay. 

The cock has a large, upright, single, deeply-indented 
comb, very much resembling that of the Black S^Danish, and, 
when in condition, of quite as brilliant a scarlet; like him, 
also, he has sometimes a very large white ear-hole on each 
cheek, which, if not an indispensible or even a required quali- 
fication, is, however, to be preferred, for beauty at least. The 
wattles are large, wide, and pendent. The legs are of a pale 
flesh-color; some specimens have them yellow, which is objec- 
tionable. The feathers on the breast and sides are of a bright 
chestnut-brown; large and well-defined, giving a scaly or im- 
bricated appearance to those parts. The hackle of the neck is 
of a light yellowish brown; the lower feathers being tipped 
with dark brown, so as to give a spotted appearance to the 
neck. The tail-feathers are black, and darkly iridescent; back, 
scarlet-orange; back-hackle, yellow-orange. It is, in short, 
altogether a flame-colored bird. Both sexes are lower in the 
leg than either the Black Spanish or the Malay. 



384 POULTRY. 

The hen approaches in her build more nearly to the Dork- 
ing than to any other breed, except that the tail is very small 
and proportionately depressed; it is smaller and more hori- 
zontal than in any other fowl. Her comb is of moderate size, 
almost small; she has, also, a small, white ear-hole. Her color- 
ing is flat, being composed of various shades of very light 
brown, with light yellow on the neck. Her appearance is 
quiet, and only attracts attention by its extreme neatness, 
cleanliness and compactness. 

The eggs average about two ounces each. They are smooth, 
of an oval shape, equally rounded at both ends, and of a rich 
buff color, nearly resembling those of the Silver Pheasant. The 
newly-hatched chickens appear very large in proportion to the 
size of the egg. They have light, flesh-colored bills, feet, and 
legs, and are thickly covered with down, of the hue commonly 
called "carroty." They are not less thrifty than any other 
chickens, and feather somewhat more uniformly than either 
the Black Spanish or the Malay. It is, however, most desir- 
able to hatch these — as other large-growing varieties — as early 
in the spring as possible; even so soon as the end of February. 
A peculiarity in the cockerels is that they do not show even 
the rudiments of their tail-feathers till they are nearly full- 
grown. They increase so rapidly in other directions that 
there is no material to spare for the production of these dec- 
ora ive appendages. 

The merits of this breed are such that it may safely" be 
recommended to people residing in the country. For the in- 
habitants of towns it is less desirable, as the light tone of its 
plumage would show every mark of dirt and defilement; and 
the readiness with which they sit would be an inconvenience, 
rather than otherwise, in families with whom perpetual layers 
are most in requisition. Expense apart, they are equal or 
superior to any other fowl for the table; their flesh is delicate, 
white, tender, and well-flavored. 

The Cuckoo. — The fowl so termed in Norfolk, England is, 
very probably, an old and distinct variety; although they are 
generally regarded as mere barn-door fowls — that is, the 
merely accidental result of promiscuous crossing. 

The name probably originated from its barred plumage, 



POULTRY. 385 

which resembles that on the breast of the Cuckoo, The pre- 
vailing color is a slaty blue, undulated, and softly shaded with 
white all over the body, forming bands of various widths. The 
comb is very small; irides, bright orange; feet and legs, light 
flesh color. The hens are of good size; the cocks are large, 
approaching the heaviest breeds in weight. The chickens, at 
two or three months old, exhibit the barred plumage even 
more perfectly than the full-grown birds. The eggs average 
about two ounces each, are white, and of porcelain smooth- 
ness. The newly-hatched chickens are gray, much resembling 
those of the Silver Polands, except in the color of the feet and 
legs. 

This breed supplies an unfailing troop of good layers, good 
sitters, good mothers and good feeders •. and is well worth pro- 
motion in the poultry-yard. 

The Dominique. — This seems to be a tolerably distinct and 
permanent variety, about the size of the common dunghill 
fowL Their combs are generally double — or rose, as it is 
sometimes called — and the wattles small. Their plumage ore- 
sents, all over, a sort of greenish appearance, from a peculiar 
arrangement of blue and v/hite feathers, which is the chief 
characteristic of the variety; although, in some specimens, the 
plumage is invariably gray in both cock and hen. They are 
very hardy, healthy, excellent layers, and capital incubators. 
No fowl have better stood the tests of mixing without deterior- 
ating than the pure Dominique. 

Their name is taken from the island of Dominica, from 
which they are reported to have been imported. Take all in 
all, they are one of the very best breeds of fowl which we have; 
and, although they do not come in to laying so young as the 
Spanish, they are far better sitters and nurses. 

The Dorking. — This has been termed the Capon Fowl of 
England, It forms the chief supply for the London market, 
and is distinguished by a white or flesh-colored smooth leg, 
armed with five, instead of four toes, on each foot. Its flesh 
is extremely delicate, especially after caponization; and it has 
the advantage over some other fowls of feeding rapidly; and 
growing to a very respectable size when properly managed. 

For those who wish to stock their poultry yards with fowls 
83 



386 POULTRY. 

of the most desirable shape and size, clothed in rich and vari' 
gated plumage, and, not expecting perfection, are willing to 
overlook one or two other points, the Speckled Dorkings — so 
called from the town of Surrey, England, which brought them 
into modern repute — should be selected. The hens, in addi- 
tion to the gay colors, have a large, vertically flat comb, which, 
when they are in high health, adds rery much to their brilliant 
appearance, particularly if seen in bright sunshine. The cocks 
are magnificent. The most gorgeous hues are lavished upon 
them, which their great size and peculiarly square-built form 
display to the greatest advantage. Their legs are short; their 
breast broad: there is but a small proportion of offal; and the 
good, profitable flesh is abundant. The cocks may be brought 
to considerable weight, and the flavor and appearance of their 
meat are inferior to none. The eggs are produced in reason- 
able abundance; and, though not equal in size to those of 
Spanish hens, may fairly be called large. 

They are not everlasting layers, but at due or convenient 
intervals manifest the desire of sitting. In this respect, they are 
steady and good mothers when the little ones appear. 

With all these merits, however, they are not found to be a 
profitable breed, if kept thoroughbred and unmixed. Their 
powers seem to fail at an early age. They are also apt to pine 
away and die just at the point of reaching maturity. They 
appear at a certain epoch to be seized with consumption — in 
the Speckled Dorkings, the lungs seem to be the seat of the 
disease. The White Dorkings are, however, hardy and active 
birds, and are not subject to consumption or any other disease. 

As mothers, an objection to the Dorkings is that they are 
too heavy and clumsy to rear the chickens of any smaller and 
more delicate bird than themselves. 

In spite of these drawbacks the Dorkings are still in high 
favor; but a cross is found to be more pi"ofitable than the true 
breeds A glossy, energetic game-cock, with Dorking hens, 
produces chickens in size and beauty little inferior to their 
maternal parentage, and much more robust. The supernu- 
merary toe on each foot almost always disappears with the first 
cross; but it is a point which can very well be spared without 
much disadvantage. In other respects the appearance of the 



POULTRY. 387 

newly hatched chickens is scarcely altered. The eggs of the 
Dorkings are large, pure white, very much rounded, and 
nearly equal in size at each end. The chickens are brown- 
ish-yellow, with a broad stripe down the middle of the back, 
and a narrow one on each side; feet and legs yellow. 

The Black Dorking. — The bodies of this variety are of 
a large size, with the usual proportions of the race, and of a jet 
black color. The neck-feathers of some of the cocks are 
tinged with a bright gold color, and those of some of the hens 
bear a silvery complexion. Their combs are usually double, 
and very short, though sometimes cupped, rose, or single, with 
wattles small; and they are usually very red about the head. 
Their tails are rather shorter and broader than most of the 
race, and they feather rather slowly. Their legs are short and 
black, with five toes on each foot, the bottom of which is some- 
times yellow. The two back toes are very distinct, starting 
from the foot seperately; and there is frequently a part of an 
extra toe between the two. 

This breed commence laying when very young, and are 
very thrifty layers during winter. Their eggs are of a large 
size, and hatch well; they are perfectly hardy, as their color 
indicates, and for the product are considered among the most 
valuable of the Dorking breed. 

The Game Fowl. — It is probable that these fowl, like other 
choice varieties, are natives of India. It is certain that in that 
country an original race of some fowl exists, at the present day, 
bearing in full perfection all the peculiar characteristics of the 
species. In India, as i^ well known, the natives are infected 
with a passion for cock-fighting. These fowls are carefully 
bred for this barbarous amusement, and the finest birds become 
articles of great value. 

The game fowl is one of the most gracefully formed and 
beautifully colored of any of our domestic breeds of poultry; 
and in its form, aspect, and that extraordinary courage which 
characterizes its natural disposition, exhibits all that either the 
naturalist or the sportsman would at once recognize as the 
purest type of high blood, embodying, in short, all the most 
indubitable characteristics of gallinaceous aristocracy. 

The flesh is beautifully white, as well as tender and delicate. 



388 POULTRY. 

The hens are excellent layers, and, although the eggs are under 
the average size, they are not to be surpassed in excellence of 
flavor. Such being the character of this variety of fowl, it 
would doubtless be much more extensively cultivated than it is, 
were it not for the difficulty attending the rearing of the young; 
their pugnacity being such that a brood is scarcely feathered 
before at least one-half are killed or blinded by fighting. 

With proper care, however, most of the difficulties to be 
apprehended may be avoided. It is exceedingly desirable to 
perpetuate the race, for uses the most important and valuable. 
As a cross with other breeds, they are invaluable in improving 
the flavor of the flesh, which is an invariable consequence. The 
plumage of all fowl related to them is increased in brilliancy; 
and they are, moreover, very prolific, and eggs are always 
enriched. 

The Wild Indian Game. — This variety was originally 
imported into this country from Calcutta. The hen has a long 
neck, like a wild goose; neither comb nor wattles; of a dark, 
glossy green color; very short or fan tail; lofty in carriage, 
trim built, and wild in general appearance; legs very large and 
long, spotted with blue; ordinary weight from four and a half 
to six pounds. As a layer, she is equal to any other fowls of 
the game variety. 

The cock stands as high as a large turkey, and weighs nine 
pounds and upward; the plumage is of a reddish cast, inter- 
spersed with spots of glossy green; comb very small; no wat- 
tles; and bill unlike any other foul, except the hen. 

The Spanish Game. — This variety is called the English 
fowl by some writers. It is more slender in the body, the 
neck, the bill, and the legs, than the other varieties, and the 
colors, particularly of the cock, are very bright and showy. 
The flesh is white, tender and delicate, and on this account 
marketable; the eggs are small and extremely delicate. The 
plumage is very beautiful — a clear, dark red, very bright, 
extending from the back to the extremities, while the breast is 
beautifully black. The upper convex side of the wing is equally 
red and black, and the whole of the tail-feathers white. The 
beak and legs are black; the eyes resemble jet beads, very full 



POULTRY. 389 

and brilliant; and the whole contour of the head gives a most 
ferocious expression. 

The Spangled Hamburgh. — The Spangled Hamburgh fowl 
are divided into two varieties, the distinctive characteristics 
being slight, almost dependent upon color; these varieties are 
termed the Gold and Silver Spangled. 

The Golden Spangled is one of no ordinary beauty; it is 
well and very neatly made, has a good body, and no very great 
offal. On the crest, immediately above the beak, are two small, 
fleshy horns, resembling, to some extent, an abortive comb. 
Above the crest, and occupying the place of a comb, is a very 
large brown or yellow tuft, the feathers composing it darkening 
toward their extremities. Under the insertion of the lower 
mandible — or that portion of the neck corresponding to the 
chin in man — is a full, dark-colored tuft, somewhat resembling 
a beard. The wattles are very small; the comb, as in other 
high crested fowls, is very diminutive; the skin and flesh white. 
The hackles on the neck are of a brilliant orange, or golden 
yellow; and the general ground color of the body is of the 
same hue, but somewhat darker. The thighs are of a dark 
brown or blackish shade, and the legs and feet are of a bluish 
gray. 

In the Silver Spangled variety, the only perceptible differ- 
ence is that the ground color is a silvery white. The extremity 
and a portion of the extreme margin of each feather are black, 
presenting, when in a state of rest, the appearance of regular 
semicircular marks, or spangles — and hence the name, 
"Spangled Hamburgh;" the varieties being termed gold or 
silver, according to the prevailing color being bright yellow or 
silvery white. 

The eggs are of moderate size, but abundant; chickens 
easily reared. In mere excellence of flesh and as layers, they 
are inferior to the Dorking or Spanish. They weigh from four 
and a half to five and a half pounds for the male, and three 
and a half for the female. The former stands some twenty 
inches in height, and the latter about eighteen inches. 

The Malay. — This majestic bird is found on the peninsula 
from which it derives its name, and, in the opinion of many, 
forms a connecting link between the wild and domesticated 



390 POULTRY. 

races of fowls. Something very like them is, indeed, still to be 
found in the East. This native Indian bird — the Gigantic 
Cock, the Kulm Cock of Europeans — often stands considerably 
more than two feet from the crown of the head to the ground. 
The comb extends backward in a line with the eyes; it is thick, 
a little elevated, rounded upon the top, and has almost the 
appearance of having been cut off. The wat:les of the under 
mandible are comparatively small, and the thror.;: is bare. Pale, 
golden-reddish hackles ornament the hcr.d, ne::k, and upper 
part of the back, and some of these spring before the bare part 
of the throat. The middle of the brxk and smaller wing- 
coverts are deep chestnut, the webs of the feathers disunited; 
pale reddish-yellow, long, drooping hackles cover the rump and 
base of the tail, which last is very ample, and entirely of a 
glossy green, of which color are the wing-coverts; the secon- 
daries and quills are pale reddish-yellow on the outer webs. All 
the under parts are deep glossy blackish-green, with high re- 
flections; the deep chestnut of the base of the feathers appears 
occasionally, and gives a mottled and interrupted appearance 
to those parts. 

The weight of the Malay in general, exceeds that of the 
Cochin-China; the male weighing, when full-grown, from eleven 
to twelve, and even thirteen pounds, and the female from eight 
to ten pounds; height, from twenty-six to twenty-eight inches. 
They present no striking uniformity of plumage, being of all 
shades, from black to white; the more common color of the 
female is a light reddish-yellow, with sometimes a faint tinge of 
dunnish-blue, especially in the tail. 

The cock is frequently of a yellowish -red color, with black 
intermingled in the breast, thighs and tail. He has a small, 
but thick comb, generally inclined to one side; he should be 
snake-headed, and free from the slightest trace of top-knot; the 
wattles should be extremely small, even in an old bird; the legs 
are not feathered, as in the case of the Shanghaes, but, like 
them and the Cochir-Chinas, his tail is small compared with 
his size. In the female there is scarcely any show of comb 
or wattles. Their legs are long and stout; their flesh is very 
well flavored, when they have been properly fattened; and 
their eggs are so large and rich that two of them are equal to 
three of those of our ordinary fowls. 



POULTRY. 391 

The Malay cock, in his perfection, is a' remarkable courage- 
ous and strong bird. His beak is very thick, and he is a for- 
midable antagonist when offended. His crow is loud, harsh 
and prolonged, as in the case of the Cochin-China, but broken 
off abruptly at the termination; this is quite characteristic of 
the bird. 

The chickens are at first very strong, with yellow legs, and 
are thickly covered with light brown down; but, by the time 
they are one-third grown, the increase of their bodies has so far 
outstripped that of their feathers, that they are half naked about 
their back and shoulders, and extremely susceptible of cold and 
wet. The great secret of rearing them is to have them hatched 
Very early indeed, so that they may have safely passed through 
this period of unclothed adolescence during the dry and sunny 
part of May and June, and reached nearly their full stature 
before the midsummer rains descend. 

The Plymouth Rock. — This name has been given to a very 
good breed of fowls, produced by crossing a China cock with a 
hen, a cross between the fawn-colored Dorking, the Great 
Malay, and the Wild Indian. 

At a little over a year old, the cocks stand from thirty-two 
to thirty-five inches high, and weigh about ten pounds; and the 
pullets from six and a half to seven pounds each. The latter 
commence laying when five months old, and prove themselves 
very superior layers. Their eggs are of a medium size, rich, 
and reddish-yellow .in color. Their plumage is rich and varie- 
gated; the cocks usually red and speckled, and the pullets dark- 
ish brown. The have very fine flesh, and are fit for the table 
at an early age. The legs are very large, and usually blue or 
green, but occasionally yellow or white, generally having five 
toes upon each foot. Some have their legs feathered, but this 
is not usual. They have large and single combs and wattles, 
large cheeks, rather short tails, and small wings in proportion 
to their bodies. 

They are domestic and not so destructive to gardens as 
smaller fowls. There is the same uniformity in size and gene- 
ral appearance, at the same age of the chickens, as in those of 
the pure bloods of primary races. 

The Poland. — The Poland, or Polish fowl, is quite unknown 



392 POULTRY. 

in the country which would seem to have sugges'/.J the name, 
which originated from some fancied resemblance bfiween its 
tufted crest and the square-spreading crown of t>.«? feathered 
caps worn by the Polish soldiers. 

The Polish are chiefly suited for keeping in a small way, 
and in a clean and grassy place. They are certainly not so fit 
for the farm-yard, as they become blinded and miserable with 
dirt. Care should be exercised to procure them genuine, since 
there is no breed of fowls more disfigured by mongrelism than 
this. They will, without any cross-breeding, occasionally pro- 
duce white stock that are very pretty, and equally good for lay- 
ing. If, however, an attempt is made to establish a separate 
breed of them, they become puny and weak. It is, therefore, 
better for those who wish for them to depend upon chance; 
every brood almost of the black produces one white chicken, 
as strong and as lively as the rest. 

These fowls are excellent for the table, the flesh being 
white, tender and juicy; but they are quite unsuitable for be- 
ing reared in any numbers, or for general purposes, since they 
are so capricious in their growth, frequently remaining station- 
ary in this respect for a whole month, getting no larger; and 
this, too, when they are about a quarter or half grown — the 
time of their life when they are most liable to disease. As 
aviary birds, they are unrivalled among fowls. Their plumage 
often requires a close inspection to appreciate its elaborate 
beauty; the confinement and fretting seem not uncongenial to 
their health; and their plumage improves in attractiveness with 
almost every month. 

The great merit, however, of all the Polish fowls is that 
for three or four years they continue to grow and gain in size, 
hardiness and beauty — the male birds especially. This fact 
certainly points out a very wide deviation in constitution from 
these fowls which attain their full stature and perfect plumage 
in twelve or fifteen months. The similarity of coloring in the 
two sexes — almost a specific distinction of Polish and, perhaps, 
Spanish fowls — also separates them from those breeds, like the 
Game, in which the cocks and hens are remarkably dissimilar. 
Their edible qualities are as superior, compared with other 
fowls, as their outward apparel surpasses in elegance. They 



POULTRY. 393 

have also the reputation of being everlasting layers, which 
further fits them for keeping in small enclosures; but, in this 
respect, individual exceptions arc often encountered — as in the 
case of the Hamburghs — however truly the habit may be 
ascribed to the race. 

There are four known varieties of the Polish fowl, one of 
which ai)pears to be lost to this country. 

The Silver Pheasant. — This variety of fowls is remarkable 
for great brilliancy of plumage and diversity of colors. On a 
white ground, which is usually termed silvery, there is an 
abundance of black spots. The feathers on the upper part of 
the head are much longer than the rest, and unite together in 
a tuft. They have a small, double comb, and the wattles are 
also comparatively small. A remarkable peculiarity of the cock 
is that there is a spot of blue color on the cheeks, and a range 
of feathers under the throat, which has the appearance of a 
collar. 

The hen is a smaller bird, with plumage similar to that of 
the cock, and at a little distance seems to be covered with 
scales. On the head is a topknot of very large size, which 
droops over it on every side. The Sihcr Pheas.-.nts are beau- 
tiful and showy birds, and chiefly valuable as ornamental 
appendages to the poultry ya::i\. 

The Spanish. — This name is said to be? '. misnomer, as the 
breed in question was originally brought by th^' Spaniards from 
the West Indies; and, although subsequently propagated in 
Spain, it has for some time been very difficult to procure good 
specimens from that country. From Spr.in, they were taken in 
considerable numbers into Holland, where they have been care- 
fully bred for many years; and it is from that quarter that our 
best fowls of this variety come. 

The Spanish is a noble race of fowls, possessing many mer- 
its; of spirited and animated appearance; of considerable size; 
excellent for the table, both in whiteness of flesh and skin, and 
also in flavor; and laying exceedingly large eggs in consider- 
able numbers. Among birds of its own breed it is not defic- 
ient in courage; though it yields, without showing much fight, 
to those which have a dash of game blood in their veins. It is 
a general favorite in all large cities, for the additional advan- 



394 POULTRY. 

tage that no soil of smoke or dirt is apparent on its plumage. 

The thoroughbred birds should be entirely black, as far as 
feathers are concerned; and, when in high condition, display a 
greenish, metallic lustre. The combs of both cock and hen 
are exceedingly large, of a vivid and most brilliant scarlet; that 
of the hen droops over upon one side. Their most singular 
feature is a large, white patch, or ear-hole, on the cheek — in 
some specimens extending over a great part of the face — of a 
fleshy substance, similar to the wattle; it is small in the female, 
but large and very conspicuous in the male. This marked 
contrast of black, bright red, and white, makes the breed of 
the Spanish cock as handsome as that of any variety which we 
have; in the genuine breed the whole form is equally good. 

Spanish hens are celebrated as good layers, and produce 
very large, quite white eggs, of a peculiar shape, being very 
thick at both ends, and yet tapering off a little at each. They 
are, by no means, good mothers of families, even when they do 
sit — which they will not often condescend to do — proving very 
careless, and frequently trampling half their brood under foot. 
The inconveniences of this habit are, however, easily obviated 
by causing the eggs to be hatched by some more motherly hen. 

Fowls for Layers. — The layers must be of a breed that 
affords chickens easily reared, for success in the nursery depart- 
ment is all-important; they must be at the head of the list of 
prolific layers of fair-sized eggs. None but a non-sitting race 
will answer, for sitters make fully double the labor during 
half of the year; and the feathers must be light, because dark 
ones show badly when chickens are dressed. There is at pres- 
ent no breed that fulfills all these conditions so well as the 
White Leghorn. It may degenerate in time, as other races of 
fowls have done, by being bred for fancy instead of utility, but 
it possesses now more vigor than any other non-sitting breed. 
In breeding poultry, show and utility do not get on well 
together in the long run. To fanciers unquestionably belongs 
the credit of originating improved breeds, but afterwards, in 
fixing conventional points for the show-room, the stock is 
often ruined on our hands. To prevent the freezing of their 
combs and wattles during severe winters, they should be 
"dubbed" when the birds are two thirds grown. The opera- 



POULTRY. 395 

tion is not so painful as might appear, and, if shears are used, 
the blood-vessels are pinched, and but little blood will flow. 

The layers are relied upon to produce the principal part of 
the income, and, as they are chief in point of numbers, the 
detached stations where they are kept from the main part of 
the establishment, to which the breeding and sitting depart- 
ments are merely tributary. Most of the layers must be kept 
only until the age of from fifteen to twenty months, and then 
killed for sale, and their places supplied by young pullets. 
This course is necessary, because the yield of eggs is greatest 
during the first laying season if the hens are of an early-matur- 
ing breed, and are fed high, and stimulated to the utmost, as 
they must be, to secure the highest profit. For though hens 
are still vigorous at two years, it will be found that after a 
course of forcing to their greatest capacity through the first 
season,' they cannot be made to lay profusely during the 
second. If we choose not to put on the full pressure of diet 
the first year, but to feed moderately high for two or three 
years, a fair yield of eggs would be afforded during each. 
But such a course would not pay so well as to keep pullets 
only, and maintain a forcing system constantly from the time 
they commence to lay until they stop, and then market them 
before they eat up the profits in the idleness of fall and winter. 
Pullets grow fast during the early part of their lives, and give 
a return in flesh for what they eat then. After they commence 
laying, their eggs are prompt dividends, and, besides, their 
bodies increase in weight until the age of a year or more. 
Young hens may be killed a fortnight after ceasing to lay, and 
if they have been skillfully fed, their flesh will prove excellent 
for the table as compared with fowls that are two or three years 
old. It is no wonder that there is little liking for the adult 
fowls the markets ordinarily afford, for they comprise many 
that are very old and unfit for food. But regular customers 
will soon approve fowls a year old, which have been supplied 
with the cleanest food, and brought to just the proper fatness, 
and delivered freshly killed and neatly dressed, and our experi- 
ence proves that the families upon the egg route will order 
all that the establishment has to dispose of. The high-pressure 
mode of feeding and turning off while yet young, is then the 



$96 POULTRY. 

true policy. The point is, there is a certain consumption of 
food to enable an animal to keep alive. The ordinary vital 
operation, aside from laying or increase of size, demand force, 
obtained through food — which is money — and we should aim 
to support only such fowls as are all the while giving returns 
in either growth or eggs. The long period of moulting and 
recovering from its consequent exhaustion, costs, as does the 
maintenance of the vital fires during the cold of winter. It 
is a matter of quick balancing of profits and expenses with 
animals, which, like fowls, consume the value of their bodies in 
about six months. If it is urged that the stimulating diet and 
unnatural prolificness will subject the stock to disease, the 
reply is that the regimen is not continued more than six or 
eight months, and in that time evil effects will not ordinarily 
follow, for the birds are allowed freedom, sun, and air, and 
special provision is made for daily exercise. As none of the 
fowls to which this forcing system is applied leave descendants, 
no evil effects are accumulated and entailed upon the stock. 
The layers are from the eggs of fowls that have not been sub- 
jected to any such pressure, and during the period of their 
principal growth they have been given a nutritious but not 
especially stimulating food — like a colt at pasture. When they 
arrive at the laying age, they are kept like the horse — broken 
to work, and put to constant and severe labor, and fed as high 
as he will bear. 

Fowls and Sitters. — The sitters are of a breed chosen for 
persistence and regularity in incubation, fidelity to their chick- 
ens, and gentleness of disposition. The Light Brahmas can 
not be excelled for hatching and rearing. Pure bloods, how- 
ever, are not used; but to give less awkwardness and greater 
spread of wings, they are crossed with snow-white barn-yard 
fowls. The half-bloods resemble the Brahmas the most in 
form and other characteristics, and are almost uniformly docile. 
The half-blood Brahmas are extremely valuable for hatching 
and taking care of chickens. The results of the labors of 
poultry fanciers in producing two such breeds as the White 
Leghorns and Light Brahmas are enough to compensate for 
all the humbug practiced by many members of the guild. The 
sitters are not kept at detached stations like the layers, for 



POULTRY. 897 

several reasons. One is, they should all be near together, be- 
cause of the great amount of attendance necessary in connec- 
tion with hatching. Then the buildings should be large enough 
for the keeper to enter, in order to take care of the nests and 
chickens, but the size of the structure and the risk of jaring 
eggs will prevent moving. Nor can the system of indirect feed- 
ing and no yards be pursued, for the sitters should be fed at 
the attendant's feetj and tamed so as to submit quietly to the 
handling they receive while hatching and rearing. Their yards 
are sufficiently large to admit of exercise, and for the same 
reason their dry grain is buried in the ground or under straw. 
In very cold weather they are confined to their houses for 
warmth, and are given a stimulating diet to promote winter 
laying, not so much for the value of the eggs as to render it 
certain that there shall be a considerable number of birds ready 
to sit in February, and many more in March. The fowls 
chiefly depended upon for this, consist of the earliest pullets 
of the previous year, and also the old hens that have been em- 
ployed much of the time the preceeding summer in hatching 
two or three broods. The prevention of laying by hatching 
and rearing, causes birds thus occupied to lay earlier the next 
season. By a little management there is no difficulty in pro- 
curing plenty of offers to sit from February to June. One 
half the sitting stock are two years old, and of the pullets of 
the sitting class raised yearly, some are hatched in February 
and March, and some in the first week of September, the bet- 
ter to secure sitting in various parts of the year. Except in 
winter, the sitters should not be fed with a view to encourage 
laying, but the aim should be to keep them on as moderate an 
allowance as possible, and not have them become poor. Their 
specific purpose is incubation, and they should be made to do 
as much of this as possible. By uniting broods, when a hen 
has hatched one nest full of eggs she may be given another 
immediately, and, if managed rightly, she will not be injured 
by sitting a double term. Each hen must hatch two broods 
per year at least, and some will hatch three. In this way the 
stock of 500 sitters will produce 10,000 chickens yearly, or an 
average of 20 apiece. 

Management of Breeding; StocK.— The proper management 



POULTRY. 

of the breeding stock is a very important part of the scheme, 
for there must annually be raised a large supply of pullets of 
the right quality. The profits of the establishment depend 
largely on the excellence of the fowls, and as they can be mul- 
tiplied very fast from a chosen few, no pains should be spared 
to secure the very best as a source from which to stock the 
whole farm. There is but one way to do this, and that is to 
keep individual birds in experimental yards in order to test 
their merits, recording the degree of excellence and the pedi- 
gree of the best with as much care as would be given to breed- 
ing cows or horses. 

We will suppose it is designed to produce a strain of Leg- 
horns that shall excel in prolificness, laying at an early age, 
and in other requisites. Procure a pullet from A and a cock- 
erel from B, and put them in yard No. i; purchase from C and 
D one bird from each, for yard No. 2, and so on, always taking 
care that no specimens are obtained from any locality where 
disease has prevailed. The smaller breeding yards are used as 
experimental yards, and to allow each cock a proper number 
of mates, two or more half-blood Brahmas pullets (whose eggs 
can be distinguished by their color) are added. Give each 
Leghorn a name or number, and enter in a book all details 
necessary for testing progress in improving the breed, such as 
weight, the age at which laying commenced, and the yield of 
eggs during the first year, at the expiration of which banish all 
but the best hens. The second year set the eggs of the reserved 
extra fowls, and keep the chickens produced by each pair sep- 
arate from all others. At the age of five or six months, cull 
out the most promising pullets and cockerels, and pair them 
for testing and recording pedigree and prolificness as before. 
By mating the produce of the original birds from A and B with 
the produce of those from C and D, finally the four stocks will 
become blended in one. Proceed in this manner a number of 
years, and when in the course of time a very extra prolific and 
vigorous hen has been found, which reached full size and com- 
menced laying early, and whose ancestry have excelled in the 
same respects for several generations, as shown by the book, 
then from her eggs cocks are raised from which to breed to 
replenish the main stock of layers at the itenirant stations. 



POULTRY. 399 

These cocks are put in the large breeding yards, each with a 
flock of ten hens, and no further accounts are kept of the pro- 
hficness of individuals. 

After new stock is introduced to the experimental yards, as 
must be done yearly, care is taken for a series of years to avoid 
breeding akin, and as purchases will be made from fanciers, 
who to fix the conventional points have most likely bred close 
and impaired strength, crossing will immediately give a decided 
increase of vigor. Towards the last, however, when sufficient 
stamina has been gained, and the stations are to be stocked, 
close breeding is resorted to. This is to increase the yield of 
eggs. 

In the breeding and experimental yards, the fowls must be 
fed and managed in every respect with the greatest care. Over- 
fattening is to be deprecated above all other things, and may 
be avoided by burying all the grain to make the birds exercise 
by scratching. The supply of grain should be moderate ; meat 
should be given very often in very small quantities, and the 
allowance of fresh vegetables should be ample. Free range 
would be very desirable for all the breeders, but, as it is im- 
practicable, scrupulous care must be taken to furnish artifi- 
cially natural conditions. Though the birds of the laying class 
in the experimental yards are rated according to their prolific- 
ness, yet the test is merely a relative one, for they are not forced 
to profuse laying by stimulating food. 

Food. — The food of hens may consist of different kinds of 
grain, either broken, ground or cooked; roots, and, especially, 
boiled potatoes, are nutritious and economical- green herbage, 
as clover and many of the grains; chickweed, lettuce, cabbage, 
etc., will supply them with much of their food, if fresh and 
tender. Though not absolutely essential to them, yet nothing 
contributes so much to their laying, as unsalted, animal food. 
This is a natural aliment, as is shown by the avidity with which 
they pounce on every fly, insect or earth worm which comes 
within th-ir reach. It would not, of course, pay to supply them 
with valuable meat, but the blood and offal of the slaughter 
houses, refuse meat of all kinds, and, especially, the scraps or 
crackings to be had at the melter's shops, after soaking for a 
few hours in warm water, is one of the best and most economi- 



400 POULTRY. 

cal kinds of food. Such, with boiled-meal, is a very fattening 
food. Grain is at all times best for them when ground and 
cooked, as they will lay more, fat quicker, and eat much less 
when it is fed to them in this state; and it may be thus used 
unground, with the same advantage to the fowls, as if first' 
crushed, as their digestive organs are certain to extract the 
whole nutriment. All grain is food for them, including millet, 
rice, the oleaginous seeds, as the sunflower, flax, hemp, etc. 
It is always better to afford them a variety of grain, where they 
can procure them at their option, and select as their appetite 
craves. 

They are also fond of milk, and indeed scarcely any edible 
escapes their notice. They carefully pick up the most of the 
waste garbage around the premises, and glean much of their 
/subsistence from what would otherwise become offensive, and 
by their destruction of innumerable insects and worms, they 
render great assistance to the gardener. Of course their ever 
busy propensity for scratching is indiscriminately indulged 
just after the seeds have been planted and while the plants are 
young, which renders it necessary that they be confined in 
some close yard for a time; yet this should be as capacious as 
possible. Their food, if cooked, is better when given to them 
warm, not hot; and no more fed at a time than they will pick 
up clean. Besides their food, hens ought to be at all times 
abundantly supplied with clean water, egg or pounded oyster 
shells, old mortar, or slaked lime. If not allowed to run at 
large where they can help themselves, they must also be fur- 
nished with gravel to assist their digestion; and a box or bed 
of ashes, sand and dust, is equally essential to roll in for the 
purpose of ridding themselves of vermin. 

Hen House. — The hen house may be constructed in various 
ways to suit the wishes of the owner, and, when tastefully built, 
it is an ornament to the premises. It should be perfectly dry 
throughout, properly lighted with glass windows in the roof, if 
possible, and capable of being made tight and warm in winter, 
yet afford all the ventilation desirable at any season. In this, 
arrange the nest in boxes on the sides in such a manner as to 
humor the instinct of the hen for concealment when she resorts 
t,o thera. When desirable to set the hen, these nests may be so 



POULTRY. 40^ 

placed as to shut out the others, yet open into another yard or 
beyond the enclosure, so that they can take an :>ccasionaI 
stroll and help themselves to food, etc. This prevjnts other 
hens laying in their nests while sitting, and may be easily 
managed, by having their boxes hung on the wall of he build- 
ing, with a movable door made to open on either sid at pleas- 
ure. Hens will lay without a nest egg, but, when brok :n up, 
they ramble off and form new nests, if they are not confined. 
They will lay if kept from the cock, but it is doubtful if they 
will thus yield as many ep;gs. Hens disposed to sit at improper 
times, should be dismissed from the common yard, so as to be 
out of reach of the nests, and plentifully fed till weaned from 
this inclination. 

The Chickens. — The chickens require to be kept v/arm and 
dry for the first few days after hatching, and they may be fed 
with hard boiled eggs, crumbs of bread or pudding, and milk 
or water, and allowed to scratch in the gravel in front of the 
hen, which should be confined in a coop for the first three or 
four weeks, after which they may be turned loose, when they 
will thrive on anything the older ones eat. Many use them 
for the table when they are but a few weeks old; but they are 
much less valuable for this purpose till they have attained to 
near or quite full maturity. The white legs are preferred by 
some, from the whiteness and apparent delicacy of the meat; 
but the yellow and dark-legged are good. The color of the 
feathers does not seem to affect the quality of the flesh or their 
character for laying. If we consider the principle of the 
' absorption and retention of heat, we should assume the white 
coat to be the best, as it is coolest in summer when exposed to 
the sun, and warmest in winter. Yet some of the white breeds 
are delicate and do not bear rough usage or exposure. 

The Turkey. — Unknown to the civilized world till the dis- 
covery of this Continent, it was found here both in its wild and 
domesticated state, and still occupies the whole range of the 
Western Hemisphere, though the wild turkey disappears as the 
country becomes settled. The wild is about the size of the 
domesticated bird. The color of the male is generally of a 
greenish brown, approaching to black, and of a rich, change- 
able, metallic lustre. The hen is marked somewhat like the 
24 



403 POULTRY. 

cock, but with duller hues. Domestication through successive 
generations has changed the color of their plumage, and pro- 
duced a variety of colors — black, buff, pure white, or speckled. 
They give evidence to the comparative recency of their domes- 
tication in the instinct which frequently impels the cock to 
brood and take care of the young. Nothing is more common 
than for the male bird to supply the place of the hen, when any 
accident befalls her, and bring up the family of young chicks 
with an equally instinctive regard for their helplessness and 
safety. The flesh of this bird, both wild and tame, is exceed- 
ingly delicate and palatable; and, though not possessing the 
high game flavor of some of the smaller wild fowl, and especi- 
ally of the aquatic, as the canvas-back duck, etc., it exceeds 
them in its digestibility and healthfulness. The turkey is use- 
ful principally for its flesh, as it seldom lays over a nest full of 
eggs at one clutch, when they brood on these and bring up 
their young. If full fed, and their first eggs are withdrawn 
from them, they frequently lay a second time. We have had 
them lay throughout the summer and into late autumn. 

Breeding. — Those intended for breeders should be com- 
pact, vigorous, and large, without being long-legged. They 
should be daily, yet lightly, fed, through the winter, on grain 
and roots, and some animal food is always acceptable and 
beneficial to them. They are small-eaters, and without caution 
will soon get too fat. One vigorous male will suffice for a 
flock of ten or twelve hens, and a single connection is sufficient 
for each. They begin to lay on approach of warm weather, 
laying once a day, or every other day, till they have completed 
their clutch, which, in the young or indifferently fed, may be 
ten or twelve, and, in the older ones, sometimes reaches twenty. 
The hen is sly in secreting its nest, but usually selects a dry, 
well protected place. She is an inveterate sitter, and carefully 
hatches most of her eggs. The young may be allowed to 
remain for twenty-four hours without eating, then fed with hard 
boiled eggs, made fine, or crumbs of wheat bread. Boiled 
milk, curds, buttermilk, etc., are food for them. As they get 
older, oats or barley meal is suitable, but Indian meal, uncooked, 
is hurtful to them when quite young. They are very tender, 
and will bear neither cold nor wet, and it is of course necessary 



POULTRY. 403 

to confine the old one for the first few weeks. When able to 
shift for themselves, they may wander over the fields at pleas- 
ure; and, from their great fondness for insects, they will rid the 
meadows from innumerable grasshoppers, etc., which often do 
incalculable damage to the farmer. Early chicker. . are suffic- 
iently grown to fatten the latter part of autumn or the begin- 
ning of winter, which is easily done on any of the grains or 
boiled roots. The grain is better for cooking. They require a 
higher roosting place than hens, and are impatient of too close 
confinement, preferring the ridge of a barn, or a lofty tree, to 
the circumscribed limits of the ordinary poultry house. When 
rightly managed and fed, turkeys are subject to few maladies, 
and even these careful attention will soon remove. 

The Peacock and Guinea Hen. — The peacock is undoubt- 
edly the most showy of the feathered race. It is a native of 
the southern part of Asia, and is still found wild in the islands 
of Java and Ceylon, and some parts of the interior of Africa. 
They are an ornament to the farm premises, and are useful in 
destroying reptiles, insects and garbage, but they are quarrel- 
some in the poultry yard and destructive in the garden. Their 
flesh is coarse and dark, and they are worthless as layers. The 
brilliant silvery green, and their ever-varying colors give place 
to an entire white in one of the varieties. 

The Guinea hen is a native of Africa and the southern part 
of Asia, where it abounds in its wild state. Most of them are 
beautifully and uniformly speckled, but occasionally they are 
white on the breast, like the Pintados of the West India 
Islands, and some are entirely white. They are unceasingly 
garrulous, and their excessively pugnacious character renders 
them uncomfortable inmates with the other poultry. Their 
flesh, though high colored, is delicate and palatable, but, like 
the peacock, they are indifferent layers. Both are natives of a 
warm climate, and the young are tender and rather difficult to 
rear. Neither of these birds is a general favorite, and we omit 
further notice of them. 

The Goose. — There are many varieties of the goose. Main 
enumerates twenty-two, most of which are wild; and the tame 
are again variously subdivided. The common white and gray 
are the most numerous and profitable. The white Bremen is 



404 POULTRY. 

much larger, often weighing over twenty pounds net. It is of 
a beautiful snowy plumage, is domestic, and reared without 
difficulty, though not as prolific and hardy as the former. The 
China goose is smaller than the gray, and one of the most 
beautiful of the family, possessing much of the gracefulness 
and general appearance of the swan. There are three varieties 
of these in the United States; the small brown, with black bill 
and legs; the larger gray, with black bill and reddish legs; and 
the pure white, with orange bill and legs. It is prolific and 
tolerably hardy, but has thus far not been a successful rival 
with the first. The Guinea or African goose is the largest of 
the species. It is a majestic and graceful bird, and very 
ornamental to water scenery. Several other varieties are 
domesticated in the United States. The finest goslings we 
have ever reared or seen were a cross from the China gander 
and common gray goose. They are very hardy and easy to 
raise. 

Breeding. — Geese pair frequently at one year old, and 
rear their young; but with some kinds, especially of the wild, 
this is deferred till two and sometimes three. They require a 
warm, dry place for their nests, and when undisturbed they 
will sit steadily, and if their eggs have not been previously 
chilled or addled, they will generally hatch them all, if kept on 
the nest. To insure this, it is sometimes necessary to with- 
draw the first hatched, to prevent the old ones wandering 
before all are out. They should be kept in a warm, sheltered 
place till two or three weeks old, if the weather be cold or 
unsettled. The best food for the goslings is barley or oats, or 
Indian meal boiled, and bread. Milk is also good for them. 
They require green food, and are fond of lettuce, young clover, 
and fresh, tender grass, and after a few weeks, if they have a 
free range on this, they will forage for themselves. Geese are 
not a profitable bird to raise,' except in places where they can 
procure their own subsistence, or at least during the greater 
part of the year. This they are enabled to do wherever there 
are extensive commons of unpastured lands, or where there are 
streams or ponds, lakes or marshes, with shoal, sedgy banks. 
In these they will live and fatten throughout the year, if 
unobstructed by ice and snow. 



POULTRY. 405 

They may be fattened on all kinds of grain and edible 
roots, but it is more economical to give them their food 
cooked. The well-fattened gosling affords one of the most 
savory dishes for the table. Geese live to a great age. They 
have been known to exceed forty years. When allowed a free 
range on good food and clean water, they will seldom get 
diseased. When well fed, they yield nearly a pound of good 
feathers in a season, at three or four pluckings, and the largest 
varieties even exceed this. But plucking is a cruel business, 
and should not be done clocely, and only between the months 
of May and October. Goslings intended for eating should 
not be plucked at all until fatted and killed. 

Ducks — Are more hardy and independent of attention than 
the goose, and they are generally the most profitable. They 
are omnivorous, and greedily devour everything which will 
afford them nourishment, though they seldom forage on the 
grass. They are peculiarily carnivorous, and devour all kinds 
of meat, putrid or fresh, and are especially fond of fish an4 such 
insects, worms, etc., as they can find imbeded in the mud or 
elsewhere. They '.^ill often distend their crop with young 
frogs, almost to the ordinary size of their bodies. Their indis- 
criminate appetites often render them unfit for the table, 
unless fattened out of the reach of garbage and offensive 
matters. An English admiral used to resort to well fattened 
rats for Lis fresh meat, when at sea, and justified his taste by 
saying they were more cleanly feeders than ducks, which were 
general favorites. 

The varieties ou ducks are almost innumerable. Main 
describes thirty-one^ and some naturalists number many more. 
The most profitable for domestic use, aside from the common 
one, are the Black Cayuga, the Aylesbury, and Rouen, all 
being of much larger size, and richer and more delicate flavor 
of flesh. They lay profusely in the spring, when well fed, often 
producing forty or fifty eggs, and sometimes a greater number, 
if kept from sitting. They are much larger than those of the 
hen, and equally rich and nourishing, but less delicate. They 
are careless in their habits, and generally drop their eggs 
wherever they happen to be through the night, whether in the 
water, the road, or farm-yard; and, as might be expected from 



i06 POULTRY. 

such prodigality of character, they are indifferent sitters and 
nurses. The ducklings are better reared by sitting the eggs 
under a sedate, experienced hen, as the longer time necessary 
for hatching requires patience in the foster-mother to develop 
the young chicks. They should be confined for a few days, 
and away from the water. At first they may be fed with bread, 
or pudding made from boiled oat barley, or Indian meal; and 
they soon acquire strength and enterprise enough to shift for 
themselves, if afterwards supplied with pond or river water. 
They are fit for the table when fully grown, and well fattened 
on clean grain. This is more economically accomplished by 
feeding it cooked. We omit further notice of other varieties, 
and of the swan, brant, pigeons, etc., as not profitable for 
general rearing, and only suited to ornamental grounds. 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 

Most of the diseases to which fowls are subject are the 
results of errors in diet or management, and should have been 
prevented, or may be removed by a change, and the adoption 
of a suitable regimen. Wnen an individual is attacked, it 
should be forthwith remo/ed, to prevent the contamination of 
the rest of the flock. Nature, who proves a guardian to fowls 
in health, will nurse them in their weakness, and act as a most 
efficient physician to the sick; and the aim of all medical treat- 
ment should be to follow the indications which Nature holds 
out, and assist in the effort which she constantly makes for the 
restoration of health. 

Asthma. — This common disease seems to differ sufficiently 
in its characteristics to warrant a distinction into two species. 
In one it appears to be caused by an obstruction of the air- 
cells, by an accumulation of phlegm, which interferes with the 
exercise of their functions. The fowl labors for breath, in 
consequence of not being able to take in the usual quantity 
of air at an inspiration. The capacity of the lungs is thereby 
diminished, the lining membrane of the windpipe becomes 
thickened, and its minute branches are more or less affected. 

Another variety of asthma is induced by fright, or undue 
excitement. It is sometimes produced by chasing fowls to 
catch them, by seizing them suddenly, or by their fighting 
with each other. In these cases, a blood-vessel is often 
ruptured, and sometimes one or more of the air-cells. The 
symptoms are short breathing; opening of the beak often, and 
for quite a time; heaving and panting of the chest; and, in 



POULTRY. 407 

case of a rupture of a blood-vessel, a drop of blood appearing 
on the beak. 

Treatment. — Confirmed asthma is difficult to cure. For 
the disease in its incij^ient state, the fowl should be kept warm, 
and treated with repeated doses of hippo-powder and sulphur, 
mixed with butter, with the addition of a small quantity of 
cayenne pepper. 

Costiveness. — The existence of this disorder will become 
apparent by observing the unsuccessful attempts of the fowl tu 
relieve itself. It frequently results from continued feeding on 
dry diet, without access to green vegetables. Indeed, without 
the use of these, or some substitute — such as mashed potatoes 
— costiveness is certain to ensue. The want of a sufficient 
supply of good water will also occasion the disease, on account 
of that peculiar structure of the fowl, which renders them un- 
able to void their urine, except in connection with the faeces of 
solid food, and through the same channel. 

Treatment. — Soaked bread, with warm skimmed milk, is 
a mild remedial agent, and will usually suffice. Boiled carrots 
or cabbage are more efficient. A meal of earth-worms is some- 
times advisable; and hot potatoes, mixed with bacon-fat, are 
said to be excellent. Castor-oil and burned butter will remove 
the most obstinate cases; though a clyster of oil, in addition, 
may sometimes be required in order to effect a cure. 

Diarrhcea. — There are times when fowls dung more losely 
than at others, especially when they have been fed on green or 
soft food; but this may occur without the presence of disease. 
Should this state, however, deteriorate into a confirmed and con- 
tinued laxity, immediate attention is required to guard against 
fatal effects. The causes of diarrhoea are dampness, undue 
acidity in the bowels, or the presence of irritating matter there. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are lassitude and emaciation; 
and, in very severe cases, the voiding of calcareous matter, 
white, streaked with yellow. This resembles the yolk of a stale 
egg, and clings to the feathers near the vent. It becomes acrid, 
from the presence of ammonia, and causes inflammation, which 
speedily extends throughout the intestines. 

Treatment. — This, of course, depends upon the cause. 
If the disease is brought on by a diet of green or soft food, the 
food must be changed, and water sparingly given; if it arises 
from undue acidity, chalk mixed with meal is advantageous, 
but rice-flour boluses are most reliable. Alum water, of mod- 
erate strength, is also beneficial. In cases of bloody flux, boiled 
rice and milk, given warm with a little magnesia, or chalk, may 
be successfully used. 



40^ POULTRY. 

Fever. — The most decided species of fever to which fowls 
are subject, occurs at the period of hatching, when the animal 
heat is often so increased as to be perceptible to the touch. A 
state of fever may also be observed when they are about to lay. 
This is, generally, of small consequence, when the birds are 
otherwise healthy; but it is of moment, if any other disorder is 
present, since, in such case, the original malady will be aggra- 
vated. Fighting also frequently occasions fever which some- 
times proves fatal. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are an increased circulation of 
the blood; excessive heat; and restlessness. 

Treatment. — Light food and change of air; and, if neces- 
sary, aperient medicine, such as castor oil, with a little burnet^ 
butter. 

Indigestion. — Cases of indigestion among fow's &.re c^.u- 
mon, and deserve attention according to the cau: •:„ iiutu which 
they proceed. A change of food will ofter j; '^duce crop-sick- 
ness, as it is called, when the fowl taker Lut little food, and 
suddenly loses flesh. Such disease if ^i little consequence, 
and shortly disappears. When it rer. ^ires attention at all, all 
the symptoms will be removed by r'./ing their diet in a warm 
state. 

Sometimes, however, a fit of mdigestion threatens severe 
consequences, especially if long continued. Every effort should 
be made to ascertain the cause, and the remedy must be gov- 
erned by the circumstances of the case. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are heaviness, moping, keeping 
away from the nest, and want of appetite. 

Treatment. — Lessen the quantity of food, and oblige the 
fowl to exercise in an open walk. Give some powdered cayenne 
and gentian, mixed with the usual food. Iron-rust, mixed with 
soft food, or diffused in water, is an excellent tonic, and is in- 
dicated when there is atrophy, or diminution of the flesh. It 
may be combined with oats or grain. Milk-warm ale has also 
a good effect, when added to the diet of diseased fowls. 

Lice. — The whole feathered tribe seem to be peculiarly lia- 
ble to be infested with lice; and there have been instances 
when fowls have been so covered in this loathsome manner 
that the natural color of the feathers has been undistinguish- 
able. The presence of virmin is not only annoying to poultry, 
but materially interferes with their growth, and prevents their 
fattening. They are, indeed, the greatest drawback to the suc- 
cess and pleasure of the poultry fanciers; and nothing but un- 
remitting vigilance will exterminate them, and keep them exter- 
minated. 



POULTRY. 409 

Treatment. — To attain this, whitewash frequently all the 
parts adjacent to the roosting-pole, take the poles down and 
run them slowly through a fire made of wood shavings, dry 
weeds, or other light waste combustibles. Flour of sulphur, 
placed in a vessel, and set on fire in a close poultry house, will 
penetrate every crevice, and effectually exterminate the vermin 
When a hen comes off with her brood, the old nest should be 
cleaned out, and a new one placed; and dry tobacco leaves, 
rubbed to a powder between the hands, and mixed with the 
hay of the nest, will add much to the health of the poultry. 

Flour of sulphur may also be mixed with Indian meal and 
water, and fed in the proportion of one pound of sulphur to 
two dozen fowls, in two parcels, two days apart. Almost any 
kind of grease, or unctuous matter, is also certain death to the 
vermin of domestic poultry. In the case of very young chick- 
ens, it should only be used in a warm, sunny day, when they 
should be put into a coop wdth their mother, the coop darkened 
for an hour or two, and everything made quiet, that they may 
secure a good rest and nap after the fatigue occasioned by 
greasing them. They should be handled with great care, and 
greased thoroughly; the hen, also. After resting, they may be 
permitted to come out and bask in the sun; and in a few days 
they will look sprightly enough. 

To guard against vermin, however, it should, not be for- 
gotten that cleanliness is of vital importance, and there must 
always be plenty of slacked lime, dry ashes, and sand, easy of 
access to the fowls, in which they can roll and dust themselves. 

Loss of Feathers. — This disease, common to confined fowls, 
should not be confounded with the natural process of moulting. 
In this diseased state, no new feathers come to replace the old, 
but the fowl is left bald and naked; a sort of roughness also 
appears on the skin; there is a falling off in appetite, as well as 
moping and inactivity. 

Treatment. — As this affection is, in all probability, con- 
stitutional rather than local, external remedies may not always 
prove sufficient. Stimulants, however, applied externally, will 
serve to assist the operation of whatever medicine maybe given. 
Sulphur may be thus applied, mixed with lard. Sulphur and 
cayenne, in the proportion of one quarter each, mixed with 
fresh butter, is good to be given internally, and will act as a 
powerful alterative. The diet should be changed; and cleanli- 
ness and fresh air are indispensable. 

Pip. — This disorder, known also as the gapes, is the most 
common ailment of poultry and all domestic birds. It is es- 
pecially the disease of young fowls, and is moSt prevalent in 
the hottest months, being not only troublesome but frequently 
fatal. 



410 POULTRY. 

Symptoms. — The common symptoms of this malady are the 
thickened state of the membrane of the tongue, particularly 
toward the tip, the breathing is impeded, and the beak is fre- 
quently held open, as if the creature Avere gasping for breath; 
the beak becomes yellow at its base; and the feathers on the 
head appear ruffled and disordered; the tongue is very dry; the 
appetite is not always impaired; but yet the fowl cannot eat, 
probably on account of the difficulty which the act involves, 
and sits in a corner, pining in solitude. 

Treatment. — Most recommend the immediate removal of 
the thickened membrane, which can be effected by anointing 
the part with butter or fresh cream. It necessary, the scab 
may be pricked with a needle. It will also be found beneficial 
to use a pill, composed of equal parts of scraped garlic and 
horse-radish, with as much cayenne pepper as will outweigh a 
grain of wheat; to be mixed with fresh butter, and given every 
morning; the fowl to be kept warm. 

If the disease is in an advanced state, shown by the chick- 
en's holding up its head and gaping for want of breath, the 
fowl should be thrown on its back, and while the neck is held 
straight, the bill should be opened, and a quill inserted into the 
tvindpipe, with a little turpentine. This being round, will 
loosen and destroy a number of small, red worms, some of 
which will be drawn up by the feather, and others will be 
coughed up by the chicken. The operation should be repeated 
*.he following day, if the gaping continues. If it ceases, the 
ture is effected. 

It is stated, also, that the disease has been entirely prevented 
by mixing a small quantity of spirits of turpentine with the 
food of fowls, from five to ten drops to a pint of meal, to be 
made into a dough. Another specific recommended is to keep 
iron standing in vinegar, and put a little of the liquid in the 
food every few days. 

Roup. — This disease is caused mainly by cold and moisture, 
but it is often ascribed to improper feeding and want of clean- 
liness and exercise. It affects fowls of all ages, and is either 
acute or chronic; sometimes commencing suddenly, on expos- 
ure; at others gradually, as the consequence of neglected colds, 
or damp weather or lodging. Chronic roup has been known to 
extend through two years. 

Symptoms. — The most prominent symptoms are difiicult 
and noisy breathing and gaping, terminating in a rattling in 
the throat; the head swells, and is feverish; the eyes are swol- 
len, and the eyelids appear livid; the sight decays, and some- 
times total blindness ensues; there are discharges from the 
nostrils and mouth, at first thin and limpid, afterwards thick. 



POULTRY. 411 

puruknt and fetid. In this stage, which resembles the glan- 
dei « n horses, the disease becomes infectious. As secondary 
symptoms, it may be noticed that the appetite fails, except for 
drink; the crop feels hard' the feathers are staring, ruffled, and 
without the gloss that appears in health; the fowl mopes by 
itself, and seems to suffer much pain. 

Treatment, — The fowls shoulc^ be kept warm, and have 
plenty of water and scalded bran, or other i'ight f ^od. When 
chronic, change of food and air is advisable. The ordinary 
remedies — such as salt dissolved in water — are inefficacious. A 
solution of oulphate f zinc, as an eye-water, i; .- valuable 
cleansing application. Rue-pills, and a decoction of rue, as a 
tonic, have been administered with appare.it jenefit. 

The following is recomnicnded: of powdered gentian and 
Jamaica ginger, each one part; Epsom salts, one end a half 
parts; and flour of sulphur, one part; to be made up with 
bt7tt=!r and given every morning. 

The following method of treatment is practiced by some of 
thb most successful poulterers in the country: As soon as dis- 
coverc J, sf in warm weather, remove the infected fov/ls to some 
well-venti!^.ted aoartment or yard; if in winter, to some warm 
place; then g^ve a dessert-spoonful of castor-oil; wash their 
heads with warn: CabHle-soap suds, and let *hem remain till 
next morning fasti.,g. Scald for them Indian-meal, adding 
two and a half ounces of Epsom salts for ten hens, or in pro- 
portion for a less or larger number; give it warm, and repeat 
the dose in a d:.y or tw , if tl ey do not recover. 

Perhaps, however, the best mode of dealing with roup and 
all putrid affections is as follows: Take of finely pulverized 
fresh-burnt charcoal, and of n-w yeast, each three part^; of 
pulverized sulphur, two part::, of flour, oae part; of v.ater, a 
sufficient quantity; mix well, ana make into two doses, f^i the 
size of a hazel :.iut, and give one three times a day. Cleanli- 
ness is no less necessary "han warmth; and it will sometimes 
be desiraDle to bathe the eyes and nostrils with warm milk and 
water, or suds, as convenient. 

Wounds and Sorec. — Fowls are exposed to wounds from 
many sources. In their frequent encounters with each other, 
they often result; the poultry-house is beseiged by enemies at 
night, and, in spite of all precaution, rats, weasels and other 
animals will assault the occupants of the roost, or nest, to their 
damage. These wounds, if neglected, often degenerate into 
painful and dangerous ulcers. 

When such injuries occur, Ciea«-.dneos is the first step 
towards a cure. The wound should be cleansed from all 
foreign matter, washed with tepid milk and water, and excluded 
as far as possible from the air. The fowl should be removed 



413 POULTRY. 

from its companions, which, in such cases, seldom or never 
show any sympathy, but on the contary, are always ready to 
assault the invalid, and aggravate the injury. Should the 
wound not heal, but ulcerate, it may be bathed with alum-water. 
The ointment of creosote is said to be effectual, even when 
the ulcer exhibits a fungous character, or proud flesh is present. 
Ulcers may also be kept clean, if dressed with a little lard, or 
washed with a weak solution of sugar of lead. If they are 
indolent, they may be touched with blue-stone. 

When severe fractures occur to the limbs of fowls, the best 
course, undoubtedly, to pursue — unless they are very valuable 
— is to kill them at once, as an act of humanity. When, how- 
ever, it is deemed v/orth while to preserve them, splints may 
be used, when practicable. Great cleanliness must be 
observed; the diet should be reduced; and every precaution 
taken against the inflammation, which is sure to supervene. 
When it is established, cooling lotions — such as warm milk 
and water — may be applied. 



MEDIOIN'i^L. 



The Management of the Sick-Room.— The arrangements 
of the sick-room require attention, and demand special notice. 
They influence very much the result, and may, indeed, where 
faulty, baffle the efforts of medicine. We would lay down the 
following brief rules: — . 

1. Fresh Air, — Secure a full and free change of air with- 
out chilling the patient. According to the state of the weather, 
have the door, or window, or both open. In the summer time 
the upper part of the window of a sick-room should always be 
opened; in cold weather, a fire burning acts as suction-pump 
to draw off the vitiated air of the room, at the same time that 
it diffuses sufficient warmth. To secure purity of air, as well 
as the quiet so necessary for a sick-room, no more persons than 
are required should be in the room. A crowd of people leads 
to gossiping, and often exciting talk. 

2. The temperature of a sick-room should, if possible, be 
maintained as near to 60 ° as possible. In the winter season, 
unless great care is taken, it will easily fall below this. At 
other times of the year it is more readily overheated. 

In some affections of the respiratory organs there is a great 
advantage in cold weather in keeping the air of the room warm 
and moist by the steam from the spout of a kettle. If a piece 
of tin or lead pipe be attached to the spout, the steam can be 
brought further into the room. This plan has the additional 
advantage of securing a tolerably even temperature in the 
room — an important point in the treatment of croup and other 
inflammatory affections of the chest. 

3. Light. — The light should be so adjusted as to be 
moderate, according to the sensibility of the patient Some 



414 MEDICINAL. 

persons when ill like a dark room. This is more particularly 
the case when the head is at all affected. In de.irium, a dark- 
ened chamber has often a very soothing effect. The bed 
should not be so placed that the strong lights fall upon the 
face of the patient. During convalescence, the bright and 
cheerful light of the sun exerts a beneficial restorative 
influence, 

4. Cleanliness. — ^A well-known proverb expresses the 
importance of cleanliness; and, if the proverb apply anywhere, it 
applies still more forcibly in the sick-room. A common error 
is that in eruptive fevers the clothes should not be changed for 
fear of exposure of the surface of the body to a chill. Nothing 
can be more mistaken; the- body linen should not only be 
changed daily, but the bed-linen should also be changed with 
advantage at least every two or three days, and removed from 
the room as quickly as possible. The body should also be 
washed daily. Children suffering from a scarlet fever, measles, 
or typhoid, derive comfort and benefit from their bodies being 
sponged all over daily with warm vinegar and water. 

Lotions. — These may be applied simply by frequently 
washing the surface with them. In scarlet fever the sponging 
with warm vinegar and water allays the irritation and heat of 
the surface, and promotes the healthy functions of the skin. A 
more efficient method for an evaporating lotion is to soak one 
or two layers of soft linen or lint, wet with the lotion, and lay- 
ing them on the surface, wet them again when they become dry. 
The drying takes place through the heat of the surface, the 
more rapidly, the higher the temperature of the part. An 
evaporating lotion is readily made by a wineglassful of gin or 
whisky in a pint of cold water. 

Sedative Lotions. — When the lotion is intended to act 
more by its sedative than by its evaporating effects, it will 
suffice to lay lint or linen soaked in it upon the surface, and 
cover it with oil silk or guttapercha tissue. Spongio-piline is a 
convenient medium for the application of sedative or other 
than evaporative lotions. Care, however, must be taken that 
it is not put on too wet, or the lotion will drain out and wet the' 
clothing or bedding. A sedative lotion is made by boiling half 



MEDICINAL. 415 

a pound of fresh hemlock-leaves, or half a dozen poppy heads, 
in three pints of water down to a pint and a half. 

Ice. — A greater degree of cold is sometimes required to 
be applied to a small aprt of the surface, as in the case of a 
rupture or in fever when the headache and heat of the head are 
extreme. A convenient mod3 of reducing the temperature of a 
part by ice is to pound some small and enclose it in a bladder, 
taking care first to squeeze out the superabundant air, and then 
tie the neck of the bladder very tightly. The water in the 
bladder will continue at the temperature of the ice until every 
particle of it is melted. 

Fomentations. — Fomentations are of a very great value 
in the relief of pain of internal organs and of large joints when 
inflamed. They are part of the nurse's duties which require 
promptitude and judgment. If a large joint — a knee, for 
instance — be inflamed, much benefit is derived from swathing 
the joint in flannels wrung out of hot water, and wrapping these 
in dry outer flannels. Fomentations likewise are of great use 
in inflammation of the chest or of the bowels. The hot, wet 
flannels should be put on quickly, and changed quickly, about 
every five minutes, so as to avoid exposure to the cold air. 
They may be continued half an hour or more if they do not 
fatigue the patient. 

Wet Sheet. — In fevers with great heat of skin, wrapping 
the whole body in a wet sheet, and then enclosing in a blanket 
for an hour or more, will sometimes cause the skin to break 
into a profuse perspiration, reduce the heat of the skin, and 
moderate the pulse. In some affections of the kidney, 
attended with dryness of the skin and absence of perspiration, 
the wet sheet has been known to restore the action of the skin 
and relieve the kidneys. The wet sheet is, however, so much 
a part of the hydropathic treatment of disease that it can 
scarcely be safely or properly used apart from the medical 
supervision with all the means and appliances of a hydropathic 
establishment. 

Poulticing. — So common a thing as a poultice might seem 
beneath notice in such a treatise as the present, but oume hints 
may be given thereon to the nurse. Thus, in making a linseed- 
meal poultice, most persons pour hot water upon the meal. To 



416 MEDICINAL. 

make a smooth, firm poultice, however, the reverse should be 
the plan — viz., to stir the meal into the water. A poultice 
should not be too heavy, especially if to be applied on the 
abdomen. It need not be changed oftener than when it gets 
cold. There are various kinds of poultices — e. g., mustard, 
yeast, carrot, bran, charcoal, bread. 

Bread poultice may be used alone, for most small purposes, 
such as a boil. It will be the basis also of the charcoal and 
carrot poultices. 

Charcoal, bruised or powdered coarsely, and mixed with 
bread poultice, is useful for absorbing offensive odors. 

Scraped carrot, mixed with bread poultice, is used to stimu- 
late a sluggish and sloughing or mortifying surface. 

Yeast, mixed with bread-crumb, forms also a good poultice 
for sluggish and offensive ulcers. 

Mustard poultice, or sinapism, may be made several ways; 
sometimes equal parts of bread-crumb or flour, and mustard 
are used, but the best way is to make a tolerably thick paste 
of mustard and water, spread it on stiff brown paper, and cover 
with thin muslin. This poultice is stronger, but requires to be 
kept on the part a less time than the others. When 
removed, the surface is easily cleansed by a soft towel. A 
handy way of making a mustard plaster is to soak a slice of 
bread in water, and sprikle it with flour of mustard. A ready 
and efficient sinapism is afforded by Rigollot's "mustard 
leaves." 

Blistering Plaster and Liquid. — Blistering a surface 
with cantharides may be effected in two ways; one, by the 
application of the ordinary blister plaster, the other by paint- 
ing with blistering liquid. When the plaster is used it is usual 
to leave it on the skin of an adult for eight or ten hours; when, 
if it has raised a blister, this is to be cut, and the fluid having 
run out, the surface is then to be covered with a piece of fine 
dry wadding or carded wool. This dressing being left on for 
two or three days, the skin will be found healed underneath. 
This plan is simple and less painful than dressing with lard or 
spermaceti ointment. If desirable to "keep the blister open" 
— i. e., its surface discharging — it may be dressed with savine 
ointment spread on lint or linen. 



MEDICINAL. 417 

In the cases of young children, the blister plaster should not 
be allowed to remain longer than two hours, after which period 
a muslin bagful of warm bread-and-water poultice should be 
laid on, and the blister will form under that. After the blister 
has been cut, the surface can either be dressed with continua- 
tion of the poultice, or with dry wool. A warm poultice is a 
most suitable dressing for blisters, when applied for quinsy or 
Other sore throat. 

Blistering Liquid. — As this is intended to be swift in its 
actions, it should be of the strongest kind that can be purchased. 
After it has been painted on for a few minutes the skin will be 
seen to turn white; that is a sign that enough has been painted 
on. In the course of half an hour blisters will begin to form. 
These can be dressed as above directed. This mode of raising 
a blister has many advantages over the plastering. It is speedy 
in its operation, it is cleaner, and it is more manageable for 
children and persons in a state of delirium. For cases of apo- 
plexy or paralysis, where a speedy impression upon the nervous 
centres is desirable, the blistering liquid possesses great advan- 
tage, as it does also in acute rheumatism, in which affection the 
pain is often quickly relieved by having a strip of the liquid 
painted round the limb near to the swollen joint. 

Counter-irritation acts by derivation or diversion of a mor- 
bid action from one part by setting up another equally or more 
powerful influence on the nerves of another part. It places in 
our hands a very powerful means of acting upon diseases of 
internal organs that are not absolutely close to the part acted 
upon, as well as when applied near to the seat of the malady. 
An example of the latter is afforded by the influence of bella- 
donna or aconite on rheumatic or neuralgic pains; of the 
former, in the beneficial effects produced on the brain by a 
blister plaster applied to the nape of the neck. 

Counter-Irritants and External Stimulants. — The 
following are the chief agents of this class mentioned: — 

Blistering plaster. 

Tincture, liniment, and ointment of iodine. 

Compound camphor liniment and turpentine liniment. 

Soap liniment (opodeldoc). 

Nitrate of silver. 



418 MEDICINAL. 

Basilicon ointment. 

Citrine ointment. 
Belladonna liniment. 

The Nurse. — It is not always possible to meet with a well 
trained nurse, even in a large town, while for those who are 
likely to consult the pages of this book it may be an impossi- 
bility to meet with a professional nurse of any kind. The hints 
here given are therefore addressed to those who may be com- 
pelled to be both nurse and doctor, and who in either capacity 
may be beyond the reach of professional or other aid. Cheer- 
fulness and forgetfulness of self are prime requisites in the 
character of the women who undertakes the duties of a nurse. 
Illness makes people selfish, therefore it is the more necessary 
that there should be unselfishness to cope with this weakness. 

A nurse should secure quietness in the sick room, and 
should permit only cheerful conversation — if possible, not too 
much of that. In acute affections of the brain this is a point 
of the highest importance. In haemoptysis, or "spitting of 
blood," strict silence must be enjoined upon the patient, who 
should make use of a pencil for questions or answers. The 
nurse should carefully avoid the narration of doleful tales of 
fearful cases she has seen or heard of, as these depress the 
patient and interfere with recovery. 

Directions for the management of the patient, given by 
those who are responsible for the well-doing of each case 
should be strictly attended to by the nurse. In all severe 
cases of illness, such as fevers, inflammations, accidents, etc., 
a written memorandum should be kept of each time of taking 
food, wine, medicine, etc., with their precise quantities. With- 
out a check of this kind it is very easy to give too much or 
two little, or to transgress directions as to time. It need hardly 
be remarked that sobriety is absolutely indispensable in a 
nurse. This requisite is at once admitted; but many person-s 
do, through false kindness' their very best to banish temper- 
ance from the sick room. They will leave wine and spirit 
bottles open in the room, and expect that they shall not be 
touched. Until nurses in general have gained a much higher 
character than is at present the case, it is safer not to put 
temptation in the way. 



MEDICINAL. 419 

Caution in Use of Stimulants. — Another point in refer- 
ence to this same subject may be mentioned. When stimulants 
are advisable for illness, great care must be taken not only that 
they are judiciously administered as to present quantity, but 
that they are discontinued with regard to future consequences, 
when no longer wanted for immediate requirements. 

Lying-in Room. — Labor. — We assume for the purposes of 
the present work that there is no medical attendant at hand. 
This state of things may and often does occur even in popu- 
lous towns; it is, therefore, more likely to happen in new and 
distant places beyond the reach of medical aid. The posses- 
sion, therefore, of the knowledge what to do on such occasions 
may be the source of the greatest possible comfort in an emer- 
gency, and possibly the means of saving life. Influenced by 
this conviction, then, we shall endeavor to lay down such sim- 
ple rules as shall be found applicable by any one who may find 
him or herself by imperious necessity called upon to act the> 
midwife's part. Happily, in healthy, well-made women, the 
process of childbirth rarely terminates otherwise than safely. 

The principal point during the progress of labor is to keep 
the patient cheerful, and, as far as may be, divert her atten- 
tion from the lapse of time, A light, but not starvation, diet 
should be taken. ■ A first labor is generally far longer in dura- 
tion than subsequent ones. Indeed, second and third and sub- 
sequent labors are often finished in a few minutes by two or 
three pains. Twenty-four hours is not too long a time for a 
natural first labor. It is not requisite here to describe all the 
stages of labor; suffice it to say, that there are certain promon- 
itory symptoms, such as increased irritability of the bladder, a 
sinking of the weight and bulk of the abdomen, and the occur- 
rence of pains "such as' have not been felt before," as they are 
usually graphically and not incorrectly described. At this 
period it is as well to administer a dose of castor-oil if the 
bowels have not acted freely previously. 

The "premonitory" pains, which at first are somewhat irreg- 
ular in their character, become sooner or later changed into 
more severe and more irregular periodical pains, at intervals 
varying from five to ten minutes between, and are at some un- 
certain time followed by a gush of "the waters." These pains, 



420 MEDICINAL. 

which occur generally in the back at first, gradually become 
longer, and are seated more to the front in the abdomen, and 
are more expulsive in character. Moderate allowance of stim- 
ulants should be administered from time to time. A straining 
effort to expel becomes unavoidable. The woman should then 
lie on her left side on a bed properly guarded by a piece of 
waterproof. A pillow placed between the knees will facilitate 
the passage of the head into the world. The feet should be 
fixed against the bedpost or footboard, to which, above the 
feet, a rope or jack-towel has been affixed, so that with each 
pain of the expulsive sort the patient may be enabled to bear 
down the more effectively. This towel or rope should not be 
used before expelling pains set in. 

Management of the New-born Infant. — As soon as 
the child is born, it should be turned with its face upward, so 
that it shall be insured breathing room. Care must be taken 
to pass the navel-string over the child's head, if it be twisted 
round its neck, otherwise it may be strangled thereby. It 
should then be separated from its mother by first tying and 
then dividing the navel-string. The first step, the tying, may 
be done by any strong ligature. Usually half a dozen brown 
threads are used to tie the cord with, but a piece of twine or 
tape will do just as well. The cord or navel-string must be 
tied firmly in two places — first, about two inches from the 
child, and then two inches further, and then by a sharp pair of 
scissors divided between the ligatures. 

In the preceding remarks it has been assumed that medical 
attendance is not to be had. If it be expected in a reasonable 
time, and the child is born before the arrival of the medical 
man, all that will be required will be to secure its being able to 
breathe freely. An infant may be left alone for an hour or two 
under these circumstances without its incurring harm. 

When the child has been expelled and separated, firm pres- 
sure should be made on the lower part of the abdomen, the 
hand grasping the large tumor of the emptied womb. Steady 
pressure being made firmly in a direction downward and back- 
ward, the tumor will be felt to decrease in size, and at the 
same time the after-birth will be expelled. When this has 
taken place the labor is finished, and the best thing for the 



MEDICINAL. 421 

woman is then to let her alone to rest for a couple of hours. 
She should on no account be suffered to rise up quickly in bed, 
as by reason of the recent diminution of the contents of the 
abdomen, she is peculiarly liable to faint on sitting up. If the 
labor has been long and exhaustive, a moderate stimulant, such 
as a glass of wine, or of brandy and water, should be given. 

At the end of two hours after the labor, the patient's 
clothes, etc., should be changed, and a broad binder or band- 
age pinned round the abdomen, not tightly, but only so as to 
give the feeling of a comfortable degree of support. 

Treatment of the Lying-in Woman. — It has been too 
much the custom to regard a woman after childbirth as an in- 
valid, or to speak of her as a patient, whereas she is the very 
reverse. She is in the most natural and healthy of all condi- 
tions for a woman, but one requiring more than common care 
to prevent her falling into diseases, to which she is prone from 
the great strain that has been put upon her constitution for 
months past, capped with the climax of hours of pain and 
strong muscular effort. Under the influence of erroneous 
views, lying-in women have been kept for days together upon 
gruel, tea, etc. This treatment has, however, of late years 
given way to a plan more consistent with common sense, and 
better calculated to restore the nervous energies after the 
fatigues of perhaps many weary hours of labor, superadded to 
months of gestation. 

Diet. — Light, but nutritious, food should be given. Beef- 
tea, milk, eggs, etc., may be freely allowed the first day, and 
meat on the second day, with wine or malt liquor, according to 
previous usage, and with strict moderation. After months of 
gestation and hours of suffering, with absolute loss of bulk, the 
constitution certainly requires restoration rather than depletion 
or further pulling down. It should be borne in mind, moreover, 
that a source of weakness is going on for many days after- 
wards. 

By a strange perversity the contradictory practice of nearly 
absolute starvation was formerly followed too often by that of 
inordinate stimulation. It was deemed necessary for the due 
performance of maternal functions that a large quantity of 
Strong beer should be taken daily. The quantities consumed 



432 MEDICINAL. 

under this plea would have seemed incredible to persons ol 
moderate habits. The writer has the still heavier charge to 
lay against the practice — that it has made many women 
drunkards. 

It may be laid down as a rule that healthy women require 
no larger quantities of stimulants when nursing than at other 
times. What serves the purpose, of health before childbirth 
will serve them afterwards. The secretion of milk, instead of 
being promoted, is retarded by over stimulation. A pint or a 
pint and a half of malt liquor daily, is amjile allowance for any 
healthy mother. Those who have been water-drinkers before 
they were mothers, may safely remain so afterwards. 

Rest and Nursing. — Next to care in diet, is care as to 
rest and quietness. There is no need for absolute silence or 
total darkness in the room. The cheerful conversation of the 
nearest relatives may be allowed without fear of ill effects. 
The room should be kept light and airy. Ventilation should be 
carefully attended to. There is a popular notion — erroneous, 
like a good many old nurses' fables — that the eyes of lying-in 
women are especially intolerant of light. Such is not a fact. 
The reading of light literature is peculiarly grateful and suit- 
able for this time. The recumbent posture must be preserved 
for at least a week. After that time, if all be going on well, 
sitting up in an easy-chair may be permitted. Walking about 
or standing had better not be attempted earlier than ten or 
twelve days, as the womb has not yet returned to its normal 
size, and is consequently heavy and prone to lay the foundation 
of future maladies if left to its own gravity too early. 

Suckling. — The period at which milk is secreted varies in 
almost every case. Some women will have milk in the breast 
for weeks before the child is born, others will not have it for 
several days after. In most instances it comes quietly into the 
breasts on the second or third day. In some there is a slight 
degree of febrile disturbance attending its appearance. This, 
however, quickly subsides under a small reduction of diet — 
the low-diet system is not to be put in force on account of this 
trifling disturbance. The infant should be put to the breast 
about every two hours — not less frequently, lest the breast get 



MEDICINAL. 4;2:5 

painfully distended; not more frequently, lest it disturb the 
rest of both itself and mother by its much importunity. 

Sore Nipples. 7-The nursing of the first child is often 
attended with extremely sore nipples, so that it becomes an 
excruciatingly painful proceeding, calling for all the firmness 
of a woman and all the strongest feelings of the mother to 
enable her to persevere. Perseverance, however, is the great 
remedy for sore nipples. 

A host of drugs and many other means have been recom- 
mended for the cure of this distressing affection, but we know 
of none that in our experience we have known really deserving 
of confidence. The only serviceable nfeans next to, or in aid 
of, the perseverance we have spoken of, is the use of Wansbor- 
row's metal shields. These being worn in the intervals of 
suckling, keep the nipples soft and promote the healing of their 
cracks. 

To Give Medicine to an Infant. — Put a portion of the 
dose in a teaspoon, then, holding the child on the lap in a half- 
sitting and half-lying posture, place the spoon on the tongue 
and slide it gently back towards the throat; when it has 
reached quite to the root of the tongue, tilt it up and hold it 
still on the tongue until the child swallows. Repeat the rest 
of the dose in the same way. It is better to give the dose in 
portions, so that there is less risk of choking by too large a 
dose. 

DISEASES AND REMEDIES. 

Ague. — Ague is a periodic fever, occurring in three distinct 
stages, with an interval of distinct remission, or freedom, from 
fever — viz., a cold stage, a hot stage, and a sweating stage, 
occupying about eight hours. The attack recurs with more or 
less regularity, giving rise to types according to the period of 
their recurrence, i. The quotidian, recurring once in twenty- 
four hours. 2. Tertian, every forty-eight hours. 3. Quartan, 
every seventy-two hours. 

The quotidian ague is the most common form; an inter- 
change, or irregularity of the periods of return, is sometimes 
seen, giving to it modifications which greatly obscure the type 
of the disease. The term, "intermittent fever," which is given 
to ague, is derived from the entire remission which occurs 
between the paroxysms, leaving the patient apparently in his 
ordinary health. 



424 MEDICINAL. 

Symptoms. — The disease is ushered in, for a few days, by 
indefinite malaise, such as slight feverishness, and a feeling of 
fatigue and debility. On these premonitory symptoms there 
follows somewhat suddenly the cold stage, in which the patient 
becomes cold, pale, and "goosey," the teeth chatter. Severe 
headache occurs, the pulse is rapid, and breathing hurried. 
The cold stage continues for a period varying up to two or 
three hours, and then gives way to the hot stage, in which the 
headache becomes more severe; the whole surface of the body 
is flushed, hot, and dry, the features appear swollen, the eyes 
bloodshot, the pulse full and strong; thirst is very urgent, 
appetite lost, the urine scanty and high-colored. The febrile 
excitement is so great that sometimes delerium occurs in this 
stage, and may mislead as to the real nature of the fever. The 
hot stage may last for six hours or upwards, and is then 
replaced by the sweating stage, in which relief comes by, at 
first, a moisture appearing on the forehead and face, gradually 
increasing until it breaks out all over the body as a profuse 
sweat, followed by a general relief of symptoms, and, with the 
exception of a feeling of exhaustion, the patient is apparently 
quite well, until another paroxysm occurs, which it is very 
prone to do. A degree of sallowness of the complexion, how- 
ever, usually remains, sometimes even after the entire subsid- 
ence of the disease. The preceding set of symptoms constitute 
an "attack" of intermittent fever, or ague, but their subsidence, 
unfortunately, is not always the complete restoration of health. 
The subjects of ague, in marshy districts, may almost always 
be recognized by their muddy or sallow complexion, indicative 
of a "cachectic" or impaired state of general health. The 
extent to which this depreciation of health and vigor may reach 
depends upon the length of the duration of the fever and the 
severity of the paroxysms. When these are severe and long- 
continued, serious congestion and disorders of the internal 
organs is very prone to follow. The spleen is more especially 
obnoxious to this congested condition, with consequent enlarge- 
ment known as "ague cake." The enlarged condition of the 
organ may even be perceptible to pressure beneath the lower 
border of the ribs on the left side. 

Causes. — The cause of ague is usually marsh miasm. It is 
not absolutely essential that a marsh shall yield the poison, as 
we occasionally meet with the disease in London and other 
places, in the presence of malaria arising from the decomposi- 
tion of dead vegetable matter. It was formerly very common 
in London, but has disappeared from that city since sanitary 
regulations have very much cleared away the vegetable refuse 
which in bygone times disfigured the streets. 

Trjiatment. — The treatment of ague resolves itself into 



MEDICINAL. 4^5 

two principal indications, of getting rid of the cause — i. e., the 
malarious poison in the blood, and diminishing the violence of 
the paroxysms. The cold stage is that part of the paroxysm 
which, more particularly in hot climates, most urgently requires 
aid, and is that from which injurious effects may follow on the 
congestion of internal organs. As soon as the shivering 
begins the patient should go to bed, be well covered with 
blankets, and have hot bottles to the feet, bags of hot bran, 
salt, etc., together with a free supply of hot drinks. If these 
means do not succeed in arresting the rigor, an emetic of mus- 
tard and hot water will often be effectual to bring on the sweat- 
ing stage. As this comes on, the quantity of clothing should 
be gradually decreased, taking care to avoid a sudden chill. 
The sweating may be promoted if it do not come on too freely; 
it may be promoted by the administration of stimulants, such 
as brandy and arrowroot, or wine and egg, etc. After the 
paroxysm has passed off, an aperient dose is often of service. 

In order to ensure the full benefit of medical treatment, a 
change from the malarious to a purer air is desirable, and 
should not be omitted where it can be put in practice. The 
medical treatment in the remission, or the endeavor to elimin- 
ate the poison, must be put in practice in the intervals. For 
this purpose the most valuable remedy is the Peruvian bark, or 
quinine, the essentially active principle of bark. 

In this country it is seldom necessary to give the quinine 
in so large or so continued doses as in some tropical climates, 
where it is essential not only as a curative, but also as a pre- 
ventive means. Two, three, or five grains, taken every morn- 
ing, has been found of the greatest service in keeping Europeans 
free, not only from ague, but also from other endemic fevers 
of the African continent. 

In the ordinary treatment of ague in temperate climates it 
is usual to give two or three grains of quinine three tirhes, or 
one large dose of five to ten grains given as nearly as possible 
before the expected access of the paroxysm. This will often 
anticipate or cut short the paroxysm. 

The quinine may be given simply mixed in water, or added 
to a glass of sherry wine. It is usual, but entirely superflous, 
to render the sulphate of quinine solvent by the addition of a 
few drops of diluted sulphuric acid. 

Apoplexy. — Symptoms. — The Greek etymology of this word, 
— viz.: to strike or knock down with violence — expresses the 
leading symptoms of the attack. In the severest form of the 
disease, the patient is suddenly struck down, deprived of volun- 
tary motion, sensation, and intellect. It may be, with convul- 
sions of one side of the body, and lies as one in deep sleep 
from which he cannot be roused, with snoring, puffing breath- 



426 MEDICINAL. 

ing, dilated pupils, a flushed face, and full, slow pulse, and, 
possibly, with vomiting. 

In another class of cases, the patient does not, perhaps, 
fall suddenly to the ground, but turns pale, and feels faint, or 
experiences an attack of giddiness or headache, with sickness 
or vomiting, and occasionally with slight convulsive movements, 
the puj)ils natural, or but slightly dihited, the pulse weak and 
irregular. The j)ain in the head may be attended with loss of 
memory, loss of power in tlie limbs, passing into entire apoplexy 
or paralysis. The symptoms will vary in their intensity, and 
in their duration — the attack may last for a few minutes only, 
or be extended over several days, and at last the patient sinks 
into a state of coma, or profound stupor, from which he never 
recovers. 

Treatment. — At the time of the fit the first thing to be 
done is to loosen all articles of clothing about the neck and 
chest, so as to favor the return of the blood from the head — to 
place the patient in a reclining posture, not flat down. If the 
pulse be feeble or irregular, a small quantity of brandy and 
water may be given; cautiously, on account of difficulty of 
swallowing. Mustard plasters, or rags soaked in turpentine, 
should be applied to the calves of the legs. If the person be 
of a full habit, and have a strong, slow pulse, a strong purge 
should be given as soon as possible. One drop of croton oil 
])laced ot> the tongue, is at once convenient to give and effec- 
tive in action. Should this fail to act, in two or three hours a 
clyster of castor oil and turpentine should be administered. 

Bleeding in any form is seldom recjuired in these cases, and 
is never safe in non-professional hands. It is very easy, under 
circumstances of alarm and excitement, to do too much. The 
after effects of an apoplectic seizure recpiire very judicious 
management; and here, again, we would warn the reader against 
expecting too much from mere medical means, and to be care- 
ful not by over-anxiety for stimulation, to accelerate a danger- 
ous reaction. As the insensibility passes off, and the patient 
wakes up to what is passing around him (supposing that he 
has been unconscious), great care must be taken to secure 
quietness and rest. As little conversation as possible should be 
carried on; the room should be well aired and moderately 
lighted. Complete rest of body and mind are essential to 
recovery. As the limbs recover their muscular power, they 
must be carefully and only gradually brought into use. Caution 
must also be exercised in the administration of food of a light 
and nutritious character. The muscles of the throat having 
probably suffered in the attack, will require time to resume 
their power, and hence there will be danger of choking if care 
be not taken. The food must be light and easy of digestion, 



MEDICINAL. 427 

since the functions of the stomach will also be impaired, and, 
if too solid or indigestible food be given, it may cause vomit- 
ing and serious disturbance. Should the pulse be feeble, a little 
brandy or wine may be allowed to be taken with light food. 
All this precaution is required to guard against inflammation 
of the brain, which may follow on reaction indicated by 
increased rapidity of pulse, heat of skin, thirst, and headache. 
Should the bowels be costive, some simple saline purgative, 
such as Epsom salts or Seidlitz powder, should be taken. If 
there be persistent headache, blistering behind the neck will 
relieve it. If these means fail to subdue the inflammatory and 
febrile symptoms, the case must be treated as one of inflam- 
mation of the brain. Paralysis, or permanent loss of power on 
one side of the body, or of some muscles or portion of the sur- 
face on one side, is not unfrequently left after an apoplectic 
attack. (See Paralysis.) 

Asthma. — This is sometimes called " Spasmodic Bronchi- 
tis," and consists of a sudden attack of tightness across the 
chest, with difficulty of breathing, of a most urgent and dis- 
tressing kind — so much so, that in the course of less than an 
hour immediate suffocation seems to be impending. The 
patient is fighting and struggling for very life, gasping for air, 
speech nearly impracticable, the eye protruding, the counten- 
ance anxious, flushed, or of a blue discoloration. The skin 
becomes bedewed with cold clammy sweat, the hands and fingers 
blue; altogether forming as distressing a scene as can be 
witnessed, but happily not one that is often fatal, as it passes 
off generally with a restoration of the bronchial secretion which 
has been suspended. This favorable occurrence varies in its 
advent. The paroxysm, however, seldom lasts more than a few 
hours at the utmost, but the bronchitis which follows lasts 
sometimes for several days. The attack is liable to return at 
uncertain periods. 

Treatment. — The treatment of this affection is guided by 
its essentially spasmodic character during the paroxysm. Hot 
and stimulating fomentations should be applied to the chest, 
and sedative and nauseant medicines given at short intervals, 
thus: — 

Ipecacuanha wine, 2 drachms; paregoric, 2 drachms; tinc- 
ture of henbane, 4 drachms. Add water to eight ounces, and 
give one tablespoonful every hour, until the breathing is easier. 
Or an emetic of mustard and water may be given previously. 

As the paroxysm subsides, give the following: Compound 
tincture of cardamoms, 1 drachm; chloric ether, 20 minims; 
foetid spirits of ammonia, 30 minims; water, a wineglassful; 
every four hours for some hours and then either treat as for 



428 MEDICINAL. 

acute broncliiiis, if cough, etc., continue, or withdraw all 
medicine, and leave nature to complete the cure. 

Biliousness, Billiary Derangements, Congestion of the Liver. 

— These are known under various names, confounding together 
stomach and liver disorder; thus we have them spoken of as 
"sick-headache," "bowel complaint," "jaundice," etc. 

Symptoms. — They may be classed under the two heads of 
" diminished secretion," and " excessive secretion." The latter 
produces English cholera, or diarrhoea, of a troublesome char- 
acter, attended with griping pains, and more or less sickness, 
the attack being of an acute character. 

A diminution in the secretion of bile generally manifests 
itself by symptoms of a more chronic type. They are more 
tardy in their approach, and do not pass off so quickly as those 
of an excessive flow of bile. This form of deranged func- 
tions of the liver is indicated by irregularity in the intestinal 
functions; the bowels act with sluggishness, and become con- 
stipated; the evacuations are pale or slate-colored; the stomach 
begins to show its participation in the disorder by dyspepsia, 
flatulence, nausea. A v/cll-known pain under the right shoul- 
der-blade is one of the commonest attendants of this disorder. 
Headache occurs. The sight is impaired or interrupted by 
dark specks or films, termed " muscae volitantes," floating, as it 
were, before the eyes. The complexion becomes sallow, or of 
a muddy, yellowish color. The patient becomes a sufferer 
from piles, and, as an almost inevitable consequence of such 
varied derangement of functions, depression of spirits follows. 
'1 his latter is a very common attendant upon disorders of the 
liver, the word hypochondrical having an etymological refer- 
ence to the liver as the seat of the disorder. Jaundice is not 
an unfrequent occurrence to children suffering from bilious 
derangement, but has not then a serious import. Jaundice is 
a very frequent occurrence with new-born infants, and arises 
from an alteration in the course and quantity of blood that 
passes through the liver after birth. It cannot be called a dis- 
ease under such circumstances, nor does it require medicinal 
treatment. In the former condition — that of an excessive 
flow of bile — the liver is said to be in a state of active conges- 
tion; in the latter, of passive congestion. The former may 
pass into inflammation. This, however, is rarely seen in this 
country, but is only too frequently met with in hot climates. 
The pain that is felt in the right side with the above described 
symptoms, and not uncommonly regarded as an indication of 
inflammation of the liver, is the result of congestion of the 
organ. Acute inflammation of the liver is attended with great 
pain in the right side, extending to the right shoulder-blade, 



MEDICINAL. 429 

and tenderness on pressure over the region of the organ, aggra- 
vated by lying on the left side. The pain in the region of the 
liver may be so acute as to make it difficult to distinguish from 
that of plurisy, while, on the other hand, the mistake is often 
made of regarding a limited extent of plurisy in the lower part 
of the chest as an attack of inflammation of the liver. With 
the pain there is, in inflammation of the liver, a varying degree 
of fever, thirst, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, hiccup. The 
urine becomes scanty and is high-colored. The bowels are 
frequently costive, the evacuations very pale, even white, show- 
ing a deficiency in the flow of bile. The same defect of flow 
of bile by the intestines causes its absorption into the circula- 
tion, giving rise to yellowness of the complexion and coats of 
the eye — jaundice. If the inflammation is not subdued, the 
pain will probably become of a throbbing character, severe 
shivering will occur, and an abscess form. This may burst 
into the chest and the matter be expectorated, or it may be- 
come the cause of serious mischief in the cavity of the chest, 
or it may find its way by opening into the stomach and be vom- 
ited, or it may escape externally by opening into the surface 
of the body; which of these shall occur we cannot determine. 
In chronic inflammation of the liver the preceding symp- 
toms are present in a milder degree, but are slower in their 
progress — they are attended with less feverishness. There is 
present depression of spirits amounting sometimes to melan- 
choly. As the disease progresses, diarrhoea, debility, wasting, 
and dropsy are pretty sure to make their appearance, followed 
by death from exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Bilious derangement, "congestion of the 
liver," or jaundice, is prone to occur in overfed children, and 
produce sickness and diarrhoea, with light-colored, slimy 
stools. This derangement (English cholera), under judicious 
dietary, generally corrects itself by carrying off excess of bile 
or badly-digested food. If, however, it continues more than a 
day or two in spite of careful dieting and abstinence from 
stimulative food, a mild mercurial will be of service, such as, 
(for a child over three years of age): 

Gray powder (mercury with chalk), i grain; prepared 
chalk, 3 grains; magnesia, i grain. Given night and morn- 
ing. Or: — Rhubarb powder, 3 grains; ipecacuanha powder, 
one-fourth grain; nitre powder, 2 grains. Mi and give twice 
a day. 

In biliousness occurring to adults, and attended with sick- 
ness, the first thing is to give the stomach as nearly as possible 
entire rest by putting almost nothing into it while the vomiting 
lasts. This may moreover be checked sometimes by small 
pieces of ice taken into th^ naouth, and ^wallowed when par- 



430 MEDICINAL. 

tially melted. Soda-water in small quantities frequently taken 
is also serviceable. A mustard plaster on the pit of the stom- 
ach assists also in checking sickness. When the sickness has 
passed off, the greatest care in diet is required. Fish, poultry, 
boiled mutton, with a moderate allowance of well-cooked green 
vegetables, such as cauliflower, asparagus, marrows. Light 
wine, such as claret, may be allowed. 

The diarrhoea that occurs in these disorders of the liver 
may be checked by mineral acids — e. g., 

Diluted muriatic acid, 2 drachms. Compound tincture of 
cardamoms, i ounce. 

Cinnamon water, to 8 ounces. Mix, and give an eighth part 
every three or four hours. 

In chronic biliary derangements occurring in "bilious hab- 
its," more may be done by abstemious living than by physic. 
The habit of taking so-called "anti-bilious" pills, calomel, blue 
pill, etc., to correct disorders of the liver, that may be avoided 
by avoiding there causes, is simply absurd. But where, in spite 
of care, the liver is habitually sluggish, an occasional small 
dose of blue pill at bedtime, followed by a simple aperient in 
the morning, may safely be taken. In some persons, however 
careful they may be, the proneness to biliary derangement is 
greater than can always be managed by even great care in 
dieting. In such cases the repeated use of small doses of min- 
eral acids, with extract of dandelion or sarsaparilla, is believed 
to be useful. Fresh air and outdoor exercise are also impor- 
tant means — horse exercise, if possible. 

Acute inflammation of the liver is, as already remarked, 
rarely met with in temperate climates. In parts of India and 
other hot climates, it is not unfrequently met with, owing partly 
to the solar heat and partly, it is said, to imprudence in dieting 
and exposure. An active treatment is required, such as free 
leeching over the region of the liver, or cupping if there be 
any skilled person to perform it. At the same time full doses 
of calomel are to be given (five to ten grains), and repeated 
every six hours, followed up by saline purgatives, such as Ep- 
som salts and senna. While these are taking effect, mercurial 
ointment should be rubbed into the armpits and groin night 
and morning. This would be the treatment for a case of acute 
inflammation of the liver occurring in a tropical climate, in an 
adult person. There is, however, some reason to believe that 
calomel has been somewhat too liberally given in such cases. 

Bite of a Venomous Serpent. — Suck the wound immedi- 
ately, if you can, yourself; if not, get a friend to do so (it can 
be done without danger, if there be no abrasure — scratch, that 
is— or sore on the tongue or'lips), and then tie a string, if possible, 
tightly round the part, finger or linib, that has been bitten, be- 



MEDICINAL. 431 

tween the wound and the body; wash well with warm water, and 
apply liquor ammoniae diluted to the wound, and take fifteen 
to twenty drops in a wine-glass of water internally, every three 
or four hours; keep the patient from going to sleep. 

Bite from a Dog Suspected to be Mad. — Soak immediately 
in, and wash with, water as hot as you can bear it; then apply 
salt to it freely, and send for a doctor to cut out the part, if 
practicable, or to burn it with lunar caustic, and if you cannot 
get one, do it yourself, only do not overdo it. If you have no 
lunar caustic at hand, use a good, strong solution of carbolic 
acid to the place. Take a Turkish bath at once if possible; it 
is one more chance in your favor. 

In all cases, if possible, send for a medical man, but if one 
cannot be had, the above remedies are applicable. 

N. B. — The wound may be sucked with impunity either by 
the person himself who is bitten, or by a friend for him, if he 
has no abrasion, that is, scratch, or sore place, or sore on his 
mouth, or lips. Do not cauterise the wound yourself, if you 
can help it; leave that to a medical man, if one can possibly be 
got within a short time. Sad results have been known to occur 
from unskillful cauterization. 

A bite from a dog not mad gives rise to great inflammation; 
linseed poultice, sprinkled with from fifteen to twenty drops of 
laudanum, is the best application for this; it may be continued 
about a week. 

Bleeding- at the Nose. — Lay the patient immediately at his 
full length upon the floor, or on a table, or on a bench, and 
stretch out his arms behind his head, to their full length, on a 
level with his body; unloose the collar, and apply wet towels 
to the back of his neck. I have always found this posture, 
that is, laying the patient flat on the back, answer best; but 
many excellent doctors do not consider the posture of the body 
of importance, and as sitting or reclining back in an arm chair 
is more convenient and less fussy, it will probably be sufficient 
to place the arms in a vertical position, that is, straight up above 
the head. If the bleeding continue obstinate, use ice if you 
can get it, instead of water, and put a plug of lint in the nostril, 
steeped in a strong solution of alum and water. If you can 
get it, snuff up the nose a solution of gallic acid, or, better still, 
of tannic acid, or even inject it up the nose. It is the most 
powerful astringent of all. For a child's nose when bleeding, 
a large, cold door key laid behind the neck and between the 
shoulders, will often suffice, compressing at the same time the 
nostril with the finger firmly for a few minutes. When the 
above treatment fails, snuff up a few drops of tincture of saffron 
(crocus sativus) in a little water. This is almost sure tg 
answer. 



432 MEDICINAL. 

Bladder, InWmmation of, — Symptoms. — This affection is 
indicated by acute pain of a burning character at the lower 
part of the stomach, or, more strictly speaking, abdomen, and 
of the body, and down the thighs. The pain is augmented by 
pressure, and by passing water, occasion for which is frequent, 
its voidance difficult, and in small quantities. A considerable 
degree of fever is present, attended with restlessness, heat of 
skin, and increased frequency of the pulse. The urine that is 
passed is turbid, cloudy, and high-colored, and sometimes 
bloody. 

Treatment. — In the treatment of acute inflammation of 
the bladder the patient must be kept to his bed, and have a 
dozen leeches applied to the lowest part of the body or just in 
front of the fundament — the bleeding to be encouraged by hot 
fomentation and poultices or a hot hip bath. At the same 
time free purgation should be promoted by epsom salts or 
Glauber's salts; full doses of opium, either as pill or tincture, 
should be administered to relieve the pain and urgency to 
evacuate the bladder. After these measures have been put 
in force, and have somewhat relieved the suffering, the follow- 
ing mixture may be given: — 

Bicarbonate of potash, 15 grains; tincture of henbane, i 
drachm. And repeated every four or six hours, according as 
the symptoms yield or not. 

The diet must be of the mildest and most unstimulating 
character. 

Bleeding- from the Lungs, Spitting of Blood, Expectoration 
of Blood, Haemoptyniis. — Symptoms. — Occurr usually with the 
presence of cough, and a tickling feeling at the back of the 
throat, preceded frequently by sense of oppression or of 
weight in the chest; the blood is expectorated in very varying 
quantities, generally exciting a well-founded alarm. The 
blood may be brought up pure, or mixed with the mucus of the 
air passages. In some instances, the mouth fills with blood, 
unattended with cough. A saltish taste in the mouth is very 
often experienced. Its florid color, frothy character, and 
attendant cough, will assist in its distinction from vomiting of 
blood. 

Treatment. — Bleeding from the lungs is not always 
attended with the danger that is generally apprehended. 
Although its occurence excites alarm in reference to the exist- 
ence of consumptive disease, it is sometimes beneficial rather 
than otherwise, as it tends to relieve congestion in the weak 
part of the lung. Very few cases prove fatal from the bleed- 
ing alone. 

The strictest rest and puiet, and ^bsolvite silence, should be 



MEDICINAL. 433 

enforced; the chamber be cool and airy, admitting of free 
ventilation. The patient should be placed half-sitting Only- 
cold drinks, or pieces of ice should be allowed at first. All 
food should be given cold. Only in case of extreme faintness 
should stimulants be given. 

The medical treatment required, is the administration of 
astringents internally, e. g.: Gallic acid, 30 grains; epsom 
salts, one-half ounce; diluted sulphuric acid, i drachm; 
water, to 6 ounces. Mix. Give a sixth part every three 
hours, unless the medicine purge too freely, then the epsom 
salts may be omitted. 

Cloths dipped in cold water, or spirit and water, should be 
kept applied on the chest. The rest and quiet should be 
observed for several days after the hemorrhage has ceased, 
which it will do, probably, only gradually, the expectoration 
being streaked for a variable time. 

Bleeding from the Stomach and Bowels.— H^matemesis 
OR Vomiting of Blood — Is usually a result of some internal 
disease causing obstruction of the circulation of blood through 
the liver, spleen, or stomach; or it may be a result of the 
derangement of more distant organs. Ulceration of the mucous 
surface of the stomach itself may lead to the opening of a 
vessel therein. It is preceded by a sense of nausea or sickness, 
or faintness, and by a feeling of heaviness or of oppression at 
the pit of the stomach. The blood vomited is generally of a 
dark color, and is mixed with food, and differs in color from 
the frothy fluid blood that is coughed up from the air passages. 

Treatment. — If the bleeding be traced to some derange- 
ment or congestion of the liver, it should be treated according 
to the directions laid down for vomiting in bilious disorders, 
and the treatment directed for chronic biliary disorders. If it 
have been preceded by dyspepsia, pain in the pit of the stom- 
ach, or other signs of disorder of that organ alone, without 
much general derangement of the health, it is to be feared that 
the bleeding may proceed from an ulcer within the stomach 
perforating a blood-vessel. In this case^ ice should be given, 
and very little else, at the time, except it be some astringent 
medium — e. g., five or six grains or gallic acid or tannin every 
four hours, with a drachm of epsom salts, since an aperient 
may be useful to clear away what blood may have passed into 
the bowels. In these cases of bleeding from the stomach the 
curative treatment is dietic. Milk alone should be allowed 
for a few days. After four or five days, some white of egg 
may be stirred up in the milk, and this should constitute the 
sole diet for two or three weeks. At the end of this time, 
small quantities of whiting, or some other white fish, may be 
allowed. The longer this diet can be maintained, the more 
26 



434 MEDICINAL. 

sure the result, A return to ordinary diet must be very gradual, 
and by taking carefully of poultry or well-cooked mutton. 

Boils and Carbuncles. — Symptoms. — Boils are distinguish- 
able from carbuncles by their smaller size, by their conical shape, 
inflamed base, and tendency to form matter at the point. Be- 
neath the matter is a portion of dead tissue or " core." 

Carbuncle is a large and flattened compound boil, without 
the tendency to present a conical point. A carbuncle tends to 
form matter, and opens at various parts of its surface. At 
these points the skin gives way, presenting a riddled aspect, 
gradually running into one sore. The inflamed base of a 
carbuncle extends wider than that of a boil, and has a harder 
feel, resembling, indeed, the consistence of brawn. 

Treatment. — A small boil requires no treatment beyond 
protection from friction, by diachylon or soap plaster. If, how- 
ever, it be large, inflamed, and painful, water dressing or warm 
poultices should be applied, until the core has sloughed out. 
It should then be dressed with zinc ointment. A carbuncle 
should, in the first instance, be kept well covered with the 
water drc^::ing protected by oil silk, until the surface begins to 
give way, and presents numerous small, yellow points of matter; 
it should then be dressed with strips of lint smeared with the 
yellow basilicon ointment, covered outside with linen, mois^ 
tened with Condy's fluid or carbolic oil, if there be any offen- 
sive odor. After the slough of dead tissue beneath the skin 
has separated, the sore may be dressed with zinc ointment. 
The diet should be full and nutritious, with a moderate allow- 
ance of stimulants. The medicines that will be useful will be 
quinine, compound tincture of bark, muriated tincture of iron, 
etc. 

Bowels, Inflammation of.— This is often ushered in by slight 
shivering fit, a degree of nausea with thirst, and a white, furred 
tongue with a red tip or red spots. There will be pain or ten- 
derness of some parts of fee abdomen, more commonly in the 
lower part or about the middle region. The pain is of a dull 
sort, except in tke part that is most tender on pressure, where 
it will become acute and increased by bodily movements. The 
knees are generally drawn up in order to take off the pressure 
of the muscles of the abdomen. There is loss of appetite, sick- 
ness, sometimes vomiting, with increasing thirst, a coated 
tongue, and a hot, dry skin. The bowels are often obstinately 
constipated at the commencement of an attack of inflammation, 
and afterwards they become relieved even to diarrhoea. The 
character of the motions will vary — they are usually thin and 
watery, consisting of mucus and fseces, and are occasionally 
tinged with blood. 



MEDICINAL. 435 

■ A 

These symptoms are generally attended with a feverish condi- 
tion of the system, as shown by a rapid, sharp pulse, thirst, heat 
of surface, &c. Inflammation of the bowels may originate in 
indigestible or undigested food; the action of irritant poisons, 
or of too active purgation. 

Treatment. — Complete rest of body, and, as far as is 
possible, of the intestines, is the first and most essential point of 
treatment. The patient must be confined to the bed, and 
warm fomentations and poultices should be applied over the 
abdomen. Pain and diarrhoea may be relieved by Dover's 
powder — five grains every four or six hours, according to the 
severity of the symptoms, in cases of adults; for children, 
smaller doses may be cautiously given. If the pain be very 
acute, one grain of plain opium may be given every six hours. 
Turpentine stupes will be found useful. The constipation that 
sometimes ushers in an attack of inflammation of the bowels 
is often relieved by a few doses of opium. It depends upon 
spasm or cramp of the intestinal fibres. The diet should be 
of the simplest kind, soft and nutritious — e. g., milk, beef tea, 
mutton broth eggs, arrowroot, etc., in small quantities fre- 
quently. 

Breast, Inflammation of (acute), — Milk Abscess. — Symp- 
toms. — A portion of the breast becoming harder than the rest, 
and having a throbbing pain, with slight redness of the skin. 
The hardness and pain extending, a degree of fever is set up. 
Shivering takes place, the throbbing increases — at last some 
one spot on the surface becomes softer as the matter which has 
been formed comes to the surface — the skin is thinned and 
gives way, if not opened by a lancet, and allows of the escape 
of matter, sometimes in large quantities. 

Abscess of the breast occurs during the early weeks of 
nursing, and sometimes during weaning, sometimes through 
neglect in drawing off the milk when it is required to be done, 
and often without any known cause, and despite every care 
that may have been taken. 

Treatment. — When only a small portion of the gland is 
affected, the application of cold lotion will sometimes disperse 
the inflammation, especially if at the same time the breast be 
drawn by breast-pump or drawing glass, and the breast be care- 
fully supported by a sling made of a pocket-handkerchief, or 
band of any convenient kind. Should these means not have 
the desired effect of checking the course of the abscess, then 
warm poultices should be applied, or some folds of soft linen 
dipped in warm water and covered with oil-silk. From the 
first, a full diet, with wine or beer, is preferable to low diet, 
and any depleting or weakening treatment should be avoided. 



436 MEDICINAL. 

After the matter has come to the surface, the continued 
application of poultices will cause the abscess to burst; and, if 
it points at one depending point, it is better left to take its 
course. If, however, it should not point freely at one spot, but 
at several, the opening of the most depending should be done 
by the lancet. 

Chronic Inflammation of the Breast. — Sometimes at 
the time of weaning, a portion of the breast becomes tender 
and hard, but does not give the pain or produce the redness of 
"milk abscess." It occurs sometimes to young girls after 
mumps, and at the period of puberty. In women, at the change 
of life it also occurs. It readily follows also on a blow. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in improving or keep- 
ing up the general health. The less that is done to the breast 
in the way of local applications the better. The hardened lump 
often rapidly disappears of itself. 

Bright' s Disease. — Degeneration of the Kidneys. — Symp- 
toms. — This is a disease of a very grave nature, and one which 
is seldom recovered from; but it is one of which it would be 
difficult to give an intelligent description to non-professional 
persons. Only the physician can treat it properly. 

Bruises. — The variation of the colors of bruises is owing 
to changes going on in the blood which has been effused under 
the skin by violence. A bruise generally goes through all the 
various tints from black to green and yellowish-green. Bruises 
sometimes, from the large quantities of blood effused, become 
inflamed and form abscesses. 

Treatment. — To prevent or diminish discoloration from 
bruises, it is well to apply cold or warm water as soon after 
the violence has been done as possible. To allay the swelling 
or inflammation which may follow, cooling lotions should be 
used. A mixture of tincture of arnica and water has been 
strongly recommended, but a mixture of spirit and water, or 
spirit, vinegar and water, Avill be found quite as efficacious. 
Spirits of wine, i oz; vinegar, i oz; water, to 4 oz. 

Graze, or Abrasion. — An abrasion of the skin, or what is 
commonly termed "barked skin," is the simplest form of a 
wound. It consists in the superficial skin being rubbed off by 
violence. This form of injury of course varies in severity as 
the amount of violence varies. 

Treatment. — For a slight abrasion a piece of linen or 
linen wetted with cold water and covered with oil-silk or 
gutta-percha tissue, will generally be sufficient dressing. Or it 
may be covered with gold-beater's skin. 

For a graze or bruised wound of considerable extent or 



MEDICINAL. ^ 437 

depth, a dressing of carbolic acid and oil will be found a ser- 
viceable application. Take of carbolic acid, i part; best olive 
oil, 28 parts; apply on lint or soft linen. 

In a majority of cases any simple application that will pro- 
tect the denuded surface, while it is being skinned over, is 
enough — e. g., spermaceti ointment, spread on linen, will be all 
that is required. One method of treatment for abrasions, is to 
apply a piece of dry lint, and let the blood soak into it. This 
may be allowed to dry on the sore, and thus form an artificial 
scab; or the lint may first be soaked into compound tincture 
of Benzoin, known as Friar's Balsam. 

Burns and Scalds. — The effect of these will vary with the 
extent of surface, or the depth of skin injured or destroyed. 
Recovery, moreover, must depend greatly upon the state of 
health at the time of the accident. Under ordinary states of 
health a superficial scald or burn, not destroying the skin be- 
low the surface, and not involving more than half the super- 
fices, may be recovered from. Less than half of this extent of 
bum may, however, be fatal, if it extend to the true skin and 
the muscles below. 

Burns as a rule destroy more than scalds. Scalds usually 
form blisters and go no deeper, but burns may char the deeper 
skin and the muscles beneath; they are, therefore, the more 
dangerous of the two. Should the burn have resulted from 
the clothes catching fire, they should carefully be removed, so 
as not to break the blisters, which may be forming or formed, 
lest violence be done to the raw skin beneath, and, for the same 
reason, pieces of the clothing that stick to the surface should 
not be removed at the time. If the burn or scald be extensive, 
some stimulant, wine and water, should be given at once to 
diminish the effect of "shock." 

Treatment. — The principle to be observed in the treat" 
ment of burns and scalds, is to cause a gradual diminution of 
heat in the part, not to allow it to cool too quickly. This is 
effected by protecting the burnt or scalded part from the air, 
by immediately dredging with flour, or covering with cotton- 
wool or oil. If the case is a slight one, these dressings may be 
left on for a day or two; but, if it be more severe, the damaged 
parts should be dressed with lint, spread with basilicon or 
resin ointment, or a mixture of equal parts of that ointment 
and spirits of turpentine. Another useful lotion for applica- 
tion to burns and scalds of slight extent, consists of "carron- 
oil," or, lime-water, i part; linseed-oil, 2 parts; well shaken 
together, and applied by means of strips of lint, or soft linen 
rag, soaked in it, and changed twice a day. 

The Blisters. — How to be Treated. — It is generally 



438 ^ MEDICINAL. 

advisatle not to cut the blisters which may be formed, as they 
protect the true skin under them; but, if the base of the blister 
shows symptoms of inflammation, it is as well to evacuate the 
contents, but, even then, to do it by means of a small prick, 
and to leave the skin on, so that it may protect the raw surface 
from the air. The black char of skin that is sometimes left 
should be poulticed with bread, or linseed meal and bread, till 
the slough separates. AVhen this has taken place, there is left 
a surface of what appear to be little mounds of flesh, and these 
give out a discharge of matter. They are called granulations, 
and are the commencements of the process of healing. At 
times these granulations grow very rapidly and abundantly, 
rising above the level of the adjacent skin. This is what is 
commonly meant by "proud flesh." Their growth may be 
checked by gently touching them with stick of nitrate of silver, 
and dressing the surface with oxide of zinc ointment. Burns 
between the fingers, or in any place where two contiguous sur- 
faces are likely to come in contact, should be separately dressed, 
and great care should be taken to keep the granulating surfaces 
apart, or they may grow together and produce deformity. 

Opiates. — If there be much pain, it will be advisable to 
give opium, in the form of the tincture, as it will also allay ner- 
vous excitement. Tincture of opium, lo minims; water, one 
teaspoonful every four hours. This dose, it should be borne 
in mind, is for an adult person. 

Burns from Chemicals. — The destructive chemicals most 
likely to produce these accidents are sulphuric acid, or oil of 
vitrol; nitric acid, or aqua fortis; ammonia, and hydrofluoric 
acid; strong carbolic acid, and chloride of zinc. In cases of 
burns from any of these the parts should be well washed with 
water, in which a little bicarbonate of soda is dissolved, or soap 
and water in the case of the acids. Afterwards treat as in a 
case of inflammatory ulcer or ordinary burn. 

Gunpowder Burns. — Explosions of gunpowder cause de- 
struction of skin, and resemble burns or scalds in their effects. 
They should be treated in the same manner as burns, first re- 
moving particles of carbon by means of a soft sponge and warm 
<vater. 

The diet, in severe burns, should be supporting. Some 
^dmulant is usually advisable. 

Cold. — Either one or other of the following remedies is 
Ukely to succeed. Put twenty to thirty, or even thirty-five, 
according to age and strength, drops of laudanum in a tumbler 
of cold water. You can add a few drops of peppermint or 
halt a glass of sherry to take aAvay the nasty taste; but the effect 
of the iaudanum is just the same. Sip it slowly for an hour or 



MEDICINAL. 439 

an ho'ur and a half before going to bed, as if it were wine, and 
as if yo'd liked it. Do not go out again the sanae night, but go 
to bed pretty early. The chances are you will be perfectly 
well in the morning. 

In case you are afraid to take laudanum, though it is but 
an idle fear, adopt the following recipe: — Before going to bed, 
put the feet in hot water, and have a warm bed. As you step 
into bed, or just after it, take either a Dover's powder in a lit- 
tle preserve, or a teaspoonful of sweet spirits of nitre in a tea- 
cupful of hot milk; cover up with extra blankets or rugs. 
Either one or other of the remedies will produce violent per- 
spiration, which will probably bring about the desired effect. 
If all else fails, try a Turkish loath. 

Another remedy — whose value is as yet unknown to the 
medical profession — for colds, viz. aconite, either in tincture 
or pilules, one every four hours, often produces an excellent 
effect; and gives relief as soon as, or sooner than anything else. 

Chapped Hands. — After washing the hand, and before dry- 
ing them, pour over the backs of them some glycerine and 
water (equal proportions), smear it over them, and then quickly 
dip it into water and dry the hands gently, so as not entirely 
to wipe off the glycerine. 

Chest, Inflammation of. — Varieties. — This term would in- 
clude pneumonia, or inflammation of the substance of the 
lungs; bronchitis, or inflammation of the air tubes going to the 
lungs; and pleurisy, or inflammation of the thin membrane 
which covers the lungs and lines the chest. It requires medi- 
cal knowledge to distinguish these one from the other, but as 
they have many symptoms in common they are here, for facil- 
ity or domestic treatment, classed together. The following 
principal distinctive features of each may, however, be of some 
use: 

Symptoms. — In pneumonia, or inflammation of the lungs, 
there is a dull aching, or more severe, pain at some parts 
(usually the lower part) of the chest; difficulty of breathing, 
with a frequent short cough with very little expectoration, 
which will probably be of a rusty color or slightly streaked 
with blood. There is also a difference in the two sides as to 
the ease or discomfort of lying down. The skin dry or pun- 
gently hot, and in feverish state. 

In bronchitis the pain is more extended but less acute, and 
the fever runs less high, the tightness of breath less; expecto- 
ration is looser, and frothy. 

In pleurisy there may be no cough at all, the fever less ac- 
tive; but the pain is cutting and acute, and usually referable 
to a spot or limited part, and increased by coughing, etc. Tlie 



440 MlLDICINAL. 

pulse will be accelerated in each, the tongue furred, the bowels 
disturbed in their functions, the urine high colored and depos- 
iting a red sediment. 

Inflammation of the chest generally begins with the symp- 
tioms of catarrh, or of a severe cold; when the inflammation, 
however, affects the substance of the lung or its covering, the 
previous catarrhal stage is often short or entirely absent. The 
pain and ferverish symptoms appear at once. The tendency of 
these forms of inflammation of the chest is to recover under 
ordinary care; but pneumonia sometimes goes on to abscess, 
bronchitis may run on into a chronic form, and cause suffoca- 
tion by the profuse quantity of phlegm secreted. Pleurisy may 
terminate in the pouring out of a quantity of fluid into the 
chest. 

Bronchitis. — This is the form of inflammation of the chest 
that is most prone to become chronic, and to recur as "winter 
cough" periodically, attended with profuse expectoration and 
shortness of breath. In aged people, the winter cough is prone 
to become seriously aggravated by severe weather, under which 
circumstances debility rapidly becomes extreme, and the 
patient becoming drowsy, and unable to relieve himself of the 
phlegm, dies from suffocation. 

Treatment. — In the mildest form of bronchitis, or simple 
catarrhal fever, the treatment need be little more than what is 
practiced for a common cold, such as, for an adult: Ten grains 
of Dover's powder, taken at bedtime, and followed by some 
simple aperient early the next morning; or, three or four grains 
of James' powder at bedtime, together with warm bath or 
warm footbath, and warm drinks— 7-such as tea, wine, whey, 
&c. If the cough persists," take of ipecacuanha wine, two 
drachms; oxymel of squills, 10 drachms. Mix. Take a tea- 
spoonful three or four times a day. Apply also mustard plas- 
ter to the chest at bedtime. In the feverish colds to which 
children are very liable, the above plan of treatment may be 
pursued, reducing the doses to suit the ages of the little 
patients, avoiding the use of the opiate (Dover's powder) in 
their cases. 

Treatment of Acute Bronchitis. — If the skin be hot, 
the cough urgent, and the breathing accelerated or oppressed 
and attended with pain, the surface of the chest should be en- 
veloped with hot fomentations, or turpentine stupes, or mustard 
plasters. Should the pain be very acute in breathing, the 
painfal part might be painted with the blistering liquid and 
afterwards covered with wadding, or with spongiopiline, soaked 
in warm water. If the pulse be full and rapid, an emitic of 
antimonial wine may be given — viz., a teaspoonful every five 



MEDICINAL. 441 

minutes until vomiting occurs, which is to be encouraged with 
draughts of warm water. If the fever be not very high, or if 
the patient be not very robust and strong, an emetic of ipecacu- 
anha wine, given in the same way, should be preferred, as the 
antimonial emetic sometimes proves very depressing. After 
these first measures have been carried out, the expectorant 
effects of the medicines may 'be kept up by repeated small 
doses — e. g., ten drops of ipecacuanha or antimonial wine every 
three hours. 

Acute bronchitis occurring in children is to be treated on 
the same plan. The following powder is useful for a child 
about two or three years of age, where there is much cough 
and fever; Take of powdered ipecacuanha, i grain; calomel, 
3 grains; nitre, 12 grains; white sugar, 12 grains. Mix, and 
divide into six or eight powders, according to the age of the 
child, and the strength and severity of the disease. If the 
bowels are relaxed by the powders, the calomel should be 
omitted. A warm bath should be given morning and evening. 

Treatment. — Chronic bronchitis, occurring mostly in con- 
stitutions impaired either by age or previous illness, requires a 
different treatment as regards diet and regimen, as also it 
demands more stimulant and tonic medicines. The frequent 
application of external irritants and stimulating liniments 
is more useful here than even in acute bronchitis. This may 
be effected by friction with compound camphor liniment, 
or hartshorn and oil, or spirits of turpentine, or the use of 
repeated mustard plasters, and occasionally blistering the 
chest. 

Chicken Pock. — In the majority of cases this is a mere 
trifling malady, with little or no febrile symptoms. In many 
others it is preceded with a four-and-twenty or six-and-thirty 
hours' feverish disturbance. These symptoms usually subside 
on the appearance of an eruption of pimples on the body, face, 
and head. On the second day the pimples present small 
vesicles or bladders, containing a clear fluid like water. On 
the third or fourth day the vesicles contain opaque yellowish 
fluid; these dry and fall off in scabs during the next two or 
three days, leaving, generally, no trace behind. Sometimes, 
however, the skin is slightly pitted, especially if the spots have 
been scratched or picked. 

Treatment. — This consists in a light diet, and the mildest 
aperient medicine, if even any be required at all. The disease 
is sometimes mistaken for modified small-pox, and vice versa. 
But it will be noticed that the vesicles of chicken pock stand on 
the pimple like a small bubble or bladder of water, and that 
they have little or no inflammation around their bases. In 



442 MEDICINAL. 

small-pox, even when modified, there is always an inflamed 
base to the vesicles, which are flattened instead of globular. 
Chicken pock runs a much shorter course than modified small- 
pox. The latter seldom, even when most distinctly modified, 
lasting less than ten or twelve days; chicken pock seldom 
exceeding six or seven, and being mature on the fourth day. 

Chilblains. — The best remedy for these, when not broken, 
is to paint them twice a day with strong tincture of iodine. 

A liniment of equal parts of extract of lead and spirits of 
turpentine is also very useful. 

If inflamed and broken, they should be poulticed and 
dressed with some simple ointment. 

Cholera : — English or Autumnal Diarrhoea. — Symptoms. — 
In the heat of autumn it is very common that diarrhoea sets in 
suddenly, without any signs of previous bilious disorder. It is 
frequently accompanied by cramps of the legs, with nausea or 
vomiting; the tongue is furred, and great thirst is caused; the 
pulse is feeble; the loose motions are numerous — bilious at 
first — becoming more and more watery until they contain little 
more than mucus. 

Treatment. — If there has been no indiscretion in diet to 
excite the attack, some warm and astringent medicine may be 
given at once; as, creasote, or chalk mixture, or tincture of 
catechu. (See Table of Medicines for the doses). If these 
fail to relieve the symptoms, a pill of one grain of opium will 
sometimes stop the looseness and relieve pain and sickness. 
This dose, however, should not be given to children. Should 
the attack be traceable to indigestible or improper food, a dose 
of castor oil should be given in the first instance. Opium or 
as^ingents may be given afterwards. The simplest diet should 
be taken, such as beef-tea, arrowroot, etc. Brandy may be 
given if there be signs of prostration or faintness. 

Cholera: — Spasmodic, Malignant, or Asiatic. — Symptoms. 
— This is usually preceded by a variable period of promonitory 
looseness of the bowels and a feeling of general indisposition, 
although there are many cases on record of its sudden acces- 
sion -without any warning. Such cases have generally been 
met with in hot climates. In the severe form of cholera the 
previous choleratic diarrhoea becomes altered in character; 
before this takes place, recovery is not unfrequent. The stools 
become watery, having a peculiar odor and " rice-water" appear- 
ance. The vomiting assumes the same character. There is a 
feeling of sinking and prostration, rapidly increasing. Cramps 
occur, beginning in the feet and hands, extending to the limbs 
and body. The features assume a sunken, contracted aspect, 
with a look of indifference in the countenance. The surface of 



MEDICINAL. 443 

the body becomes cold and blue, or leaden-hued, and has a 
clammy sweat. The tongue partakes of the coldness of the 
surface. There is great thirst. The pulse feeble, soon alto- 
gether fails to be felt. The voice also acquires a feeble tone, 
being sometimes scarcely audible. The kidneys cease to act, 
and urine is suppressed, and complete collapse and death rap- 
idly supervine, at periods varying up to two days on the aver- 
age. Notwithstanding the feeling of coldness of the surface, 
the patient himself suffers from a sensation of burning heat 
internally, and craves for cold drinks. After the cold stage 
has lasted an uncertain time — it may be as long as forty-eight 
hours, if recovery takes place — it is followed by reaction and a 
febrile stage, which may run into a typhus condition, in 
which stage many cases prove fatal. 

Treatment. — Everything here depends upon early treat- 
ment; half an hour's delay may determine a fatal ending. 
When cholera is prevalent a mere loose motion should immedi- 
ately be attended to. 

For the Preliminary Diarrhcea. — Immediately on the 
occurrence of diarrhoea, if there be any suspicion of its having 
been excited either by indiscretion in diet or impurity of water, 
half an ounce of castor oil should be given, and in three hours 
after its action it should be followed up with some astringent 
and sedative, as: For an adult, one rvain of opium in the form 
of a pill every four hours, until the diarrhoea begins to decline. 
Or, chalk mixture, i ounce; tincture of catechu, 2 drachms 
every three hours. Or, creasote, 20 drops; spirits of salvola- 
tile, 4 drachms; paregoric, 4 drachms; water, to 6 ounces. 
Mix. Give a fourth every three or four hours. Or, dilute 
sulphuric acid, 30 mins; tincture of opium, 10 mins; water, 2 
ounces. Every four hours. 

Mustard plasters on the pit of the stomach help to check 
sickness. 

A light diet, consisting mainly of beef-tea, with small 
occasional doses of brandy. If these means fail, and the case 
go into the stage of collapse, external warmth in every possible 
way should be promoted. Bottles of hot water, heated bricks, 
bags of hot salt, etc., should be placed about the body and 
limbs, over which warm blankets should be covered. Copious 
draughts of cold water should be allowed to allay the thirst, 
notwithstanding that these may be rejected by vomiting. At 
the same time half a drachm of spirits of salvolatile should be 
given every two hours. The cramps are to be relieved by 
friction, or by pressure on the muscles that are cramped. When 
reaction takes place, the treatment must be gradually modified, 
with greater caution in the use of stimulants. If the febrile 



444 MEDICINAL. 

reaction go into the typhus state, the case theji requires the 
treatment of typhoid fever. (Which see.) 

Clerg-yman's Sore Throat. — Symptoms. — An affection of 
the organs of the voice, to which pubUc speakers are liable. It 
is not a sore throat in the ordinary sense of the term, but is an 
affection of the vocal organs extending to the surface of the 
throat. There is a relaxed and elongated state of the uvula. 
The surface of the back part of the throat has a reddish-purple 
and congested appearance. The throat becomes dry and 
the mucus tenacious, so that a constant hawking is occasioned. 
Hoarseness and difficulty in speaking follow. There is some 
pain felt in the seat of the organs of voice, and the voice 
becomes so altered that it is scarcely audible, or is harsh and 
discordant. 

Treatment. — As this affection depends partly upon the 
state of the general health, its condition should be carefully 
looked to. There is, however, much to be done by the care- 
ful management of the respiration in public speaking, so as 
not to admit a rush of cold air upon the organs at the instant 
of using them. The lungs should be filled as much as possi- 
ble through the nostrils, by which means the air is warmed and 
the force of its entry in inspiration is moderated. 

There are two remedies which have considerable power 
over the parts, viz.: the nitrate of silver, and sulphurous acid. 
The nitrate of silver may be freely applied with a mop of 
sponge on the end of a stick or piece of whalebone. Nitrate 
of silver, 40 grains; distilled water, 3 ounces. The sponge 
dipped in this solution should be applied to the congested 
surface of the throat. As, however, this does not effectually 
apply the remedy to the deeper seat of the affection, the 
organs of voice, a " spray apparatus " will be found much more 
effectual. Several convenient forms of the apparatus can be 
had of the surgical instrument makers, with directions for 
their use. The sulphurous acid solution is a very valuable 
means in these cases, when thus applied, twice a day, the 
inspiration of the spray being repeated for about twenty 
minutes each time. 

Colic. — Symptoms and Diagnosis. — A severe twisting and 
griping pain in the bowels, accompanied with flatulence, 
sometimes with vomiting, and always attended with consti' 
pation. The pain is paroxysmal and comes on suddenly, and 
is rather relieved than aggravated by pressure, as would be 
the case in inflammation of the bowels, in which also the manner 
of the attack is different, being in general less sudden in the 
onset, and constant. In colic the tongue is not necessarily 
furred, nor is the pulse quickened, both of which conditions 



MEDICINAL. 445 

-svill be found in inflammation of the bowels. In one obsti- 
nate form of colic the action of the bowels becomes reversed, 
and vomiting of the motions may take place. In such a case 
it should be clearly made out that no rupture or internal 
strangulation of the intestines exists. It is to be observed that 
a mere muscular pain may be mistaken for colic or for inflam- 
mation — the latter; it may be added, more likely than the 
former to be the error that is committed. 

Treatment. — The cause of this painful malady being 
generally the irritation of some indigestible or acrid food — 
such as unripe fruit, poisonous fungi, uncooked vegetables, 
sour drinks, etc., — these should be removed as quickly as 
possible, by a full dose of castor oil, with from twenty to forty 
drops of laudanum for an adult, repeated every three or four 
hours if need be. At the same time hot fomentations or tur- 
pentine stupes should be applied over the belly. A hot bath 
will often relieve pain and relax the spasm which causes both 
the pain and the constipation. If flatulence be a predominant 
symptom, it is very likely the cause of the spasm of the bowel. 
In that case, the following will probably give relief: 

Rhubarb powder, 20 grains; carbonate of magnesia, 30 
grains; spirits of nutmeg (or peppermint), i drachm; spirits of 
salvolatile, i drachm; water, 2 ounces. Taken as a draught, 
and repeated in four or five hours if the colic continue. A dose 
of laudanum may be added. This same mixture, in reduced 
doses (omitting the laudanum), will serve well for the flatulent 
griping to which infants are liable. 

Painters' Colic — Being caused by the poisonous influence 
of white lead (used in their trade), the treatment varies some- 
what. White lead (carbonate of lead) being the poisonous 
pigment that forms the basis of most paint, is rendered inert 
by being converted into sulphate of lead. 

Treatment. — This consists in the administration of sul- 
phate of magnesia (Epsom salts) with alum and laudanum. 
Thus — Epsom salts, 2 ounces; alum, i drachm; laudanum, 80 
minims; water, 8 ounces. Mix. Give an eighth part every 
three or four hours, until the bowels are purged and the pain 
relieved; other local means, as above mentioned, being also 
employed. Painters may almost entirely avoid the occurrence 
of colic by making it a point always to wash their hands before 
meals. 

Strangulation of the Bowel. — Closely allied to colic, 
and sometimes following upon it, is this accident, although it 
may occur from several conditions independent of colic. It is 
more frequently met with in young children than in adults, as 
an independent affection. Extreme obstruction of the intes- 



44G MEDIQINAL. 

lines, from an overloaded condition, may give rise to the same 
set of symptoms. It may be scarcely possible to distinguish 
between them, except by the result. Fortunately the treat- 
ment may be the same. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are: Frequent desire to empty 
the bowel, without success; severe pain, usually at some one 
spot, with extreme tenderness in that part. 

Treatment. — As soon as the fruitless nature of the 
attempts to evacuate the intestines are apparent, all purgatives 
should be withheld. Clysters of large quantities of warm 
water, or of warm olive oil, should be passed gently into the 
bowel. By persevering with these, the obstruction is some- 
times overcome, and if the cause of the obstruction be loaded 
bowels, relief will pretty surely follow. The obstruction may 
last for several days, and yet give way to this simple and 
unirritating mode of treatment. Vomiting and nausea gener- 
ally attend these cases, which may be relieved by pieces of ice 
and small quantities of champagne, or soda-water and brandy. 

Concussion of the Brain. — Symptoms. — This condition may 
be the result of either a fall, or blow on the head, or it may be 
occasioned by a violent jerk to the body, especially to the lower 
part of the spine. After one or other of these -idents, the 
symptoms of concussion will be: Unconsciousii'^ ^, and loss of 
power of moving; a small and feeble pulse; the pupil of the 
eye insensible to the light; the complexion pallid; skin cold, 
and there may be vomiting. Convulsions, also, are likely to 
occur if a child is the subject of concussion. 

Treatment. — Small quantities of stimulants, such as wine, 
brandy, ether, or salvolatile in water, should be given every 
half hour, if the patient can swallow, until signs of reaction 
begin to show themselves. This will be known by the restora- 
tion of warmth and color to the surface of the body, together 
with increased force in the pulse, and gradually reviving con- 
sciousness. ._j 

Congestion of the Brain. — Symptoms. — Many very differ- 
ent sets of symptoms are often included under this one term. 
Thus, a " fit " is said to be caused by congestion of the brain, 
and so is a feverish condition with "head symptoms," so with 
a " stroke," so also with delirium. 

It is indicated by headache, giddiness, unusual dullness of 
the mind, and of the senses of sight and hearing, or preternat- 
ural excitability, impairment of memory, noises in the ears, 
and a flushed countenance. There is feebleness or sluggish- 
ness of movement. The dullness may pass on into apoplexy, 
or paralysis, or convulsions; or the morbid excitabily may be 
but the precursor of inflammation of the brain. 



MEDICINAL. 447 

Treatment. — The treatment must be modified very much 
by its causes. If from over use of the brain, change of scene, 
fresh air, and bodily exercise may be sufficient to dispel it. 
Shower-baths, with tonic medicines and mild aperients, will 
suffice. Sea-bathing, or plunging-bath, should be avoided, so 
long as there are any symptoms referable to the brain. If the 
dullness and heaviness persist, more active purgatives may be 
employed, and a rather more abstemious diet followed. 

Constipation. — Costiveness of the bowels is a relative con- 
dition — with most persons in health the daily evacuation of the 
intestines is a habit, while others will allow several days to pass 
without experiencing any discomfort from sluggishness of the 
bowels. When this is prolonged beyond the ordinary period, 
various functional derangements occur — e. g., headache, dys- 
pepsia, nausea, flatulent distention, etc. 

Treatment. — The graver cases of obstinate obstruction, if 
they can be made out to be the result of neglected constipa- 
tion, may be relieved sometimes by hot baths, with repeated 
small doses of castor oil (a quarter or half an ounce every two 
hours), or by a pill composed of two grains of extract of aloes 
and two grains of hard soap, given also every two hours. At 
the same time clysters of warm soap and water with castor oil 
(two ounces of oil to a pint of warm soap and water) may be 
thrown into the bowels every two or three hours. The sick- 
ness meanwhile may be relieved by soda-water or champagne, 
or by swallowing small pieces of ice. The pain should at the 
same time be relieved by repeated small doses of laudanuia 
(fifteen or twenty drops). It is to be noted that opium should 
not be given to infants or young children. 

Consumption. — The approach of this disease is, as is well 
known, often most insiduous and.gradual, so that its real exist- 
ence may be masked and overlooked in its early stage. 

Symptoms. — The first symptom that will generally excite 
fear is cough. If a young person, a member of a family where- 
in consumption has been known to occur, has a dry, irritable, 
ringing cough, or a short, moist cough every morning, and last- 
ing for some time, suspicion should be excited. The cough 
continuing, some " tightness " in breathing is expressed, and a 
general derangement of the health follows, with some loss of 
flesh and strength, disinclination to exertion, dyspepsia, costive- 
ness. Irregular mensturation commonly attends the approach 
of consumption. The cough occasionally, but not commonly 
in this early stage, is accompanied with a slight expectoration 
of blood, and with "stitches" in the ?ide, or partial attacks of 
pleurisy. These early symptoms may last a variable time, and 
their true import be overlooked until on some one occasion a 



UG MEDICINAL 

profuse bleeding from the lungs, or "breaking a blood-vessel" 
in popular language, occurs and draws attention to the real 
cause of all the previous ill health. An attack of inflammation 
of the lungs, or of pleurisy, may also occur. Or, as is the more 
common course of the disease, the cough becomes more fre- 
quent, and is attended with thick, copious expectorations; the 
emaciation becomes more striking; the pulse increases in fre- 
quency, and is more feeble; the patient suffers frorq chills, and 
flushes of the face and hands. 

As the disease advances these symptoms become more pro- 
nounced as hectic fever; diarrhoea becomes a troublesome 
symptom; there are profuse night sweats, and rapidly increas- 
ing debility. In the face of all these signs of an approaching 
fatal termination, the patient indulges himself with false hopes 
of recovery, and dies sometimes with projects and schemes for 
the future on his lips. 

Treatment. — So tar as the causes are under control, all 
prejudicial habits or conditions should be avoided by the 
patient; all dissipation or excessive work, either bodily or 
mental. Regular outdoor exercise, with due protection of the 
surface of the body, and of the lungs also, by respirators in 
cold weather, avoiding especially sudden change from heated 
rooms to cold air. Cold sponging and friction of the surface 
of the body will tend to promote the general health. A nour- 
ishing full diet should be taken, consisting of meat, eggs, milk; 
and, if there be wasting of the body, malt liquor and wine. 
Residence at the seaside will often so far improve the health 
as to retard the progress of disease; but change of climate is of 
little use unless adopted early in the course of the disease. It 
will then sometimes save or prolong a life. Temperate or cold 
climates are more suitable for consumptive patients than hot 
climates. 

Of medicines, tonics are those which are most useful. In 
the early stages of the disease, iodide of potass is useful — e. g., 
five grains thrice a day with a drachm of tincture of bark. Cod- 
liver oil, with some mineral acid, thus: Dilute nitric acid, 20 
drops; tincture of gentian, i drachm; water, a wine glass full, 
with cod-liver oil, one teaspoonful. Pain in the chest may be 
relieved by mustard plasters, or painting with blistering liquid. 
Tincture of iodine painted under the collar bones, in the earli- 
est stages, diminishes cough and relieves pain. 

Convulsions, or Fits, are, strictly speaking, symptoms, not 
a disease; thus they are seen in the low weak state of the ter- 
mination of disease of various kinds; they are seen in hysteri- 
cal excitement, and are caused by the disturbance of parturi- 
tion, and of dentition. They occur in apoplexy, in epilepsy, 
and other diseases of the nervous system. 



MEDICINAL. 449 

Treatment. — At the time of the convulsions but httle can 
really be done — cold water may be dashed on the face, and 
mustard plasters applied to the soles of the feet and calves of 
the legs. In the fits of children — the child's body being im- 
mersed in a hot bath — cold water should be poured on the 
head from a jug held at a good height. The hot bath, how- 
ever, cannot be repeated if the fits recur with frequency; the 
cold water can always with safety be poured on the head. 

Corns. — Repeated soaking of the feet in hot water and par- 
ing down the corn with a sharp knife, then applying nitrate of 
silver, and afterwards paring cff the hardened black skin. 
Corn-plasters, having a hole in the center, give great relief also 
in wearing. Soft corns are relieved by soaking in warm water, 
and the subsequent application of nitrate of silver. A thick 
plaster to take off unequal pressure, is extremely serviceable. 

Cough. — See Bronchitis, Consumption, etc.; also List of 
Medicines, Expectorants. 

Croup. — This is a disease which is alarming, from the sud- 
denness of its attack and the rapidity with which its runs its 
fatal course if unchecked; but, on the other hand, in the ma- 
jority of cases, it is easily checked if the treatment begins imme- 
diately it occurs. 

Symptoms. — The following is generally the course of the 
disease: A child is put to bed in its ordinary health, appar- 
ently, or it may have a slight cold, and a cough a trifle rough, 
but not enough to excite attention to it. After a variable time 
the child wakes up with a hoarse, ringing, rasping cough and 
difficulty in breathing, and countenance expressive of ils 
trouble; each inspiration and expiration being attended with a 
rough metallic tubular sound, and the voice masked or obliter- 
ated by a harsh, hoarse, croaking vocalization. The cough is 
dry, harassing, and unattended with expectoration in the out- 
set, but after awhile some portions of a membrane-like mucus 
may be coughed up. The pulse becomes rapid, the skin hot, 
the countenance more and more distressed, and if relief be not 
afforded, the patient becomes drowsy, the complexion becomes 
blue, and the little patient may die from suffocation within 
forty-eight hours. Happily, however, this is not the most com- 
mon course of the disease, if the treatment be prompt and 
active. 

The first thing to be done is to give a teaspoonful of ipe- 
cacuanha V. ine every ten minutes until vomiting occurs. Ipecac- 
uanha wine is preferable to antimonial wine, as the latter is too 
depressing. (Where children are subject to croup, ipecac- 
uanha wine should always be at hand.) Mean .. hile, a hot bath 
should be prepared, and used as quickly as possible^ and while 

?7 



450 MEDICINAL. 

in the hot bath a wet sponge, sprinkled with mustard, should 
be held on the upper part of the chest and front of the neck. 
After the vomiting has subsided, small doses of the ipecacuanha 
wine (from five to fifteen drops, according to the age of the 
child) should be continued every three hours, until the hoarse- 
ness in the breathing and voice ceases and the cough becomes 
loose. The atmosphere of the bedroom should be kept warm 
and moist by steam from a pipe or spout of a kettle. The 
temperature should not be allowed to fall below 60 degrees, i/ 
possible. The diet light and simple. 

As a last resource, supposing these remedies are not at hand 
or obtainable, and the disease is making rapid strides, life may 
be saved by applying scalding water to the neck, holding if 
there on a sponge or flannel for a minute at least. This is a 
most extreme and violent means, but it is one by which th« 
writer has seen a life saved. 

DandrifF. — Symptoms. — Scurf, or dandriff, consists in an 
exuberant exfoliation of the minute scales of the outer skin 
and sometimes forms an obstinate and annoying effection of 
the hairy scalp. 

Treatment. — Rub in some mild ointment or pomatum, 
over night, and wash it out in the morning with soap. Or ap- 
ply the following ointment at bedtime: Ointment of red pre- 
cipitate, 2 ounces; balsam of Peru, i drachm, and wash it out 
the next morning with juniper tar soap. 

Deliriuin Tremens. — Symptoms. — Although one of the 
medical terms for the affection, Afani'a a potii (drunkard's mad- 
ness) expresses its most common source, yet there are condi- 
tions of a very different nature to which occasionally its origin 
may be traced. Thus a predisposition to it is engendered by 
excessive mental anxiety or exertion, while it may also be ex- 
cited by any cause of debility operating secretly and suddenly, 
such as loss of blood, a serious wound or injury, a severe men- 
tal shock. Symptoms sometimes follow on these, precisely re- 
sembling those seen in the ordinary delirium tremens, and it 
would be incorrect morally and medically to attribute them in 
such instances to the vice of intemperance. The symptoms 
generally appear suddenly, sometimes after a premonitory state 
of nervous restlessness, with disturbed sleep, loss of appetite, 
and general derangement of the bodily health. 

Treatment. — Where the cause has clearly been intemper- 
ance, the first, and, indeed, the cardinal point in the treatment, 
is to get the alcohol that has caused the disease withdrawn from 
the system. It is usual to administer freely of stimulants; 
which plan possibly arose out of the proverbial treatment of 
hydrophobia — "a hair out of the tail of the dog that bit you." 



MEDICINAL. 451 

The practice is contrary to reason, and has not the results of 
experience in its support. The system being already more 
than saturated with alcohol, it is surely heaping Pelion on Ossa 
to administer more. The practice further places the victim of 
his own bad habits at a disadvantage, by robbing him of the 
opportunity of breaking them off. Too often, indeed, what- 
ever pains may be taken to restrain him, "the sow that was 
washed will return to her wallowing in the mire;" but no rea- 
son is thereby supplied for Holding the poor beast down in the 
mire. 

If the patient be preserved as much as possible from the 
sources of excitement, by being kept in a quiet and darkened 
chamber, protected by strong attendants from injuring himself 
or others, and fed with light nourishing diet, such as beef-tea, 
arrowroot, milk, eggs, etc., the delirium will gradually subside, 
and sleep will follow. This plan of treatment, which has been 
advocated by Dr. Wilks, of Guy's Hospital, has the great ad- 
vantage over the usual systematic administration of heroic 
doses of opium, that it is safer. In the hands of non-profes- 
sional persons, the attempt to cure delirium tremens by large 
doses of opium, must succeed only by the death of many pa- 
tients. If, as the delirium subsides, the pulse be found feeble, 
ammonia may be given, or steel and quinine. In what has 
now been laid down in regard to the delirium of mania a potu, 
it is not intended to forbid the moderate use of stimulants and 
opiates in delirium arising out of other causes of delirium than 
drink. In the sleepless delirium of a brain exhausted by over- 
work, from shock, or by other debilitating causes, small quan- 
tities of wine or brandy, and doses of Dover's powder, may be 
advisable. 

Dentition, Teething Fever, Irritation of the Brain.— The 

febrile disturbance attending the cutting of the first set of teeth, 
which process is not complete until the end of two years, is 
often very considerable, and, inasmuch as the symptoms pro- 
duced by it not seldom resemble to a certain extent those of 
inflammation of the brain, they have been collectively termed 
"irritation" of the brain, although it would not be easy for 
those who employ the term to define it. 

A febrile condition appears, the infant becomes restless and 
fretful, its rest is disturbed, its head becomes hot. The gums 
are swollen and hot. Sometimes there is sickness and diar- 
rhoea, in other cases the bowels are found to be costive. One 
point of distinction between the disturbance of teething and 
that caused by inflammation of the brain, is that the soft space 
on the top of the head, if it still remain open, is not full and 
raised, but depressed and cupped. Another point to be noticed 
is the age of the infant. Dentition commences at very varying 



453 MEDICINAL. 

periods — from the ages of three or four to upwards of twelve 
months — and is usually completed on or about two years of 
age, so that these symptoms occurring sooner or later must be 
regarded as depending upon some other morbid condition of 
the brain or its membranes. Before the teeth appear, their 
growth is often indicated by dribbling, which may appear as 
early as two months of age. Over-feeding or indiscreet dieting 
will sometimes produce the symptoms of brain disturbance. It 
should be borne in mind that the period of dentition is one of 
febrile disturbance in the constitution, and is calculated, in the 
event of the existence of any lurking taint of constitutional 
disorder, to be the occasion of its being brought out into 
activity. This being the case, and dentition frequently follow- 
ing near to the operation of vaccination, the letter has to bear 
the discredit of what probably neither the one nor the other 
alone would produce. 

Treatment. — In the first place, use warm baths and mild 
aperients, such as magnesia or grey powder, with a light, care- 
ful diet. This will generally suffice to assist in removing the 
symptoms, which, however, generally quickly subside if the 
gum can be lanced. 

Diabetes. — Considerable misapprehension of the meaning 
of this word exists in the minds of many persons. It is not 
every excessive secretion of urine that constitutes diabetes. In 
the sense of a disease, as here intended, it includes the voiding 
of sugar therewith persistently. 

Symptoms. — This condition comes on very gradually and 
insidiously. The patient gets out of health, is weak, has a 
general feeling of malaise, why or how he does not know. This 
state of things continuing for some time, he begins to notice 
that he voids more urine than usual, and at last perceives that 
very large quantites are voided. Then loss of flesh to emaci- 
ation becomes observable, as also thirst, with dryness of the 
tongue, which exhibits great fissures in its length. The breath 
acquires a smell like fresh hay. The skin becomes harsh, the 
bowels constipated. There may be some pain in the loins. 

Treatment. — The principal part of the treatment resolves 
itself into rigid cieting, which should consist in the exclusion 
of sugar in all its form?, and in the use of animal food, mainly 
— e. g., meat, eggs, milk. "What to eat, drink, and avoid," 
becomes almost the business of life, in some cases of diabetes. 
We may briefly enumerate some rules for the guidance of choice 
in diet. 

What to Eat and Drink. — Bran bread, gluten-bread; 
mutton or beef; poultry, game; ham, sausages, brawn; white- 
fish, shell-fish — e. g., oysters, lobsters, crabs; green vegetables 



MEDICINAL. 453 

and salads; water, milk, tea, coffee; claret, sherry, brandy and 
water. Condiments, e. g., vinegar, pickles, mustard, salt. 

What to Avoid. — Ordinary bread, potatoes, farinaceous 
substances generally; sweet fruits and pastry of any kind; malt 
liquors and sweet wines. These rules of dieting should be 
rigidly observed by young subjects of diabetes; they may be 
somewhat relaxed in the cases of aged persons. The surface 
of the body should be protected by warm flannel undergar- 
ments; the sponge bath, with brisk friction, should also be 
employed to promote the circulation in the skin. 

Medicines. — The only medicine that can be administered 
with any certainty of benefit is opium. This may be given in 
the form of pills, half a grain three times a day, or as Dover's 
powder, five grains three times a day. The dose may be safely, 
if very cautiously, augmented. 

DiarrhOBa. — As a symptom of bilious disorder, and as con- 
stituting the prominent feature of English or Asiatic cholera, 
this complaint will be found treated of under those heads. 
There is, however, a common form of the disorder, which 
appears very often in hot weather, without any other indica- 
tion, and which, if neglected, will lead to fully-developed 
cholera, if that disease or its causes be at the time prevalent; 
while, on the other hand, it is easily arrested if taken in time. 

Treatment. — For an ordinary attack of diarrhoea — not 
arising from any known cause, such as irregularity of diet — a 
dose of the common chalk mixture (one ounce), with a drachm 
of tincture of catechu, repeated every three or four hours, will 
generally prove sufficient. If otherwise, three or four drops of 
creasote, mixed with a teaspoonful of spirits of salvolatile in a 
wineglass of water, will check it. 

If the diarrhoea be profuse, and attended with much pain, a 
single dose of one grain of opium (taken as a pill) will often 
be sufficient for the purpose of relieving pain and arresting the 
purging. This dose is for an adult only. Diarrhoea occurring 
in infants and young children is best controlled by one or two 
teaspoonfuls of chalk mixture, given after each loose purge. If 
it prove obstinate, the following will most probably be efficaci- 
ous: Take a few chips of logwood and boil half an hour in 
half a pint of water. Mix two ounces of this decoction with 
half a drachm of powdered alum, and enough powdered sugar 
to sweeten it, and give a teaspoonful after each action of the 
bowels. 

Diseases of the Eye. — Ophthalmia (inflammation of the 
eye). There are several forms of this disease, named accord- 
ing to the exciting cause of the inflammation. They are seen 



454 MEDICINAL. 

in the following forms: Catarrhal; Purulent in children; 
Purulent in adults; Strumous, or Scrofulous; Rheumatic. 

Catarrhal Ophthalmia (Mild or Catarrhal Inflam- 
mation OF THE Eye). — Symptoms. — There is a redness or 
bloodshot appearance of the eye, an itching and smarting pain 
in it such as might be caused by a grain of sand or dust. 
There is a certain feeling of stiffness in moving the ball of the 
eye, and some difficulty is experienced in looking at the light. 
There is also a profuse discharge of tears from the eye, which 
causes the lids to be gkied together in the morning, when the 
patient wakes. If the disease becomes more acute, there is a 
discharge of thicker matter. Sometimes this form of ophthal- 
mia terminates in the formation of vesicles on the eye. 

Treatment. — The following lotion will be found useful: 
Sulphate of zinc, 3 grains, dissolved in distilled water, one and 
a half ounces. A drop or two of this lotion should be carefully 
dropped into the corner of the eye, the lids being then parted, 
the lotion will run into the eye. If a small notch be cut along 
each side of the phial cork, the lotion can be allowed to pour 
out only a drop or two at a time. A dose of compound ipeca- 
cuanha powder (Dover's powder) at bedtime, and a few doses 
of saline aperient will generally set this form of inflammation to 
rights. If, however, the discharge should become thick, and 
the pain more severe, blistering should be applied to the 
temple. 

Purulent Ophthalmia of Children. — Symptoms. — This 
generally commences on the second or third day after birth, 
and extends over the entire surface of the eye. There is swell- 
ing of the lids, which are glued together by a copious discharge 
of pus or matter,which, when the lids are separated, pours out 
from between them. On opening them, the inside of the lid is 
found to be of a bright scarlet color. The discharge from the 
eyes is generally yellow, but it becomes sometimes green, or 
tinged with blood. Should the inflammation not be properly 
and early attended to, it causes ulceration of the cornea or 
transparent circle in the centre of the front of the eye, and, if 
this occur, blindness follows. 

Purulent Ophthalmia of Adults. — Egyptian Oph- 
thalmia. — Symptoms. — This disease is very similar to the 
above, with these exceptions, that it generally attacks both eyes 
at once, and there is but little intolerance of light. In this 
disease also the inflammation sometimes spreads into the ball 
of the eye, causing thereby intense intermittent pain. 

Treatment. — Purulent ophthalmia requires very much the 
same treatment, both for adults and for infants. It must be 



MEDICINAL. 455 

stated, however, that this form of the disease in infants is catch- 
ing. Great care should therefore be taken to wipe the dis- 
charge with pieces of rag which can be burnt directly. Alter 
applying the various remedies recommended, the hands should 
always be carefully washed. 

The following lotion should be dropped into the eye as 
above directed: Nitrate of silver, 3 grains, dissolved in dis- 
tilled rain water, one and a half ounce. (The solution of ni- 
trate of silver will stain like marking ink anything it falls upon.) 
Blisters should be a])plied behind the ear on the affected side, 
or on the temples. For adults the following mixture should be 
taken: Epsom salts, 4 drachms; powdered nitrate of potash, 
tartar emetic, i grain; nitre, 30 grains; infusion of senna, 2 
ounces; water to 6 ounces; a sixth part every four hours. The 
first dose or two may produce sickness; this will subside with 
subsequent doses, and is calculated to check the inflammation.. 
To infants, a teaspoonful of fluid magnesia should be given 
every day, or more frequently if the bowels be confined. Should 
the pain be very severe, ten grains of Dover's powder may be 
given, but only to adults, as it contains opium. 

Rheumatic Ophthalmia. — Symptoms. — A form of inflam- 
mation which attacks the thick Avhite coat of the eye. The 
eye becomes of a dusky red, but not so much blood-shot as in 
the other forms. The fully distended blood-vessels can be 
distinguished radiating in straight lines from the edge of the 
cornea or transparent circular membrane in the front of the 
eye, which also becomes duller. There is excessive flow of 
tears, and great intolerance of light. In this form of inflam- 
mation the pain is more intense, and is not confined to the 
ball of the eye, but is felt in the surrounding bones of the 
forehead and cheek. 

Treatment, — If the inflammation be very acute, it will be 
advisable to apply three or four leeches on the temples, and 
then to blister either in that situation, or behind the ear. The 
following aperient should be given at once, and repeated until 
it acts: Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom salts), 2 drachms; 
powdered nitrate of potash (nitre), 10 grains; infusion of senna, 
one-half ounce; peppermint water, one-half ounce. 

The following mixture should be taken three times a day, 
after the above draught has acted upon the bowels: Iodide of 
potassium, 40 grains; bicarbonate of potash, 80 grains; col- 
chicum wine, 2 drachms; water to make 8 ounces. Two 
tablespoonfuls for a dose three times a day. 

The following ointment should be applied round the eye, 
avoiding the raw or tender surface of a blister or leech-bites: 
Extract of belladonna, 80 grains; prepared lard, i ounce. Rub 
together. 



456 MEDICINAL. 

Inflammation of the Cornea, or Transparent Circu- 
lar Membrane in Front of the Eye. — Symptoms. — This 
membrane first appears slightly hazy. This haziness increases, 
and the membrane becomes slightly opaque. Minute white 
specks may be observed on the membrane; these, after a time, 
prove to be ulcers. Sometimes a yellow spot appears. This 
is a small quantity of matter which is contained between the 
layers of the membrane. If this is dischargjd inside the 
cornea, it falls to the lower edge, and may be seen there like a 
yellow crescent. It may, however, ulcerate through in front, 
and be thus discharged. Ulcers of the cornea, when healed, 
always leaves an opaque white spot. Sometimes they perfor-. 
ate the membrane, and thus allow of the escape of the fluid 
which is contained at the back of it. The eye all round the 
cornea is bloodshot; there is a bright scarlet ring close round 
the edge of the cornea. 

Treatment. — This should be much the same as recom- 
mended for rheumatic ophthalmia, with this exception — instead 
of the iodide of potassium mixture, recommended for that 
disorder, the following will be found more useful in this case: 
Sulphate of quinine, 16 grains; dilute sulphuric acid, i 
drachm; syrup of orange peel, i ounce; water to make 8 
ounces. Mix. Two tablespoonfuls should be taken three 
times a day. 

Inflammation of the Iris, or Colored Band Round 
THE Pupil of the Eye. — The iris is a muscle, and is largely 
supplied with blood by numbers of minute vessels, and there- 
fore very liable to inflammation. The forms of inflammation 
which attack the iris may by divided into two kinds, ist, that 
from which arises after injuries, over-exertion of the eyes, 
cold, and other common causes of inflammation. This is 
called Idiopathic Iritis. 2nd, those forms which are caused by 
the poison of constitutional diseases. This is called Specific 
Iritis. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms both of idiopathic and specific 
iritis are mainly the same, with this exception— the symptoms 
of the latter kind show themselves rather more slowly than 
those of the former. There is a change of color in the iris 
itself, causing it to lose its brilliant appearance; it becomes 
muddy, or acquires a tint which is formed by the mixture of 
red with the original color. There is loss of power of motion, 
whereby the sharp outline forming the pupil is destroyed and 
becomes irregular. The substance of the iris is swollen, there 
appear little brown lumps or nodules on the surface of it, 
and these sometimes increase in size, so much as to block up 
the pupil. There is severe pain all round the ball of the eye, 



MEDICINAL. 45? 

affecting the cheek and temple. This pain becomes worse at 
night. 

Treatment. — Idiopathic iritis: Three or four leeches 
should be applied to the temple; the light should be carefully- 
excluded by means of a shade covering the eye; perfect rest 
o: the eye is important. The patient should take for some 
little time a low diet of broth, bread, and gruel, or barley 
water. 

The eyebrow should be painted with extract or ointment 
of belladonna. 

One of the following pills should be taken every six hours 
by adults: Calomel, 3 grains; powdered opium, 3 grains; 
confection of roses, a sufficient quantity to make a small mass, 
to be divided into six pills. The effect of these pills on the 
gums should be carefully watched. 

Dislocations. — The difference between dislocations and 
fractures is that in fracture the bone is broken, while in dis- 
location it is, as a consequence of some violence, forced from 
its connection with the neighboring bones. As we speak of 
compound fractures, or those which are accompanied by a 
wound, simple fractures, or those in which there is no wound 
of the skin, so in dislocations, these may be either simple or 
compound. 

It is not always an easy matter to distinguish between a 
fracture and a dislocation. In certain forms if fracture, there 
is no crepitation or grating ot the ends of the bones to be 
detected, as the same violence which breaks the bone drives 
the fragments forcibly together, and causes them to become 
impacted, or fixed together. In fractures about the region of 
a joint, the crepitation would be a main symptom by which to 
distinguish this injury from dislocation. Where it is absent, it 
is almost impossible for a non-professional person to come to a 
decision as to the real nature of the accident. Should, how- 
ever, surgical assistance not be obtainable, the best plan to 
pursue will be to pull steadily at the injured limb until it 
resumes its shape and length. By this means, if the bones be 
dislocated, it may be possible to reduce the dislocation, and if 
fractured, it may, by loosening the bones, cause the distinctive 
sound of crepitation, and other signs of fracture, to be dis- 
tinguished. 

Dislocation of the Jaw. — This may readily be detected 
by the imbecile appearance it gives the patient. The mouth 
is fixed wide open, and the saliva runs out at the corners. It 
is impossible to cose the mouth, the patient making ineffectual 
efforts to articu ate. 

Treatment. — The patient should be seated in a high- 



458 MEDICINAL. 

backed chair, or against a wall, in such a manner that his head 
may lean against the back of the chair, or the wall. The 
operator should then wrap a couple of napkins round his 
thumb?:, one on each, and when by this means they are well 
protected, he should place them as far back along the jaw 
inside the month as he can reach. He should then press with 
his thumbs downward and backwards, and at the same time 
raise the chin with his fingers. The bone will return to its 
place with a snap. The advantage of having wrapped the 
thumbs well round with napkins will then be experienced; for 
the teeth come together very sharply, and, were the thumbs not 
well protected, bites of a severe character might be suffered. 
Another method pursued for the reduction of this dislocation 
is to place a couple of corks between the back teeth, raising 
the chin, and making the corks act as a fulcrum between the 
jaws. 

Dislocation of the Shoulder Joint. — This may be 
distinguished by the evident lengthening of the arm and flat- 
tening of the shoulder. If compared with the other side there 
will be found a dent, or depression, just under the point of 
the shoulder. Frequently the round head of the arm-bone 
may be felt in the armpit. 

Treatment. — The patient should sit on the ground and 
lean his shoulder against a sofa or couch; the operator should 
mount the couch, and, having removed his boot, should place 
his foot gently on the patient's injured shoulder; at the same 
time he should raise the dislocated arm upwards, gently 
increasing the pressure made by his foot on the shoulder. By 
these means the bone may soon be felt to slip into the socket 
with a jerk. When this is effected, the arm should be gradu- 
ally restored to its original position, and there fastened by 
bandaging for about a week. 

Hip Joint. — This dislocation may be recognized by the 
deformity of the limb, the inability to stand on the injured 
extremity, and, perhaps, the head of the bone may be detected 
out of its place under the skin. 

Treatment. — The plan to be pursued is to place the 
patient on his back, the operator taking off his boot, and 
placing his heel between the patient's thighs, to make a steady 
pull at the foot till the bone slips into the socket. The great 
obstacle to success in this kind of proceeding, is the muscular 
resistance offered by the patient involuntarily. To overcome, 
or rather to divert this, the patient's attention should, if pos- 
sible, be called away to something else, or, if this is of no 
avail, ipecacuanha should be given in doses of one-fourth to 



MEDICINAL. 459 

one grain every quarter of an hour. By its nauseating pro- 
perties it debilitates the patient and relaxes the muscles. 

Compound Dislocations. — These, consisting of fractures 
also, are, of course, more dangerous than simple dislocations, 
and are rendered very serious if complicated with fracture. 

Treatment. — The bones should be replaced as nearly as 
possible in their natural position, as in the case of simple dislo- 
cation. Any bleeding should be stopped, either by the appli- 
cation of cold water, or, if that is insufficient, bleeding arteries 
should be sought and tied. (See Haemorrhage.) When the 
bleeding has been checked, the wound should be searched for 
splinters of bone, which should be removed by the forceps. 
The wound should then be dressed and splints applied, as 
recommended under Compound Fractures. 

Dog Bites. — These are very much, though somewhat un- 
necessarily, dreaded, on account of the fear which exists that 
they may be followed by hydrophobia. When it is considered 
how many people are bitten by dogs, and how few people have 
hydrophobia, it will be seen of what groundless nature is that 
fear. 

The best method of treatment which can be pursued in dog 
bites is to make a free application of lunar caustic to the bite. 

Hydrophobia. — Although, as above stated, hydrophobia is 
excessively rare, its occasional occurrence cannot be doubted; 
it will therefore be advisable not to neglect the above remedies, 
as there is no doubt that the confidence inspired by their adop- 
tion soothes alarm, and prevents nervous excitement conse- 
quent on fright alone. 

Treatment. — Should hydrophobia come on, chloroform, 
Indian hemp, and opium are the only means that offer any 
chance of allaying the symptoms. These drugs may, in such 
£1 case, be given in larger doses and at shorter intervals than 
under other circumstances, watching carefully their effects. 
(For doses, see List of Medicines.) 

Dropsy. — This is purely a symptom of disease of some 
internal organ, or is the result of the debility and deterioration 
of the blood in certain eruptive fevers. As its nature and 
treatment occur in speaking of the diseases of various organs, 
it is unnecessary to speak here what is said under those several 
headings. 

Drowning, or Suspended Animation. — The following in- 
structions, compiled by the Royal National Lifeboat Institu- 
tion, are the result of a wide field of experience: 

Restorative Treatment. — Send immediately for medi- 



460 MEDICINAL. 

cal assistance, blankets and dry clothing, but proceed to treat 
the patient instantly, on the spot, in the open air, with the face 
downwards, whether on shore or afloat; exposing the face, 
neck, and chest to the wind, except in severe weather, and 
removing all tight clothing from the neck and chest, especially 
the braces. The points to be aimed at are — first, and imme- 
diately, the restoration of breathing; and, secondly, after 
breathing is restored, the promotion of warmth and circula- 
tion. The efforts to restore breathing must be commenced 
immediately and energetically, and persevered in for one or 
two hours, or until a medical man has pronounced that life is 
extinct. Efforts to promote warmth and circulation, beyond 
removing the wet clothes and drying the skin, must not be 
made until the first appearance of natural breathing. For if 
the circulation of the blood be induced before breathing has 
commenced, the restoration of life will be endangered. 

To Restore Breathing. — Place the patient on the floor 
or ground, with the face downwards, and one of the arms 
under the forehead, in which position all fluids will more readily 
escape by the mouth, and the tongue itself will fall forward, 
leaving the entrance into the windpipe free. Assist the opera- 
tion by wiping and cleansing the mouth. 

If satisfactory breathing commences, use the treatment pre- 
scribed below to promote warmth. If there be only slight 
breathing, or no breathing, or if the breathing fail, then, to ex- 
cite breathing, turn the patient well and instantly on the side, 
supporting the head; and excite the nostrils with snuff, harts- 
horn, and smelling-salts, or tickle the throat with a feather, if 
they are at hand. Rub the chest and face warm, and dash 
cold water, or cold and hot water alternately, on them. If 
there be no success, lose not a moment, but instantly — to imi- 
tate breathing — replace the patient on the face, raising and 
supporting the chest well on folded coat or other article of 
dress. Turn the body very gently on the side and a little 
beyond, and then briskly on the face, back again; repeating 
these measures cautiously, efficiently, and perseveringly, about 
fifteen times in a minute^ or once every four or five seconds, 
occasionally varying the side. On each occasion that the body 
is replaced on the face, make uniform, but efficient, pressure, 
with brisk movement on the back between and below the 
shoulder-blades or bones on each side, removing the pressure 
immediately before turning the body on the sidcc During the 
whole operation, let one person attend solely to the movements 
of the head and of the arm placed under it. Whilst the above 
operations are being proceeded with, dry the hands and feet, 
and as soon as dry clothing or blankets can be procured, strip 
the body, and cover, or gradually reclothe, it, but taking care 
not to interfere with the efforts to restore breathing. 



MEDICINAL. 461 

Should these efforts not prove successful, m the course of 
fiom two to five minutes, proceed to imitate breathing by Dr, 
Silvester's method, recommended by the Royal Humane So- 
ciety, as follows: Place the patient on the back on a flat sur- 
face, inclined a little upwards from the feet; raise and support 
the head and shoulders on a small, firm cushion or folding arti- 
cle of dress placed under the shoulder-blades. Draw forward 
the patient's tongue, and keep it projecting beyond the lips — 
an elastic band over the tongue and under the chin will answer 
this purpose, or a piece of string or tape may be tied round 
them, or by raising the lower jaw the teeth may be made to 
retain the tongue in that posidon. Remove all tight clothing 
from above the neck and chest, especially the braces. To imi- 
tate the movement of breathing: Standing at the patient's 
head, grasp the arms just above the elbows, and draw the arms 
gently and steadily upwards above the head, and keep them 
stretched upwards for two seconds. (By this means air is 
drawn into the lungs). Then turn down the patient's arms and 
press them gently and firmly for two seconds against the sides 
of the chest. (By this means air is pressed out of the lungs.) 
Repeat these measures alternately, deliberately, and persever- 
ingly, about fifteen times a minute until a spontaneous effort 
to respire is perceived, immediately upon which cease to imitate 
the movements of breathing, and proceed to induce circulation 
and warmth. * 

Treatment after Natural Breathing has been Re- 
stored. — Commence rubbing the limbs upward, with firm, 
grasping pressure and energy, using handkerchiefs, flannels, 
etc. (By this measure the blood is propelled along the veins 
towards the heart.) The friction must be continued under the 
body by the application of hot flannels, bottles, or bladders of 
hot water, heated bricks, etc., to the pit of the stomach, the 
armpits, between the thighs, and to the soles of the feet. If 
the patient has been carried to a house after respiration has 
been restored, be careful to let the air play freely about the 
room. On the restoration of life, a teaspoonful of warm water 
should be given; and then, if the power of swallowing have 
returned, small quantities of wine, warm brandy and water, or 
coffee, should be administered. The patient should be kept 
in bed, and a disposition to sleep encouraged. 

Appearances which Generally Accompany Death. — 
Breathing and heart's action cease entirely; the eyelids are 
generally half closed, the pupils dilated, the jaws clinched, the 
fingers semi-contracted, the tongue approaches to the under 
edges of the lips, and these, as well as the nostrils, are covered 
with a frothy mucus. Coldness and pallor of surface in- 
creases. 



4G2 MEDICINAL. 

Cautions. — Prevent unnecessary crowding of persons 
round the body, especially if in an apartment. Avoid rough 
usage, and do not allow the body to remain on the back, unless 
the tongue is secured. Under no circumstances hold the body 
up by the feet. On no account place the body in a warm bath 
unless under medical direction, and even then it should only 
be employed as a momentary excitant. 

Dysentery, Bloody Flux. — This is an inflammation of the 
larger and lower intestine, more commonly met with in hot and 
Unhealthy climates, and on board of ships. It is ushered in 
with almost incessant desire to go to stool. The motions, hard 
and lumpy at first, become little more than blood and mucus, 
and are voided with painful straining. The pulse is rapid and 
feeble, the skin hot, the countenance anxious, the patient rest- 
less. In the worst cases the disease becomes chronic, and the 
patient is worn out by the pain and fever, or sinks rapidly into 
a state of collapse. 

Treatment. — A condition essential to the success of treat- 
ment is the removal of the patient, if possible, from the sphere 
of morbid influences that have predisposed him to the disease. 
Hence the importance of removal to a healthy situation, at the 
same time that the strictest care and temperance in mode of life 
be observed, and the protection of the surface of the body by 
warm flannel clothing. The early and acute symptoms may 
be subdued by hot baths, hot fomentations, and turpentine 
stupes to the abdomen. Half an ounce of castor oil should be 
given, and after it has acted and cleared away any hard motions, 
five grains of Dover's powder should be taken every four or 
six hours, according to the urgency of the case; with two 
grains of mercury and chalk if the motions still contain lumps 
of hardened faeces. The painful straining at stool is relieved 
by the injection into the bowel of twenty drops of laudanum 
mixed in a Avineglassful of cold gruel or starch. A gentle 
aperient at the end of a few days will assist the above remedies 
by removing morbid secretion and bloody mucus. A nourish- 
ing but light diet should be taken, avoiding all hard substances, 
and for sometime avoiding solids of any kind until the healthy 
action of the intestines is restored. 

The chronic form of the disease requires the continual use 
of metallic astringents with opium — e. g., Sulphate of copper, 
3 grains; powdered opium, 2 grains; bread crumbs, sufiicient 
to form a small mass. To be divided into six pills, one to be 
taken every six hours. Or: Acetate of lead, 12 grains; pow- 
dered opium, 2 grains. Made into pills in the same way, and 
one to be taken every six hours. 

^^ar-ache. — Symptoms. — Deafness, pain and noise in the 



MEDICINAL. 463 

ear, are often produced by the mere accumulation of wax in 
the ear. 

Treatment. — It will generally suffice to clear out the pas- 
sage by syringing. A large syringe and plenty of water should 
be used. If not relieved in this way, the application of 
repeated mustard plasters behind the ears will have a good 
effect. 

Ear, Inflammation in. — In Internal Ear. — Inflammation 
in the ear will be inferred from the occurrence of a severe, dull 
pain in the head, where the ear is placed, accompanied with 
confusion or loss of hearing, a considerable degree of fever, 
and even of delirium, if the inflammation be seated in the 
internal ear. 

Treatment. — This, in the first case, should be active — 
e. g., six or eight leeches should be applied behind the ear, fol- 
lowed by hot poultices or fomentations. Brisk purgation 
should be adopted, while at the same time pain may be relieved 
by opiates taken internally. 

Inflammation in the passage should be treated by poultic- 
ing, and a few drops of laudanum in the passage. 

Epilepsy — Consists in the concurrence of the sudden loss 
of consciousness, with more or less convulsive movement of 
the limbs. In proportion as the two are slight, and the con- 
vulsion wanting, the disease has been divided into two forms, 
called by French writers the petit mal and the grand mal. 

The grand mal, the full epileptic fit, is the sudden loss of 
consciousness and of muscular power, so that, with a shriekj 
the patient falls to the ground senseless, and is violently con- 
vulsed in the limbs, with great distortion of the countenance, 
lividity of .the face, frothing at the mouth, the eyes staring and 
pupils large, and not answering to the stimulus of light, the 
breathing labored, appears even to be suspended, while the 
heart beating so tumultuously that the pulse cannot be counted. 
In consequence of the tongue being protruded, it is bitten in 
the violent, convulsive movements of the jaws. The excretions 
often pass involuntarily. This, the full fit, seldom lasts longer 
than a few minutes. When it passes off it leaves the patient in 
a drowsy state, in which he may remain for several hours. The 
fit may recur during this sleeping state. 

The slighter form frequently consists of little more than a 
slight and rapidly passing condition of unconsciousness or 
mental confusion, with a varying degree of want of muscular 
power, so that there may be some unsteadiness of gait or 
imperfection of vision, and numbness of parts of the limbs. 
This form usually passes away in a few seconds, and may not 
well be perceptible to those around, the patient himself being 
scarcely aware that anything has been amiss with him. 



404 MEDICINAL. 

Sympt^3s. — There are certain, or rather they sliould be 
called uncertain, premonitory symptoms that sometimes usher 
in an attack of epilepsy. The most known of these is a pecul- 
iar and indescribable sensation, originating in the extremities 
and passing up towards the head; this has been termed the 
" epileptic aura," or vapor. Other indefinite derangements, 
referred to the nervous system, frequently precede the fit; but, 
in by far the majority of cases, the fit is sudden and without 
warning of any kind. A great many fits may occur daily. 

Epileptic fits are somewhat difficult sometimes to" distinguish 
from hysterical fits, and from the convulsive movements of 
apoplexy. In the former case the diagnosis may be made by 
considering the history of the case, and the absence or pres- 
ence of hysterical laughing and crying. From apoplexy it may 
be distinguished sometimes by the dilated state of the pupils 
in epilepsy, and by the profound snoring and paralysis that 
commonly attend apoplexy. 

Treatment. — Protect the patient during the fit from 
injuring himself. Loosen the dress around the neck and waist, 
and place him on a bed or couch, with the head and shoulders 
slightly raised. Sprinkle the head and face with cold water. 
It is in the intervals of the fits that curative or preventive treat- 
ment must be pursued. The exciting causes of dentition, 
worms, constipation, intemperance, indulgence of passions, etc., 
should be sedulously avoided or remedied. Tonics may be 
given, and every measure that can improve the general health 
should be put in force. 

Fainting. — Swooning occurs generally from sudden shock, 
or from large and sudden loss of blood, or any other cause of 
depression, mental or bodily, such as profuse diarrhoea and 
affections of the heart. 

Treatment. — The patient should be laid flat on a couch 
or on the ground, with the head as low as possible; the face 
should be sprinkled or dashed with cold water, free access of 
fresh air being secured. If able to swallow, let some stimulants 
be given, such as a small quantity of wine, brandy, or spirits of 
salvolatile, and apply strong smelling salts to the nostrils. 

Fractures. — These are, for convenience of description, 
divided into several kinds. 

1. Simple Fracture. — The bone being merely broken in 
one place, without any wound of the skin at the seat of the 
fracture. 

2. Compound Fractures — In which, over and above the 
fracture of the bone, there is a wound in the skin, through 
Tvhich, perhaps, a portion of the broken bone may be forced, 



MEDICINAL. 4G5 

3. Comminuted Fracture. — The bone being broken into 
several pieces. • 

4, Compound Comminuted Fractures. — The bone not 
only being broken into several pieces, but a wound also exist- 
ing in connection with the fracture. 

When a severe accidend happens to a limb, it is often diffi- 
cult to say what is its exact nature — whether a bone is broken 
or bent, the joint sprained, or the bone dislocated. The fol- 
lowing few points may assist in the detection of fracture, if it 
exist: 

Deformity. — This, with shortening of the limb, is some- 
times so obvious that there can be no mistake, as, when the 
arm is so broken that its firmness is lost and the broken por- 
tions move on each other. Or when the leg is broken, the 
fracture is generally rendered evident by the outline of the 
shin bone. In the latter case, also, as in the case of the frac- 
ture of the thigh-bone, if the patient be laid on his back the 
foot of the broken limb will be seen to be wanting its support, 
and will fall to one side or the other. The loss of power over 
the limb will also be some guide, though this will be noticed 
also in dislocations. 

If, however, the limb supposed to have sustained a fracture 
be carefully taken hold of by both hands and gently moved 
about, it will, if broken, be found to give way at some one 
point, where also what is technically termed crepitus or grat- 
ing, of the broken ends of the bone may be felt. 

General Treatment of Fractures. — The one most 
important point in the treatment of broken bones is to secure 
absolute rest of the member to which the fracture may have 
happened. The utmost care is required in removing the 
patient from the spot where the accident has occurred to his 
bed, or more harm may be done in the removal than was done in 
the first instance. From a simple fracture the injury may 
become compound, or even comminuted, if care and gentle 
handling be overlooked. In all cases the bones should be 
brought as nearly as possible into their natural relative posi- 
tions. This is called "setting" the bone. "Setting" the bone 
is effected by one person steadying the portion of the limb 
attached to the body, while a second person firmly but 
gently pulls on the other end until it resumes its proper 
position. The difficulty of effecting this will depend much 
upon the direction in which the bone is broken, whether trans- 
ve*-sely or obliquely. 

Splints. — This being done, the next thing is to take means 
28 



466 



MEDICINAL. 



for keeping them in position. This is to be effected oy a 
"splint" of some kind. Where proper sphnts, made by surgi- 
cal instrument makers, cannot be procured, there are many 
things often at hand which may be improvised into what is 
wanted. Thus, long, straight straws, placed and bandaged on, 
side by side, will form a clean and handy splint. Pieces of 
straight wood, cut to proper length and shape, and covered 
with a soft pad; pasteboard, or any other stiff material, fastened 
on with bandages, not too tightly. When the ends of the bone 
in a simple fracture are easily set into their normal positions, a 
good and ready splint may be made out of plaster of Paris, or 
gum and chalk, or white of egg and flour. Either of these two 
last being spread upon strips of rag, and several strips laid 
one over the other, will soon dry into a case as hard as board, 
and from which it may not be necessary to remove the limb 
until the cure is complete. Before putting this or any other 
form of splint on the broken limb, the skin should be well 
washed with warm soap and water. 

If the fracture be compound, a portion of the bandage must 
be so arranged as to allow of water dressing and the drainage 
of discharges. In the case of comminuted compound frac- 
tures, if any pieces of loose broken bone be visible, they should 
at once be removed by the help of forceps. Diluted Condy's 
fluid, or carbolic acid and oil (one part of acid to twenty-eight 
of oil), will be found of great use in dressing compound frac- 
tures, as they destroy the injurious effects and foetid odor of 
the discharge. 

Arm Bones. — If both bones be broken, a splint and band- 
age as follows: Care must be taken 
that the palm of the hand is flat to 
the chest, with the thumb uppermost. 
Or it may be put up in strips of 
linen thickly smeared with a paint 
of chalk and gum, or eggs and flour. 
Unless severe pain occur the band- 
age need not be removed under four 
weeks. A handkerchief, adjusted as 
a sling, should support the arm. 

If one bone of the arm only be 
)roken, the other bone will act, in 
some measure, as a splint to keep the 
broken bone in its position. 




MEDICINAL. 



467 




If the upper or large bone of the arm be broken, the lower 
arm, from the elbow, should be 
supported in a sling; or the 
shaft of the bone being bound 
by two or four splints, may be 
bandaged to the side of the 
body, as shown in the cut. 

Fracture of Arm Above the Elbow. — This can gener- 
ally be recognized by the deformity which it produces. The 
bone should be placed in its proper position in the following 
manner: One person should steady the shoulder while another 
person should firmly draw the elbow downwards, until the 

arm is straightened. When this result 
is obtained, the bones should be kept 
in their proper position by means of 
four splints, which should be well pad- 
ded and applied round the arm; these 
should be firmly fastened with a cou- 
ple of straps, or bands of adhesive 
plaster. Before the splints are appli- 
ed, the arm should be well washed 
with soap and water, and dusted with 
powdered starch or oxide of zinc. 
It is advisable not to put the splints 
on too tight at first, in order to 
allow for swelling. They may be 
tightened after a day or so. Frac- 
tures of this bone require the splints 
to be kept on for six weeks.' 

Fracture of the Arm Below the Elbow, or Forearm. 
— Both the bones of the forearm are generally broken to- 
gether; but it sometimes happens that only one of them is 
broken. In this case it is not always easy to discern the 
nature of the accident, as the uninjured bone will act as a splint 
to the other, and help to disguise the ordinary symptoms of 
fracture. Crepitation, may, however, generally be detected by 
taking in one hand the arm at or below the elbow, and gently 
rotating the hand on the arm. The bones, if displaced, 
should be set, that is, replaced in their proper position, by 
gently drawing the hand in a straight line from the elbow, 
which, for that purpose, should be held by an assistant. When 
the bones are set, the arm should be well washed with soap 
and water, and dusted with powdered starch or oxide of zinc. 
Two well padded splints should then be applied on each side 
of the arm, and strapped down with plaster. After this,_the 
whole arm should be placed in a sling, taking care that it is 




468 MEDICINAL. 

always carried with the palm of the hand towards the body, 
that is, with the thumb uppermost. The reason of this is that, 
in that position the two bones are furthest apart, and there is 
no danger of the wrong bones uniting. The splints should 
not be too tight to begin with, as the arm will swell a little at 
first; they should, however, be gradually tightened as the 
swelling subsides. The most common fracture in this region 
occurs just above the wrist, and in this the deformity is very 
great. 

The splints in fractures of both bones of the forearm 
should not be removed under five weeks; if, however, only 
one bone is broken, four weeks will suffice. 




Fractures of the Fingers and Hands. — When any of 
the bones of the fingers are broken, they are best treated by 
placing the whole hand, sandwich fashion, between two well 
padded splints, strapping them together by means of leather 
straps or adhesive plaster. When the bones in the maddle of 
the palm of the hand are broken, the patient should be made 
to grasp a ball of tow, or cotton-wool, and the hand should be 
bandaged in that position; but if either of the outside bones 
are broken, the hand should be put up as described under 
" Broken Fingers." 

Fractures of the Thigh. — These may be recognized 
by the great deformity, the limb beiug generally shortened, 
the inability of the patient to stand on the injured leg, and 
the unnatural mobility of the limb. The proper treatment of 
fracture of this bone can scarcely be efficiently applied by a 
non-professional person. 

Fracture of Leg Below the Knee. — In this region 
there are two bones; one, which is commonly called the shin- 
bone, may be distinctly felt down the front of the leg, and for 
about an inch on the inside of the leg. The other, which is 
much smaller, is on the outside of the leg, and forms the outer 
ankle. It can only be felt distinctly in two spots, the one where 
it forms the prominence of the ankle, and the other where it is 
attached, just below the knee-joint. In the intermediate 
space it is embedded in the muscles, and, except with persons 
of exceptionally small calves, cannot be detected. For the 
above reasons it will be seen that fractures of this bone are far 
more difficult to detect than are fractures of the shin bone, 
whilst fractures of both bones are comparatively easy of 



MEDICINAL. 



469 



detection from the deformity they cause. In fractures of both 
bones, or of the shin-bone alone, the patient should be placed 
in bed on his back, with the broken leg supported upon a pil- 
low, and should remain so until any swelling of the leg has 
gone down. If only the outer, or smaller, bone is broken, a 
few days rest will allow of the application of egg and flour, or 
gum and chalk bandage. 

The larger bone, or both, being broken, a well padded 
splint may be applied up each side of the leg, extending to the 
foot, and bound on with a calico bandage, or by leather 
straps. The splint on the outer side must be cut away so as 
not to exert undue pressure on the ankle bone. A cross-piece 
may be five:! so as to support the sole of the foot at a right 
angle to the leg, by means of a few turns of bandage. Before 
the splints are finally bandaged on, care must be taken that the 
bones of the leg are placed in a straight position, and as nearly 
as possible to their natural position. This may be judged of 
by comparing the relative positions of the great toes. The 
setting of the bones may be effected by an assistant holding 
the thigh steady, while firm but gentle extension is made from 
the foot. If there be no displacement of the broken bones, 
the use of starch and egg, or gum and chalk bandages will 
give a firm support to the limb. 




siZiiaiss^^E 



illlllHlillli'"'^' 



Fracture of the Knee Cap. — This may be distinctly 
felt over the knee joint by the space between the broken edges, 
and by the loss of power in extending the leg. 

Treatment. — The limb should be put quite straight, and 
raised on a pillow. The patient should keep on his back. By 
these means the two portions of the bones will be brought 
as near to each other as possible. There will be great swelling 
of the part^ ^vhich should be treated with cold water dressing. 
When this has subsided, two handkerchiefs should be placed 
round the leg, one above the upper fragment, and the other 
below the lower one, and these should be connected by pieces 
of tape. The handkerchiefs may be gradually drawn nearer 
and nearer together. The nearer they approach each other, 
the nearer the two fragments will come together, and the pieces 
will be firmly knit together. This position and bandaging 



470 



MEDICINAL. 



should be maintained for a month, at the end of which time 
the patient should be allowed to move the limb gently until he 
regains the use of the limb. 

Broken Ribs. — The best method of detection of this 
injury is to place the hand over the painful spot, and to make 
the patient breathe as deeply as possible. By this means crepi- 
tation or grating caused by the rubbing of the fractured ends 
of the bone together, may be sometimes detected; but as it is 
by no means certain that this can be always detected, and as it 
is the only sign by which a broken rib can absolutely be 
detected, it will be advisable to treat in all cases of doubt as if 
there were a fracture. 

Treatment. — The treatment of broken ribs consists main- 
ly in procuring rest for the ribs. This is done by firmly band- 
aging with a calico bandage, three or four inches wide, the 
entire chest, so as to diminish the movement of the ribs in 
breathing. The patient should be kept in bed quietly on his 
back for a few days after the accident. Any pain should be 
allayed by Dover's powder or tincture of opium. If severe 
pain or distress of breathing come on, it probably results from 
pleurisy. 

Broken Collar-bone. — When this bone is broken the 
patient cannot raise his arm without pain. The arm drops, and 
the patient supports it with the other hand; the shoulder also 
drops forward and inwards. On feeling gently along the col- 
lar-bone, comparing it at the same time with the same bone on 
the opposite side, the inequality of line at the point of fracture 
may often be detected. 

Treatment. — The method of treatment to be pursued is 
as follows: The shoulder should 
be raised and pressed gently 
backward; a pad should be plac- 
ed in the armpit. This pad 
should be about two inches thick, 
and is best made with a pair 
of stockings rolled up. A figure- 
of-eight bandage should then be 
applied, as in the figure. The 
arm on the injured side should 
he bound to the side with an- 
other bandage, and the hand and 
forearm placed in a slmg. This 
bone should be kept in this po- 
sition for four weeks, the band- 
age not being moved during 
that time, unless they slip or 
loosen, in which case thev should 
be carefully tightened. 




MEDICINAL. 471 

Bones of the Nose. — The broken fragments should be 
replaced as near as possible in their proper position. This may- 
be conveniently done by raising them from the inside by means 
of a probe. If the fracture is compound — that is to say, if 
there is a wound communicating with the broken bones — this 
should be searched for splinters of bone, which should be 
removed by means of the forceps. Then apply water dressing. 

Compound Fractures. — These are fractures in which 
there is a wound communicating with the broken bone. In 
cases of this kind the fractured limb after being set should not 
be encased entirely with splints, but a space should be left for 
dressing the wound, which should be done as follows: If there 
are any pieces of bone loose, or nearly so, in the wound, they 
should be removed by means of the forceps. The wound 
should then be dressed with a piece of soft linen rag steeped 
in the following mixture: Carbolic acid, liquified by heat, 50 
minims; olive oil to 4 fluid ounces; shake up, and mix thor- 
oughly. This rag should be applied in such a manner as to 
exclude all bubbles of air; the best way to do this is to cut the 
rag square and large enough to cover the entire wound — it does 
not signify if it overlaps the edger, of the wound; soak it in oil, 
and then take hold of two of the corners of it and draw it 
slowly over the wound until it is covered. Any stray bubbles 
of air which may remain from the inequality of the rrurface of 
the wound-should be gently pressed out by the fingers. This 
dressing should be changed every four or six hours. The limb 
should be kept cool. 

The patient's health should be carefully watched, as in these 
cases fever very often comes on. Should there be any shiver- 
ing, an aperient should be given. Thirst should be relieved by 
iced lemonade or soda-water, and a saline draught should be 
taken about three times a day. The following will be found 
most useful: Take of solution of acetate of ammonia, i 
drachm; sweet spirits of nitre, 20 minims: water to i fluid 
ounce. Mix. A compound fracture is always longer in 
recovering than a simple one, the process of restoration some- 
times extending over many months, through the frequent 
falling off of small fragments of bone, each of which will keep 
up a discharge of matter until it is removed, either by the use 
of the forceps, or by the extrusion of the pus. 

Ganglion. — Symptoms. — A swelling upon one of the joints, 
most frequently met with on the back of the wrist. Its seat is 
the sheath of the tendons. 

Treatment. — Hard, steady pressure should be made upon 
it with the thumb of the operator's hand, that holds the arm 
firmly at the same time. If the pressure be made hard enough, 



473 MEt)ICiNAL. 

and kept up long enough, the tumor will generally burst and 
the fluid be dispersed. A tight bandage should be applied 
immediately afterwards and kept on a few days. Sometimes, 
if the ganglion be smaP it will give way under a smart, sharp 
blow with a book. 

Goitre. — Derbyshire Neck. — Bronchocele. — Symptoms.— 
Peculiar enlargement of a gland that is situated at the front and 
sides of the neck. The swelling, at first slight, and only 
amounting to a trifling degree of fulness, is prone to increase 
rapidly, and to cause inconvenience in breathing, as well as 
considerable disfigurement by its bulk. 

Treatment. — The treatment consists in the amendment of 
the general health, by removal from any locality where the 
malady is known to prevail, or by remedies directed to correct 
irregularities of menstruation, to which also it is sometimes 
attributable. The best medicinal agents are iodine and steel, 
alone, or in their various forms of combination, with the exter- 
nal application of iodine as tincture, painted on the enlargement 
night and morning, until the skin becomes too irritable to bear 
it. The application can be resumed when the skin has 
recovered, or the iodine may be applied as ointment thus: 
Ointment of iodine of potash, i ounce; ointment of idoine of 
mercury, one half drachm. Mix, Apply night and morning. 

Gout. — Symptoms. — An attack of gout is generally preceded 
by disturbed digestive functions, broken sleep and feverish- 
ness. The symptoms of an attack generally come on in the 
course of the night. Severe throbbing pain in some joint, 
generally in the joint at the ball of the great toe, accompanied 
with great tenderness, sufficient to prevent the patient from 
bearing the least movement of the bedclothes over the joint 
affected. With these symptoms there is a feverish condition, 
Avith thirst, rapid pulse and furred tongue. The joint affected 
is red and swollen, the pains become more and more acute, 
extending sometimes up the leg, and the fever becomes more 
severe. This goes on until morning, when a perspiration 
breaks out, and the paroxysm is over. It, however, probably 
occurs again the next night, subsides, and recurs at intervals. 
The hands are liable to attacks of gout, and, after repeated 
recurrences, the finger joints become the seat of deposits of a 
white concretion, called " chalk stones," and are thus rendered 
stiff and useless. The disease may become chronic if not 
guarded against by careful dieting, 

,■ The heart or brain are either of them liable to suifer in 
this disease. In the event of the heart becoming the seat of 
an attack there is pain, with severe palpitation and difficulty 
of breathing. Nervous symptoms, such as headache, and 



MEDICINAL. 473 

sometimes paralysis, or even apoplexy, .nay attend an attack 
of gout, and show that the brain is affected by the disease. 
Gout and rheumatism are often confounded. To distinguish 
between them the following points should be borne in mind: 
Acute gout is generally confined to one joint, and the pain is 
more acute. The constitutional antecedents differ. Gout is 
an hereditary disease. In the chronic form, these diseases are 
intermingled with each other, are not easy to distinguish in 
their acute form. There is a disease called rheumatic gout 
which combines the two so closely as to render necessary the 
name applied to it. To distinguish chronic gout from chronic 
rheumatism, it is necessary to remember that gout is heredi- 
tary, rheumatism is not generally so. The history of the 
attacks, the habits of life of the patient, must also be taken 
into account. If the patient is indolent, self-indulgent, and 
given to what are called the "pleasures of the table," the 
chances are that what he is suffering from is an attack of 
the gout. 

Treatment. — In a person of the above habits, the pre- 
monitory attacks of indigestion, want of sleep, and feverish- 
ness, should be treated with three or four grains of mercurial 
pill (blue pill) at bed- time, and the following draught early the 
next morning: Powdered rhubarb, 40 grains; tartrate of pot- 
ash, I drachm; compound spirits of ammonia (salvolatile), one- 
half drachm; water to one and one-half ounce. Mix. 

The attack of gout should be treated as follows: If the 
pain be severe, and redness of the joint be excessive, a few 
leeches should be applied to the inflamed surface, but it will 
not always be necessary to apply them, as hot fomentations or 
poultices will be sufficient. A small blister raised near the 
inflamed joint, either by plaster or the " blistering liquid," will 
sometimes give speedy relief to the pain. When the pill and 
draught above advised have been taken, and the bowels are 
thoroughly cleansed, the following medicine may be given: 
Iodide of potassium, 40 grains; bicarbonate of potash, 2 
drachms; colchicum wine, 2 drachms; water to make 8 ounces. 
Mix. Take two tablespoonfuls three times a day. 

If there be want of sleep, compound ipecacuanha powder 
(Dover's powder) should be given in ten grain doses at bed- 
time; if the fever be great, antimonial powder (James's pow- 
der), combined as follows, will allay it, and relieve pain: Com- 
pound ipecacuanha powder, two and one-half grains; antimo- 
nial powder, three grains. Mix. Take one every four hours. 

Warm baths should be given every day while the attack 
lasts. At bed-time, a foot-bath of mustard and hot water gives 
comfort, especially if the feet be afterwards wrapped in cotton- 
wool, and kept so until the swelling abates. 



474 MEDICINAL. 

If the stomach become the seat of the attack, a mustard 
plaster should be applied on its region, and some narcotic and 
stimulant given — e. g., tincture of henbane and ammonia. If 
there be persistent severe headache, a plaster may be placed 
on the back of the neck, and may ward off more serious symp- 
toms. The diet should be carefully regulated during and after 
an attack of gout. Stimulating drinks and rich food should 
be avoided as much as the constitutional power will permit. 

The curative treatment of gout, if to be attained at all, 
must be aimed at during the intervals of the attack. To this 
end, careful and abstemious living, with exercise in the open 
air, are important means. 

Gravel. — Symptoms. — Pain in voiding urine, sometimes very 
severe in character, and extending from the loins down the 
front and inside of the thighs. A small portion of gravel, 
passing from the bladder, will often cause great difficulty in 
voiding the urine. A sediment, or small fragment of gravel, 
may be found deposited in the vessel after a paroxysm. 

Treatment. — During the paroxysm of pain, a hot bath 
»vill give relief, an opiate being taken at the same time. 

After the paroxysm is past, the morbid condition of the 
urine that gave rise to gravel should be corrected. If the 
sediment be red, alkaline medicines may be taken. (See List 
of Medicines.) 

Haemorrhage from the Bladder. — Symptoms. — The occur- 
rence of blood in the urine is readily perceived, and therefore 
requires no description; but as a symptom it is desirable that 
its several sources should be pointed out. If there be pains 
in the loins and a feeling of general illness, and the blood be 
equally diffused through the urine, or be accompanied with 
minute worm-like clots, the blood proceeds from the kidneys. 
Should the stream of urine be at first free from, or only 
slightly tinged with, blood, and the flow become more and 
more deeply colored, the inner surface of the bladder is most 
probably the source of the blood. If blood flows drop by drop 
without urine, the passage external to the bladder will be its 
source. 

Treatment. — If the blood be believed to come from the 
kidney, it will probably be the result of inflammation of that 
organ, or of some injury inflicted on the loins, or from the 
existence of a calculus or stone in the kidney. In either case 
absolute rest in bed must be enforced. Leeches, from eight to 
twelve, should be applied on the loins; or, if practicable, cup- 
ping on the same region to the extent of eight or ten ounces will 
be preferable. The bowels should be freely opened by saline 
purgatives, such as Epsom salts, Glauber salts, or Rochelle 



MEDICINAL. 475 

salts, at the same time, if there be pains in the loins, it may be 
reHeved by five grains of Dover's powder, or extract of hen- 
bane, every four hours. 

If from the previous condition of the urine — i. e., if it has 
deposited gravel for some time — it is to be inferred that the 
bleeding is caused by a stone in the kidney, some alkali should 
be combined with the sedative, thus: Bicarbonate of potash, 
I drachm; tincture of henbane, one-half ounce; water to 6 
ounces. Mix, and give a sixth part every four hours while the 
pain lasts. 

If fiom the symptoms, before described, the haemorrhage 
appears to have occurred in the bladder itoelf, it will in all 
probability partake of the character of debility. In such cases 
the tincture of perchloride of iron or gallic acid or acetate of 
lead may be tried. 

Hemorrhoids (Piles;. — Symptoms. — There are tender and 
painful swellings of the extremity of the bowels, the inconven- 
ience and troublesome irritation of which are aggravated by 
walking or riding. They are commonly caused or accompa- 
nied by constipation, at the same time the action of the bowels 
increase their soreness, and often cause them to bleed freely, 
Avhile the subject of them is at stool. The color of the blood 
is usually of a bright red. 

Treatment. — As they originate usually in some defective 
state of the circulation in the liver and intestines, so they are 
to be relieved by correcting the state of those organs. This is 
most surely done, if the piles are of recent appearance, by a 
light diet, abstinence from, stimulants, and the use of enemata 
of cold water. Simple aperients, such as castor oil, or lenitive 
electuary, by diminishing fulness of the vessels of the lower 
bowel, are of great use. Bathing the parts with cold water 
affords relief. Considerable comfort is derived from the appli- 
cation of ointment of galls or any unirritating ointment, as 
these diminish the friction and pressure that cause sometimes 
much distress and discomfort. These latter applications are 
almost the only palliatives within reach of the non-professional 
for piles of long standing, and which assume to all intents and 
purposes the characters of tumors. 

Headache. — There are few more distressing complaints than 
a severe headache, few more puzzling to account for in point 
of suddenness and intensity and in the rapidity of their disap- 
pearance. A "nervous" headache, fot instance, comes sud- 
denly upon one, and disables us from our duties, and may per- 
haps be dispelled, as it were magically, by a cup of tea, or a 
^spoonful of spirits of salvolatile. This, however, is rarely the 
extent of headache. It is not a disease of itself essentially, but 



476 MEDICINAL. 

is the indication of some morbid condition, it maybe only tem- 
porary, of the brain or of its coverings. As such it is often a 
persistent symptom, and the source of inexpressible suffering, 
more especially if it be the result of some structural disease 
within the brain or skull. There are, therefore, various kinds 
of headache — the nervous, congestive, neuralgic, rheumatic, 
bilious, etc. 

The nervous headache, arising from various causes of 
debility, may, as already mentioned, be very short lived, and 
yields rapidly to stimulants and antispasmodics. Congestive 
headache is of a character distinct from the preceding, as it 
does not generally come suddenly, is not amenable to the 
same treatment, but requires the reverse — viz., purgatives and 
low diet. This form proceeds from constipation, from over-use 
and exertion of the brain. Bilious headache, or sick headache, 
differs very little either in origin or treatment from the preced- 
ing and requires similar treatment. Neuralgic and rheumatic 
headache are so closely allied in their nature that they must be 
spoken of together in relation to treatment. This kind of 
headache is prone to assume a periodic form. It is to be relieved 
by the remedies for rheumatism — e. g., quinme, or iodide of 
potassium. Neuralgic headache is sometimes also much 
relieved by the external application of sedatives. The Bella- 
donna liniment of the British Pharmacopoeia applied freely 
over the surface of the forehead, or on the back of the neck, 
frequently gives great relief. Care must be taken that the 
skin is entire. It would not do, for instance, to apply any 
sedative or narcotic if the skin be tender from a blister, or 
leechbites. , 

Whooping Cough (Chin Cough). — Symptoms. — A contag- 
ious or infectious disease, beginning as a common cold, and, 
after a few days, when the febrile symptoms have disappeared, 
showing a spasmodic or paroxysmal character. The cough 
comes in distinct fits, each of which consists of a series of 
forcible expirations or cough noises, followed by an inspiration, 
or hard drawing in of the breath, with a sound almost exactly 
like the word "whoop," hence the name. The fits are accom- 
panied with great distress to the patient — the face becomes red, 
the eyes bloodshot, and at times bleeding from the nose and 
mouth takes place. These fits are terminated generally by 
vomiting. During an attack, a child will exhibit great fear, 
and will run to its nurse or mother, to whom it will cling 
tightly for protection as it were against the cough. 

Treatment. — For children of two years old and upwards, 
the following mixture may be given: Tincture of cantharides, 
I drachm; compound tincture of camphor (Paregoric), one 
and one-half drachms; compound tincture of bark, 3 drachms; 



MEDICINAL. 477 

syrup of Tolu, to make 2 ounces. Mix. One teaspoonful to 
be given three times a day. The chest should be rubbed freely 
with compound camphor liniment, or oil of turpentine, or 
Roche's embrocation. 

If the cough is very troublesome, and prevents sleep at 
night, the following will be found useful for children above one 
year of age: Hydrate of chloral, 24 grains; syrup of orange 
peel, one-half ounce; water to make 2 ounces. Mix. One tea- 
spoonful to be taken at bedtime. The patient should be con- 
fined to one room if the disease comes on during the latter end 
of autumn, or the beginning of winter, or whenever the weather 
is cold. If, however, it comes on in the summer, or when the 
weather is warm, the restriction is less necessary. 

Hysteria. — Symptoms. — The following are among common 
indications of hysteria: Flatulency; the feeling of a lump or 
ball at the front of the throat, causing a sense of choking; a 
pain in the left side, just below the ribs, as of something sharp, 
like a nail, running in; and uncomfortable impulse to laugh or 
Cry without sufficient provocation, this going on until it becomes 
what is known as an "hysterical fit," in which the patient tosses 
herself about violently, and, unless protected, would injure 
herself. 

The causes of hysteria are manifold; constitutional peculi- 
arity, irregular menstruation, luxurious living, or want of some- 
thing to occupy the mind and body, or mental troubles. A 
condition very similar to hysteria sometimes attacks persons 
of the male sex; when this is the case, the chances are that the 
nervous system is in a weakened state, and will, before long, 
manifest more serious signs of its condition. 

Treatment. — No other disease is more obstinate or more 
difficult to treat than hysteria. The general health should be 
looked to in the first instance. The following medicine, taken 
regularly, may have considerable influence over the symptoms: 
Compound tincture of valerian, one-half ounce; foetid spirits 
of ammonia, 2 drachms; spirits of nitrous ether (sweet spirits 
of nitre), one-half ounce; water, to make 8 ounces. Mix. 
Two tablespoonfuls to be taken three times a day. An attack 
of hysterical fit cannot be better treated than by a liberal 
application of cold water to the face and chest. The water 
should be applied in large quantities, and should be dashed 
from a height on the patient. The various antispasmodic medi- 
cines, such as ammonia, valerian, assafoetida, camphor, are all 
useful for hysteria. They exert still more power if combined 
with tonics, such as steel, quinine, zinc, etc. (See List of 
Medicines.) 

Incontinence of Urine occurs most commonly in young 
children, partly from the effects of habit, partly from the 



478 MEDICINAL. 

effects of muscular weakness or spasm of the bladder. When 
it is met with in elder persons it is doubtless a symptom of some 
disease of, or injury to, the bladder. 

Treatment. — When it can be traced to spasm, sedatives 
are useful; when, however, as is more frequently the case, it is 
the result of weakness of the muscular fibres of the bladder, 
the following should be tried: Tincture of perchloride of 
iron, lo minims; water, i ounce. Mix. To be given twice a 
day. This dose is for a child of five years and upwards; for 
a younger child half the quantities will suffice. 

Indigestion (Dyspepsia). — Symptoms. — Various kinds of 
pains in the region of the stomach, which occur soon after 
meals. These pains are also sometimes felt between the shoul- 
ders and in the back, flatulency causing some distention of 
the bowels; pain that is called "heartburn," nausea, and some- 
times vomiting, headache, disturbed sleep, palpitation of the 
heart, and pther sympathetic inconveniences also occur. 
Among the chief causes of this disorder of the stomach is the 
abuse of stimulating liquors, or of narcotics, such as tobacco 
and opium, the use of too highly seasoned or rich food, seden- 
tary habits, and want of proper exercise. Mere weakness of 
the system, in which the stomach will partake, is often a cause 
of indigestion. 

Treatment. — The main object in the treatment of indi- 
gestion is to find out what is the cause of the disorder. This 
being done, care should be taken to avoid those causes, as 
above named. Urgent symptoms, such as acrid eructations, 
heartburn, flatulency, and pain, maybe relieved by bicarbonate 
of soda or potash, or by carbonate of magnesia, e. g.: Bicar- 
bonate of soda, 1 20 grains; tincture of rhubarb, 3 drachms; 
peppermint water, 3 ounces; infusion of gentian, to make 6 
ounces. Mix. One tablespoonful after every meal; or two 
tablespoonfuls morning and evening will probably prove cura- 
tive. If not, the mineral acids should be tried, taken with 
bitters, such as gentian or calumbia, (See List of Medicines.) 
The diet should consist of light and easily-digested substances. 
Care should be taken to avoid those articles which experience 
has shown the sufferers to be excitants of indigestion. 

Infantile Remittent Fever. — (Low fever of children, worm 
fever). A non-infectious fever, generally due to some irrita- 
tion in the stomach or intestines. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of this fever come generally at 
night, passing off in the morning. They are, shivering, heat 
of skin, thirst, furred tongue, frequent pulse, sometimes pain 
and tenderness of the abdomen, sickness. The sleep is dis- 



MEDICINAL. 47'J 

turbed by starting and moaning, the little patient is fretful and 
restless. Superadded to these, is a short, dry, hacking cough. 
The bowels are out of order, the appetite at times is good, at 
others fails altogether, the urine is scanty and high colored. 
The symptoms vary greatly in different cases; at times the brain 
seems to be affected, and there may be convulsions; this form 
is, of course, dangerous. In other cases there is profuse diar- 
rhoea, and, in some, inflammation of the bowels, or lungs, 
occurs. This fever has been called " worm fever," from a 
mistaken idea that it is always caused by worms. Though 
undoubtedly intestinal worms may accompany the other 
symptoms, they are far from being its cause. Teething is 
much more frequently a cause; bad feeding, or over-feeding, 
excessive cold, may one and all produce the disease. 

Treatment. — Having removed all causes of irritation from 
the stomach and bowels, by means of castor oil, or a dose of 
syrup of senna, the patient should be placed on a- light diet. 
As long as vomiting or diarrhoea continues, milk or milk gruel, 
or arrowroot, or both, should be given; if there be no diarrhoea, 
rice milk, bread pudding, and jellies may be given in addition 
to the above; no animal food should be allowed. In young 
infants, a still stricter diet is required, as the stomach is often 
very irritable, and will not bear the lightest farniaceous food.' 
In such cases a tablespoonful of cream or new milk should be 
given every hour or hour and a half. A warm bath should be 
given for a few nights, and the patient should be kept in bed 
during the commencement of the illness and its acute periods. 
The thirst should be met with small pieces of ice or cold water. 

The following powder will be found useful to regulate the 
bowels, if they are disordered, if given at bed-time occasionally: 
Mercury, with chalk, 3 grains; powdered rhubarb, 5 grains; 
bicarbonate of soda, 2 grains. The following medicine may be 
taken when the fever is acute, the doses being apportioned 
according to age: Powdered nitre, 3 grains; ipecacuanha wine, 
2 drachms; syrup, 3 drachms; water to make one and a half 
ounces. Take one teaspoonful three times a day. As signs 
of amendment begin to appear, quinine wine, or steel wine 
with quinine should be given. 

Inflammation. — Symptoms. — Inflammation, while it is cer- 
tainly the commonest form of disease, and the most frequent 
cause of both functional and structural maladies, is at the same 
time a condition much more frequently assumed than ascer- 
tained. There exists a common apprehension that any inter- 
nal pain, especially if it be attended with functional derange- 
ment, proceeds from inflammation of some internal organ. It 
is important that this misapprehension should be corrected ii 



480 MEDICINAL. 

possible, inasrtK.£h as the treatment must differ widely, accord- 
ingly as inflammation is present, or mere congestion, or 
neuralgic pain. 

Treatment of Inflammation and its Results. — The 
general principles of the treatment consist in — ist, moderating 
the force of the circulation; 2nd, in reducing the temperature, 
and causing contraction of the loaded small vessels; and, 3rd, 
in removing the effects of inflammation. The first indication 
is effected by depletion, or by medicines which affect the force 
of the heart's action. Depletion is effected by bleeding from 
a vein, by cupping and by leeching. The last of these is the 
only means of depletion that can be employed by a non-pro- 
fessional person; and is, indeed, almost the only means that is 
adopted even by professional persons. Venesection, or bleed- 
ing from the arm, is now so nearly exploded that there are 
medical men who have been many years in practice, who have 
never performed this operation. Even leeching rs seldom 
required. The occasions under which they may be advisable 
will be found under the isstructions for the treatment of 
respective diseases. (See also Leeching.) With the view of 
moderating the force of the circulation, the employment of the 
warm bath will be found serviceable, although it would seem 
that during the bath the pulse may at first be quickened, faint- 
ness may be induced by its prolonged use. Short of this, how- 
ever, the profuse perspiration that often follows its use reduces 
both the rate of the pulse and the temperature of the surface. 

The next means for fulfilling this indication will be found in 
lowering medicines — such as tartar-emetic, ipecacuanha, calo- 
mel, and various purgatives. An important means also to the 
same end will be the relief cf pain by the use of henbane, etc. 
The second indication in the general treatment of inflammation, 
viz., the reduction of the temperature and contraction of the 
loaded vessels, will, in a great measure, follow on the successful 
employment of the means above named for the first indication. 
These will be aided by local application of cold, either by 
evaporating lotions, or by the use of ice, or by the astringent 
action of certain medicines applied externally, such as nitrate 
of silver, extract of lead, tannin, etc. If the inflammation be 
seated in an internal organ, blistering and external irritants are 
serviceable. The last indication, viz., the removal of the 
effects of inflammation, such as thickening of parts by deposi- 
tion of material into their structure, is to be fulfilled by th'^ use 
of stimulants, internal and external, and by tonic medicines, 
aided by a full diet. 

Inflammation of the Brain, or Brain Fever. — Symptoms. 
• — This affection, which is also known as water on the brain, or 



MEDICINAL. 481 

Hydrocephalus, is of two forms, acute, and chronic. In the 
acute form, symptoms will vary with age. 

In Children. — In infants, the first symptoms that will be 
noticed will probably be simple restlessness or fretfulness. The 
head will become hot, and there may be sickness, which will 
soon become a predominant symptom. The bowels are for 
the most part relaxed; the flow of urine notably diminished. 
If old enough to express its feelings, the child will complain 
of pain in the head; if too young for that, the same will be 
indicated by its constantly putting its hand to its head, and 
rolling its head about. An early symptom is the bending of 
the thumb inwards on the palm of the hand, and downward 
flexion of the toes. The eye will be bloodshot, and the brows 
knitted. The sleep of the child is disturbed with starts, or it 
will wake up as if alarmed. In young infants, the soft part on 
the top of the head will be full and throbbing. These symp- 
toms are followed in fatal cases by a bending backward of the 
neck, with convulsions and stupor. It will be seen also that 
one side of the body is more convulsed than the other, which 
may be paralyzed. This disease may last for several weeks; 
during this time the child is constantly uttering a peculiar sharp 
cry, or moaning, or screaming. 

In Abults. — In the adult, the symptoms of inflammation 
of the brain constitute what is generally called "brain fever;" 
in which there is a great mental excitement giving rise to 
delirium. The senses become morbidly acute, so that the 
ordinary amount of light is not bearable, and noise of any kind 
is intolerable. The inflammation is attended with great pain 
in the head, hot skin, and fever. The eyes are bright and 
bloodshot, the pupils readily contract. The bowels are costive, 
the urine scanty and high colored. If the disease do not yield 
to treatment, twitching of the limbs, convulsions, collapse and 
stupor precede death. 

The chronic form is seen exclusively in children, and is 
often born with them. Its predominant sign in that case is the 
enlargement of the head, and retarded development of the 
mental powers, or their premature development. The body is 
badly nourished, and the digestive functions are disordered. 

Treatment of Acute Inflammation of the Brain. — 
In infants, difficult dentition is one of the exciting causes, the 
condition of the gums therefore should be looked to in the 
outset of the symptoms, and, if full and swollen, should be 
freely lanced, as the pressure of the gum upon the growing teeth 
and their nerves keeps up irritation of the nervous centres. 
This operation is simple enough, and requires only one pre- 
caution — viz., to cut parallel with the edge of the jaw, towar4 



483 MEDICINAL. 

the front of the gums. The incision should be made down- 
ward until it comes in contact with the tooth. If it be made 
behind the middle lines of the gums, there is a risk of cutting 
through the sac of the second set, w^hich are being developed 
behind the first. The operation is better performed with a 
proper-shaped gum-lancet, but as this instrument is not often 
in the hands of the non-professional, a sharp pen-knife will 
serve the purpose. The child's head should be steadily held 
between the operator's knees, while its hands are held by some 
one else. 

Cold applications, such as spirit lotions — e. g., one part of 
ghi to ten of water, should be kept constantly applied on a rag; 
or ice-cold water may be used. 

If the symptoms be very acute, two or three leeches may be 
applied on the bony prominence behind the ears, as pressure 
can efficiently be made there to stop the bleeding as soon as 
they come off. 

Calomel should be given in repeated small doses, unless it 
produces diarrhoea; it should be then changed to grey powder, 
with a little powdered nitre. Thus: Calomel, 2 grains; nitre, 
6 grains; white sugar, 6 grains. Mix, and divide into six pow' 
ders. Give one every four or six hours. Or, take of grey 
powder, 6 grains; nitre, 12 grains; white sugar, 6 grains. Mix, 
and divide into six powders. Give one every six hours. Thd 
diet should be of the lightest kind, consisting mainly of milk 
and water. A hot bath should be given at least once a day; 
and the body of the infant may with great advantage be 
sponged over with warm vinegar and water, equal parts. 

If, in about eight-and-forty hours after the adoption of the 
above means, the symptoms do not abate, a blister-plastei 
should be applied to the nap of the neck. This, in case ot 
infants, should not be allowed to remain on longer than two 
hours. It should then be taken off, even if it has not 
raised a blister. A muslin bag filled with bread and water 
poultice should be applied to the surface, where the plaster has 
been; the skin will then shortly begin to blister. The poultice 
should be repeated every four hours, or when it becomes cold. 

In most cases the preceding means will have succeeded in 
subduing the malady; if, however, as is very frequently the 
case, there is a scrofulous constitution, the remedies will not 
have so favorable an effect. The symptoms may continue for 
many days in a milder degree, and the little patient will then 
require the withdrawal of all mercurial medicines and the sub- 
stitution of a fuller diet for the milk. Beef-tea may then be 
given several times a day, and if the sickness and diarrhoea 
should continue, small doses of brandy (from ten to twenty 
or thirty drops, according to age) may be given every three 01 
four hours. 



MEDICINAL. 483 

Mouth, Inflammation of. — Symptoms.— Pain in moving the 
tongue, and sometimes in moving the cheeks, the insides of 
which are swollen and red: the gums and the tongue also are 
often much swollen. There appear numerous white patches, 
which are in reality superficial ulcers, covered with a white 
false membrane. The tongue is cracked, and scored with a 
whitish-brown fur, the breath is very offensive, and there is 
general feverish disturbance, with irregularity of the bowels, 
and sometimes extreme prostration. This affection may almost 
invariably be traced to the injuriou influence of sewage air. 

Treatment. — The first thing therefore to be done is, if 
possible, to remove the patient to a purer atmosphere. If the 
bowels be confined, some mild aperient should be given, such 
as castor oil; or, in the case of a child or infant, the carbonate 
of magnesia. The following medicine should be given three 
times a day: Chlorate of potash, 80 grains; water, 4 ounces. 
A tablespoonful for a dose for an adult, a teaspoonful for a child. 
In the latter case some sugar may be added for the sake of 
flavoring it. The following lotion will also be found useful: 
Chlorate of potash, 40 grains; water, 4 ounces. The mouth 
being repeatedly washed with it. For children it will be as 
well to add a little honey, or for infants it will often suffice to 
smear borax and honey upon the tongue, whence it will be 
unconsciously applied in the mouth. With adults, some tonic 
will promote convalescence when the acute soreness has sub- 
sided. 

lech.- — Symptoms. — An eruption of small pimples, which 
excite intense itching. They occur most frequently, to begin 
with, between the fingers, and on the backs of the hands. After 
a few days, the pimples may also be detected in the bends of 
the joints — e. g., on the wrist, on the feet, and it may even 
spread all over the body. The itching is constant, though it 
is worse at night, when warm in bed, and after violent exercise. 
If the disease be neglected, and if cleanliness be not suf- 
ficiently attended to, the spots become inflamed and fill with 
matter. 

This disease is caused by a minute microscopical insect, 
called the "Acarus scabies," which burrows beneath the skin. 

Treatment. — The following lotion should be applied: 
Quicklime, i ounce; sulphur, 4 ounces; water, i pint (imperial 
measure). These should be boiled together slowly for about 
four hours, and then allowed to stand till the clear yellow fluid 
can be poured off. Water should be added to this to make the 
quantity up to two pints. 

The mnner of applying this lotion is to wash the affected 
part with warm water, and then to apply the lotion for half an 



484 MEDICINAL. 

hour. After twelve hours, the body should be well washed 
with soap and water, and the skin carefully examined, to see if 
any spot remain unacted upon by the lotion. Its sufficient 
action must be judged by the aspect of the vesicles or pimples, 
those on which it has taken effect will present an opaque yel- 
low white head. This application, well applied once, will gen- 
erally be found efficient, but it may require a second, and even 
a third, application. If the pimples be inflamed, and have heads 
filled with matter, or be ulcerated, the lotion will aggravate 
them and give pain. Under these circumstances, it must either 
be considerably diluted with water, or the common sulphur 
ointment may be substituted for it. When the ointment is 
applied, it should be allowed to remain on the skin for two or 
three days, fresh quantities being applied if it is rubbed off. 
After the second or third day, the whole skin should be well 
washed with soft soap and water. 

Measles. — This is an infectious, eruptive fever, having an 
incubative period of about fourteen days, commencing with 
marked catarrhal symptoms, and belonging more especially to 
the ages of infancy and childhood. The little patient appears 
to have a severe cold; he has sneezing and running at the nose, 
"watering at the eyes," and a short, hard cough,. This condi- 
tion, in the course or a day or two, or it may be in a few hours, 
becomes one of a distinct febrile state. A general heat of the 
skin comes on, the pulse is quickened, and on the third or 
fourth day, on the face, chest and body a mottled rash begins 
to show itself. The rash consists of distinct spots slightly 
raised above the surface of the skin, and clustered in groups, 
often having an indistinctly crescentic arrangement. It begins 
to disappear again in about three or four days, and is usually 
all gone by the end of a week. 

Treatment. — The catarrhal symptoms which usher in the 
'>«easles require only the simplest treatment of nursing, warm 
^oaths, and low diet. When the eruption appears and makes 
it clear that the case is one of measles, the same plan of treat- 
ttient is still applicable. There is a very large proportion of 
cases of measles that are in themselves so slight that they really 
amount to little more than an attack of common cold, and 
require no other treatment. If, however, there be fever, rather 
more severe, with a troublesome dry cough (which is very com- 
monly an attendant), a simple saline mixture, as follows, will be 
found of service: Powdered nitre, 1-2 drachm; ipecacuanha, 
I drachm; paregoric, 1-2 drachm; water (sweetened with 
sugar), 2 ounces. Mix. A teaspoonful to be given every four 
hours, to an infant about two or three years of age; the doses 
for older children should be increased, on the scale given in 
the li§t of medicines. For an infant under one year old it may 



MEDICINAL. 485 

be as well to omit paregoric. If there be constipation of the 
bowels, some simple aperient should be administered, such as 
castor oil or grey powder. The body should be sponged over 
every day with warm vinegar and water. 

Should the eruption suddenly disappear, and difficulty of 
breathing or other symptoms of congestion of the lungs, as 
shown by duskiness of the skin and coldness of the surface, 
come on, a hot bath, with mustard in it, should be had. At 
the same time stimulants, such as compound spirits of ammonia, 
wine, or brandy should be administered — e. g., for an adult, a 
drachm of spirits of salvolatile in a wine-glass of water, every 
two or three hours. Wine, to the extent of four ounces in six 
hours, may be given; or brandy in proportion, allowing for its 
greater strength. 

Measles in Adults. — When the disease occurs in adults 
it is usually more severe, and calls for more active treatment. 
The doses prescribed above should be augmented on the scale 
given in the list of medicines. There is a popular notion that 
measles leave behind them something that requires clearing 
away, and acting thereupon it is not uncommonly the case that 
the unfortimate child is actively physicked for a few days. 
The whole proceeding is based on error. When the child is 
well, better let well alone. 

Milk Fever. — Symptoms. — A light form of puerperal fever 
is that which is commonly known as " milk fever." This is 
simply a passing febrile condition attending the establishment 
of the secretion of the milk, if not drawn off freely enough, 
when the breasts sometimes become painfully distended, and 
the fever is rather smart for a few days, and then rapidly sub- 
sides, with simple aperient salines and abstinence as far as may 
be from fluids, taking care that the breast is emptied as thor- 
oughly and frequently as possible. 

Miscarriage, or Abortion. — Symptoms. — It occurs very 
often without any warning, but commonly it is preceded by slight 
pains in the back and abdomen, and by a slightly colored 
discharge. These symptoms occurring in the early months or 
weeks of pregnancy, are sometimes mistaken for the return of 
the ordinary period, which may have been supposed to have 
been suppressed from some other cause. These warnings may 
end as such, or the abortion becomes completed by the sudden 
expulsion of the contents of the womb, attended with more or 
less haemorrhage. In some cases considerable h?emorrhage 
will continue for several days before miscarriage is complete. 

Treatment. — Rest, with the administration of opiates to 
allay pain. If the haemorrhage be profuse, napkins wetted with 



48« MEDICINAL. 

cold water, or cold vinegar and water, should be applied to the 
lower parts of the body. The patient should be kept as cool 
as the season will admit, and some mild aperient should be 
given, if the bowels have been costive, A light diet should be 
taken. The following pill should also be given every four 
hours, if the bleeding continue: Acetate of lead, 2 grains; 
opium, 1-4 grain; conserve, or moist bread crumb, enough to 
make a pill. Prevention is an important point in these cases, 
as when the accident has happened once, it is very prone to 
recur at the same period of future pregnancies. The third 
month is a very usual period for abortion to occur. 

Nervous Shock. — On the occurrence of a severe accident, 
such as a fracture of a limb, or a fall from a height, the sufferer 
is generally found pale, fainting, and perhaps half uncon- 
scious, with a small and irregular pulse. This condition of 
shock to the system may go into a state of collapse from 
which the patient may never recover. Under such circum- 
stances, however, what is termed " reaction " takes place, 
attended either with complete recovery in a few minutes, or 
the complete reaction may be prolonged for a day or two. 

Treatment. — First and foremost, see that the patient has 
a good supply of fresh air; let him be placed in the recumbent 
posture, with the head on a line with the body. Small quan- 
tities of stimulants should be given, such as about a table- 
spoonful of brandy in a wine-glass of water, or a teaspoonful 
of compound spirits of ammonia (spirits of salvolatile) should 
be given in a wine-glass of water. Warmth should be secured 
to the surface of the body by blankets and h ^ t bottles to the 
feet and legs. 

Paralysis. — Symptoms. — After the immediate symptoms of 
an attack of apoplexy have passed away, more permanent 
effects are often left in the form of palsy of some of the mus' 
cles, or of insensibility of parts of the surface of the body. 
The body may be palsied vertically, that is, one-half of the 
body from head to foot, may have lost its sensibility to 
external impressions, or the muscles on the side of the body 
may have lost their power of moving the limbs. When the 
right side of the body is paralyzed, there is very often a 
defect in the power of speech, by which the patient uses wrong 
words to express his ideas. Or, the palsy may effect the body 
transversely, the trunk and limbs below a certain line having 
lost their power. Another more restricted loss of power may 
occur, as local paralysis. Thus, one hand, or one foot, may 
be palsied, or the muscles of one side of the face alone may 
suffer; or, again, the tongue and palate, etc., may have lost 
their free movement without impairment of the muscular 
power of other parts of the body. 



MEDICINAL. 487 

Treatment. — If the case come under treatment soon after 
the attack of apoplexy, the symptoms more readily yield to 
treatment; but the result too commonly is that some degree of 
paralytic impairment is commonly left behind. In the early 
phases of this affection, the careful administration of small 
doses of mercurials — e. g., two grains of blue pill, night and 
morning, continued for a week or ten days, unless it produce 
tenderness of the gums and flow of saliva, when it should 
immediately be stopped. This effect should be carefully 
watched against day after day. The effects of the mercurial 
will be assisted by some form of counter irritation, such as 
blistering the nape of the neck, and keeping the blister open 
by dressing it with savine ointment, or by rubbing the follow- 
ing ointment on the nape of the neck, night and morning, until 
an eruption of pimples appears: Tartar emetic, i drachm; lard, 
or spermaceti ointment, i ounce. Mix. 

After the mercurial has been discontinued, tonic medicines 
will be found of service, such as steel, quinine, and cod-liver 
oil. 

Pregnancy. — Signs of. — It is sometimes a difficult matter 
to determine the fact of pregnancy. There is, however, strong 
ground for belief in its existence, if under possible conditions 
menstruation becomes suspended in a healthy woman, previ- 
ously regular in her periods. If to this sign be added, after 
about four or five weeks, the occurrence of morning sickness, 
with enlargement of the breasts and development of the 
glands around the nipple, which begins to be encircled by an 
areola of darkening skin, the suspicion becomes strengthened, 
and, generally speaking, time confirms it. 

Management of. — Of the management of the period of 
pregnancy there is not much to be said, as each woman may 
act according to her ordinary mode of life and circumstances 
when in good health. 

The Disorders of pregnancy will, however, require notice 
as to their prevention as well as treatment. The stomach 
being, through sympathetic irritation, prone to derangement, 
care should be taken to avoid what is known by individual 
experience to be indigestible, avoiding the frequent recourse to 
stimulants to relieve the slight ailments incidental to a natural 
condition. Indigestion is one of these, and may generally 
be relieved by bicarbonate of soda or magnesia, or by a rigidly 
abstemious diet for a few days. Costiveness is also a common 
attendant upon pregnancy, and leads to a troublesome affection 
— piles, and should be prevented by dieting, or by occasional 
doses of some mild aperient, such as castor oil, or rhubarb and 
magnesia, or citrate of magnesia. Piles, if present, will also 



488 MEDICINAL. 

be relieved by the action of the aperients. We would warn 
against the senseless practice of taking frequent doses of oil as 
a matter of course. There is no call in nature for anything of 
the kind, and no need for such gratuitous physicking. 

Vomiting. — The morning sickness that attends the early 
weeks of pregnancy amounts in general to little beyond 
annoyance every morning. Sometimes, however, it becomes so 
constant and persistent as to be a real illness of itself, prevent- 
ing the retention of food of any kind, so that the sufferer be- 
comes enfeebled, emaciated, and as if bloodless. The ordinary 
morning sickness may be moderated by a teaspoonful or two 
of Noyau, or cherry-brandy in milk, taken quite early in the 
morning before rising. It should be swallowed, the patient 
merely turning on her side and raising only on to her elbow- 
not getting up into the upright or sitting posture. Then lying 
quietly for an hour, and taking after that time a small cup of 
strong coffee and dry biscuit; again resting for half an hour 
after this breakfast. 

Quickening is very frequently attended with faintness and 
palpitation of the heart, but these soon pass away, and are 
relieved by simple means. These symptoms, however, are apt 
to recur at any period, under circumstances that disturb health, 
such as over-fatigue, either in pursuit of pleasure or of duty. 

Enlargement and distension of the veins of the legs are 
apt to occur during the latter months of pregnancy, when the 
womb, being large and heavy, presses upon the veins in the 
lower part of the body, and retards the return of the blood 
from the limbs. Hence, varicose veins are established, and 
become a fixed trouble. The recumbent posture, by taking off 
some of the pressure from the internal vessels, is calculated to 
diminish the distention of the veins of the legs; additional 
support may be afforded to these by wearing elastic-web 
stockings. 

Cutaneous Irritation of the private parts often occurs 
in the early months of pregnancy, and, indeed, in some persons 
forms the first indication of the pregnant condition. A-lotion 
of carbolic acid applied to the parts several times a day affords 
considerable comfort. Take of goulard water, one-half pint; 
saturated solution of carbolic acid, lo drops. Mix and use as 
lotion. 

Irritability of the Bladder, giving occasion for con- 
stant calls to micturition, is another excessively troublesome 
affection that often attends pregnancy, especially during the 
later weeks. The following mixture will be found useful: 
Muriated tincture of iron, i drachm; tincture of henbane, one- 
half ounce; water to 6 ounces. Mix. Take a sixth part every 
four or six hours. 



MEDICINAL. 489 

Protrusion of the Navel. — This frequently occurs in the 
early weeks of infantile life. 

Treatment. — The best method of treating it is to cut a 
piece of cork or ivory, in the torra of a half sphere, and place 
the rounded side on the protruded navel. Adhesive plaster 
should then be used to retain it in its place. It is generally 
necessary to pursue this treatment for some months, particu- 
larly in female children. The plaster should be changed every 
morning, and the skin washed iDefore the cork is replaced. 

Puerperal Fevers. — Symptoms. — When a labor has been 
protracted, a degree of fever sometimes occurs and passes oft' 
in the course of a few days. This passing febrile state is, 
however, very different from the condition commonly known 
as " puerperal," or " child-fever," which does not make its 
appearance generally until several days, and is indeed a very 
grave malady. It is ushered in by indefinite symptoms refer- 
able to the nervous system, such as headache and sleeplessness. 
If night after night passes in disturbed sleep, with or without 
dreams of a distressing character, and restless indefinite di'^conn- 
fort by day, suspicion should be aroused, and attention drawn 
to the probable approach of fever. After this indefinite illness 
has lasted for seven or eight days, it will be found that there is 
a degree of tenderness on pressure at the lower part of the 
abdomen, with some pain in moving or on taking a longbreatli. 
There will also be a degree of flatulent distention of the bowels. 
The ordinary discharge will have diminished, as will also the 
secretion of milk. Shivering will occur alternately with flush- 
ing and heat of surface, as detectable by the thermometer. The 
pulse becomes rapid, but wanting in force. 

Treatment. — While the symptoms are mild, a few doses 
of Dover's powder, with mild saline aperient and careful diet- 
ing, will generally suffice to insure their disappearance. If 
there be pain in the abdomen, hot fomentation or turpentine 
stupes will give relief. Should these simple means prove 
ineft'ective, and the symptoms become aggravated, with increase 
of pain, reliance may be placed in small repeated doses of 
opium, either as Dover's powder or in form of pill, — e. g., 
Dover's powder, 5 grains every six hours; opium, in form of 
pill, half a grain every six hours; turpentine stupes repeated 
every morning and night. If the bowels should be confined, 
a dose of castor oil or a rhubarb draught should be given. In 
most cases this treatment will suffice, with a light nutritious 
diet. In those cases, however, iji which there is a feeling of 
sinking and prostration, stimulants may be cautiously given. 
Should there be sickness or vomiting, champagne may be 
taken, or small and frequent doses of soda-water and brandy. 



490 MEDICINAU 

This form of fever will sometimes last two or three weeks, and 
requires the greatest care in nursing, and in diet, etc., during 
convalesence. 

Purpura. — (The Purples.) — Symptoms. — Patches or spots 
of a purple color, resembling bruises, their colors also going 
through the various shades shown in bruises. They are some- 
times accompanied by a tendency to bleeding at the nose. 
There may be some febrile disturbance, but usually the general 
health shows no sign of derangement. 

Treatment. — Tonics are required in this disorder. The 
muriated tincture of iron, with the addition of quinine, forms 
a very useful medicine. If the bowels be confined, sulphate 
of magnesia should also be added. For children, steel wine 
will generally be sufficient, together with a careful nutritious 
diet of beef tea, meat, etc. 

Remittent Fever. — Endemic Fever. — This fever is not 
infectious, and it differs from ague in there being no distinct 
intermissions, but frequently recurring attacks, generally taking 
place in the morning. 

Symptoms. — The face is flushed, there is headache, and 
occasionally delirium; there is great tenderness in the stomach, 
Accompanied with vomiting of a bilious nature; the bowels are 
confined, and the urine is scanty. If the bowels are relieved, 
the motions are of a dark, greenish color, and very offensive. 
The skin is hot, the pulse rapid, the tongue has a brownish fur. 
The fever becomes less as the skin becomes moist, and as the 
patient goes into a sweat, the remission occurs. The remission 
generally lasts from one to three hours, when the fever again 
comes on, and gradually increases in severity till it attains the 
intensity of the former attack, and perhaps exceeds it. 
During the remissions of the attacks, the patient remains in a 
state of mild fever, accompanied by giddiness or lassitude. The 
fever may last from five days to five weeks. A patient may be 
said to have the fever in a favorable manner as the remissions 
are more distinct. 

Treatment. — If the bowels are constipated, the following 
aperient mixture should be taken: Epsom salts, one-half ounce; 
tincture of rhubarb, i drachm; water to make one and a half 
ounces. Mix. When the remissions have clearly set in, the 
patient should take the following draught three times a day: 
Sulphate of quinine, 3 grains; syrup of orange peel, i drachm; 
dilute sulphuric acid, 10 minims; water, i ounce. Mix. Qui- 
nine is not only of value as a curative agent in the endemic 
fever, but it is also a preventive. Travelers in the low and 
marshy districts of tropical climates do well to take two or 
three grains of quinine every morning. 



MEDICINAL. 491 

Rheumatism — Is an inflammation or febrile affection that 
attacks the joints and muscles, or their coverings and sheaths, 
in various parts of the body. When the large joints are 
the seat of the disease, in its most active form, it is known as 
rheumatic fever, on account of the feverish condition that 
accompanies it. It is often, however, met with in a less active 
form, as subacute, chronic, or neuralgic rheumatism. 

General Symptoms. — In the acute form the pain in the 
joints is so acute, and they are so sensitive to the slightest 
movement, that the patient dreads even a shaking of the bed 
he lies on. The joints are swollen, and red as well as painful. 
A high degree of fever attends the inflammatory affection of 
the joints; the pulse is full, strong and fast; the tongue is 
furled; the bowels generally costive; the urine scanty and high 
colored. The seat of the inflammation is rapidly changed from 
one joint to another, the pain subsiding to return perhaps as 
severely as before. 

Subacute Rheumatism. — In this form the pain is less 
severe, and there is a slighter amount of fever. It affects more 
the muscles than the joints. Of this kind are " lumbago," 
" rheumatic headache," etc. 

Rheumatic Affection of the Heart. — In the acute 
form, or " rheumatic fever," the coverings and interior of the 
heart are prone to become inflamed. The occurrence of this 
complication may be interred if pain be felt in the region of 
the heart, attended with palpitation and difficulty of breathing. 

Treatment. — The several joints as they are affected should 
be wrapped round in cotton-wool, covered with gutta-percha 
tissue or oil-silk, the joint being previously gently rubbed with 
belladonna liniment. When the pain and inflammation first 
come on, the patient should, at b time, take the following 
powder: Calomel, 2 grains; Dover's powder, 10 grains. Mix. 
Next morning the patient should take the following draught: 
Infusion of senna, 2 ounces; tartrate of potash, 2 drachms; 
compound spirits of ammonia (salvolatile), one-half drachm. 
After the bowels have been freely open, the following medicine 
should be commenced: Bicarbonate of potash, 2 drachms; 
water, 6 ounces. Mix. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken, either 
alone or effervescing, with a tablespoonful of lemon juice, three 
times a day. The addition of ten minims of colchicum wine 
sometimes aids the effects of this mixture, but it is apt to 
produce sickness and purging. 

If there is great pain and want of sleep, or if the bowels are 
open too much, a grain of opium, or twenty minims of laudanum 
should be taken every night. The above alkaline mixture 
should not be continued too long, as it is apt to cause irrita* 



492 MEDICINAL. 

tion of tlie intestines. As soon as the pain begins to subside, 
and the urine to assume its usual appearance, it should be 
stopped, and the following medicine substituted: Sulphate of 
quinine, i6 grains; dilute sulphuric acid, i drachm; water, 8 
ounces. Mix. Two tablespoonfuls three times a day. If there 
be reason to suspect that the coverings of the heart are affec- 
ted, a blister should be applied on the front of the chest, over 
the seat of the heart. 

A low diet of milk, arrowroot, rice or sage, or beef tea, 
should be continued throughout the acute stage, with a change 
to a more liberal diet as the symptoms subside. 

Chronic Rheumatism. — Symptoms. — The pain of this 
form of rheumatism is less acute, and is more frequently 
situated in the m.scles or their tendons than in the joints. 
The parts affected become stiff and painful on movement. 
There is not often much swelling or inflammation of the joints 
— except of the small joints, as of the fingers — after the disease 
has lasted long. 

Treatment. — The parts affected should be rubbed with a 
mixture of equal parts of belladonna and soap liniment, or with 
compound camphor liniment (see External Applications), and 
if the pain and inflammation be very acute, as sometimes they 
are, turpentine fomentations should be applied. 

The following medicine should be taken: Iodide of potas- 
sium, 40 grains; bicarbonate of potash, 2 drachms; water to 
make 8 ounces. Mix. Two tablespoonfuls three times a day. 

Sciatica. — It sometimes attacks the leg, beginning at the 
upper part of the back of the thigh, and extending downwards 
to the foot. The pain of this form of rheumatism is very acute, 
and it is by far the most troublesome to treat. 

Treatment. — The application of strong stimulating lini- 
ments over the seat of the pain. If the pain be severe, it may 
sometimes be allayed with half-grain doses of opium every six 
hours. Iodide of potassium and tincture of bark should also 
be given. (See Medicines.) 

Scarlatina. Scarlet Fever. — Symptoms. — This is a highly 
infectious eruptive fever, common to all ages, which makes its 
appearance sometimes almost suddenly, but generally after a 
day or two of general indisposition, in which vomiting almost 
always occurs. The rash consists of minute scarlet spots, 
which are scattered over the entire body. They are not raised 
above the surface of the skin, over which a diffuse redness 
commonly prevails. The characteristic appearance is presented 
by the tongue, which is of a bright scarlet color round the 
edges, the middle being furred with the papillae of a bright 



MEDICINAL. 493 

scarlet color, standing out, and giving it the appearance of a 
strawberry. The throat is sore and scarlet, with difficulty in 
swallowing. On examining the throat it will be found that the 
tonsils are often swollen and ulcerated. The glands in the neck 
are swollen also. The pulse is rapid and small. There is 
great thirst, with entire loss of appetite for food. The rash 
lasts from five to seven days, when it gradually fades away. 
The skin, after a variable period, begins to peel off as fine dust 
or scales; sometimes large flakes come off. The entire skin 
of the fingers or toes sometimes comes off in one piece like 
the finger of a glove. The itching caused by the eruption is 
some' ' es a source of great irritation and sleeplessness. In the 
active 'cbrile stage of the disease it often happens that 
delirium occurs during night, which subsides with the fever. 

Treatment. — A hot bath should be given night and morn- 
ing, so as to promote the functions of the skin and bring the 
rash out fully. This is an important point, as when the rash is 
not out plenteously, the specific poison of the disease has a 
tendency to affect internal organs, the brain especially. The 
bowels should be kept open by means of saline aperients. The 
following mixture is useful during eruptions: Carbonate of 
ammonia, 40 grains; simple syrup, i ounce; water to make 8 
ounces. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken three times a day, 
one tablespoonful by children less than ten years of age, and 
less for infants; but it is not easy to get young children to 
swallow medicine or food, in consequence of the soreness of the 
throat. If the throat be ulcerated, small blisters should be 
applied outside, on the neck, under the angles of the lower jaw 
bone. (See Blistering). The throat and tonsils should be painted 
inside with the following: Nitrate of silver, 20 grains; dissolved 
in distill d water, i ounce. The best way of painting or mop- 
ping this on the throat, is to tie a smah piece of sponge very 
tightly on the end of a piece of whalebone, taking care to touch 
the tonsils at each application. The diet should be light. Free 
ventilation is an essential point in the treatment of scarlet fever. 
It must be secured so as not to expose the patient to sudden 
cold or chill. Disinfection should be carefully attended to. 

Scarlet fever sometimes assumes a malignant form. From 
the very beginning there is a depression of nervous power, the 
eruption is dusky, and the ulceration of the throat very acute. 
In this case, stimulants must be given, as wine or brandy and 
water; but in other forms of the disease, these are seldom 
needed. 

Small-pox. Variola. — Character. — This is an infectious 
eruptive fever, having, in its natural form, a definite course 
from the moment gf infection to its termination. We shall io 



494 MEDICINAL. 

the first place describe the disease as unmodified, in which its 
course is divisible into the several phases, or stages, of incuba- 
tion, invasion, eruption, decline. 

Incubation. — The stage of incubation, or period during 
which the disease is being developed in the system, covers a 
lapse of twelve days from the date of infection, and passes 
usually without any manifest sign of disease. 

Invasion. — At the end of twelve days, the symptoms of 
invasion make their appearance in indefinite febrile illness, 
principally marked by pain in the back, and at the pit of the 
stomach. These premonitory symptoms last for forty-eight 
hours, and vary greatly in degrees of severity — some cases 
assuming the character of very severe illness, the exact nature 
of which is not clear. The use of the clinical thermometer 
will here be found a help in diagnosis. If the temperature of 
the body be as high as loo degrees, or above that, there will be 
no room for doubt that a fever is impending. Other circum- 
stances, such as possibility of infection, etc., will further assist 
in arriving at an opinion. The severity of the premonitory 
symptoms has usually a direct relation to the sevf^rity of th? 
subsequent eruptive fever. 

Stage of Eruption. — The premonitory illness having 
existed for forty-eight hours, begins to decline simultaneously 
with the outbreak of the eruption, in the shape of minute, red 
pimples, which feel like millet-seeds beneath the skin. They 
appear first on the upper parts of the body, and last on the 
legs and feet. In from twenty to thirty hours the eruption is 
nearly as fully out as it will be. 

Varieties. — The number and character of the pimples give 
rise to varieties, which have been recognized and designated 
as: I. Distinct, or discrete; the spots not being very numerous, 
and clear spaces of skin being left among them. The fever is 
slight in these cases. 2. Confluent: in many cases the eruption 
is more copious, the pimples running together and forming 
large clusters. In this form the fever runs high, and the dan- 
ger is greater in proportion to the number of pustules. There 
may be an intermediate variety. 3. The semi-confluent, in 
which the clusters occur in patches, leaving other portions of 
skin free from the eruption. The febrile symptoms are neither 
so mild, nor so severe, as in the above varieties. 

Types. — Any one or all of these varieties of the disease 
may run through their course, ending in perfect recovery; or 
the symptoms may be characterized by extreme severity or 
prostration from the beginning. This is the " malignant" type 
Qi the disease, the others are the "mild " or "benignant." 



MEDICINAL. 495 

Course of the Eruption. — In the ordinary course of the 
disease, the pimples are red and inflamed by the end of the 
second day; after this, they gradually begin to show a conical 
apex, filled with a colorless fluid, and, by the fifth day, they 
present a small vesicle of this fluid with flattened instead of 
a conical top. The vesicles from this date alter in appearance, 
and become pustules, being filled with matter which is " ma- 
ture " by the eighth day. In this state of the eruption the 
surrounding skin is red and swollen, and it is at this point that 
the eyelids swell considerably from the looseness of their tex- 
ture. The patient is then commonly spoken of as being blind, 
but in truth he is only blinded for a time. Some pimples appear 
also in the mouth, and throat, in most cases causing hoarseness 
and cough. 

Stage of Decline. — After the maturation of the pustule? 
on the eighth day, up to the eleventh day, the pustules begin to 
dry up and form scabs. This scabbing process, however, does 
not proceed equally over the body, and may last for several 
weeks on the extremities. It is accompanied by a return of 
febrile symptoms, often rather severe, and attended with excite- 
ment of the brain. This has been termed the "secondary 
fever." It generally begins to subside after the eleventh day, 
which has been regarded by some observers as a "critical day." 
Pitting is pretty sure to follow on unprotected or natural small- 
pox. Such is the ordinary course of natural small-pox, in its 
non-malignant form. 

Modified Small-pox. — If the subject of small-pox has 
been vaccinated, the disease may be cut short at any one of its 
stages, and disarmed of its dangers. The eruption is rendered 
slighter, and less likely to leave pits. The fever is slighter, so 
much so as often to exceed very little that of chicken-pox. It 
may be affirmed that as a rule vaccinated cases of small-pox 
recover with very little of ill effects of any kind, beyond dis- 
colored traces of the pustules, which gradually fade away. 

Malignant Small-pox. — This form of disease is marked 
from its outset by signs of nervous depression, and deteriora- 
tion of the blood. The pulse indicates loss of strength, while 
the blood shows grave alterations in its composition, such as 
blood spots on the skin, resembling bruises and flea-bites. 
The pimples scarcely go into the vesicular or pustular stage, 
but becomes filled with extravasated blood, giving them a pur- 
ple hue. When vesicles of this character are seen, even if it be 
among others of a healthier aspect, they betoken more than 
usual danger. Haemorrhage from internal organs most com- 
monly follows, and the patient succumbs in the course of a few- 
days. 



496 MEDICINAL. 

The c^*iditions most favorable to recovery trom sniall-pori 
are youth, previous good heahh, and vaccination. The unfav- 
orable circumstances are infancy and old age, the supervention 
of other diseases, such as erysipelas, boils, abscesses, congestion 
of internal organs, and pregnancy. This last is almost always 
attended with abortion in small-pox. 

Inflammation of the coats of the eye is very prone to occur 
during an attack of small-pox — in severe cases running on 
sometimes to the total destruction of the globe of the eye. 

Propagation. — Small-pox may be propagated by infection, 
or by inoculation. The latter is now never practiced, since it 
has been made to be, in law, a felony, punished by heavy fine 
or imprisonment. The incurrence of the disease by infection 
is called "taking it in the natural way." How long after the 
subsidence of all the symptoms of small-pox an individual 
maybe able to communicate it "in the natural way." is not 
known. Probably no risk exists of its propagation from the 
person after all the scabs have fallen off, and the patient has 
had repeated baths. To prevent its propagation the thorough 
disinfection of all clothing and bedding should be effected as 
early as possible. 

Treatment. — For the disease itself the treatment consists 
more in watching its course and relieving complications than 
iu the administration of remedies with any view to cure. 
Small-pox having a definite course cannot be interfered with 
by active treatment without fear of causing mischief: — all that 
need be done is to administer some mild aperient in the outset, 
and then some simple saline mixture if the fever run high. A 
mild distinct case is far better left to run its natural course. 
Separation of the sick from the healthy, and a plentiful sup- 
ply of pure air, are of greater importance, almost, than the 
adoption of curative measures. The sleeplessness and delirium 
which often attends the febrile state that accompanies matura- 
tion of the vesicles, are readily allayed by Dover's powder. 
If the entire surface of the body be sponged daily with warm 
water, or vinegar and water, the irritation of the skin is much 
allayed thereby. Inflammation of the eyes should be imme- 
diately attended to. A small piece of linen rag, dipped in cold 
water, or Goulard water, should be laid over the eyelids and 
be kept constantly wetted. The main treatment of mild or 
simple small-pox resolves itself into nursing and dieting. 
During the early febrile stages, diet of bread and milk is the 
best. Light slops, such as broths, may be allowed also, and 
ripe fruits, such as grapes, oranges, etc., to allay thirst. When 
the process of scabbing has advanced a few days, and the sec- 
ondary fever is on the decline, meat should be given, and if 
the pulse becpmes feeble some wine in addition will prov^? 



MEDICINAL. 497 

beneficial. In the severer or malignant small-pox, wine or 
brandy will be required earlier. The indication will be a 
sense of sinking expressed by the patient, and feebleness of the 
pulse. In the malignant or haemorrhage form wine should be 
given to begin with, and doses of the muriated tincture of iron. 

Prevention of Pitting. — A point in treatment to which 
great importance is attached is to prevent pitting or scarring. 
Countless have been the schemes that have been put forward 
with great boast and pretention as infallible preventives of the 
disfigurement. Having tried a great many of the plans, and 
seen them tried on a great scale, we cannot advise our readers 
to rely upon any one that has yet been put forward, except pre- 
vious vaccination. This exerts such a controlling power over 
the disease that it, even in severe cases, may pass away without 
pitting. The separation of the scabs is promoted by painting 
them with sweet oil as soon as they are formed. 

Spasm, or Cramp, may be a symptom of some nervous 
affection, or of inflammation of some internal organ. Essen- 
tially they are the same thing, but a distinction is generally 
made to the effect that spasm affects internal muscular parts, as 
of the stomach or intestines, while cramp affects the muscles 
of the limbs. Internal cramp or spasm may be distinguished 
from inflammation by pressing on the part. Steady pressure 
gradually affords some relief in Spasm, whereas the pain is 
increased thereby if its cause be inflammation. 

Treatment. — For immediate relief of spasms or cramp, 
an adult may take laudanum, 20 minims; ether, 30 minims; or, 
chloric ether, 30 minims, in a wineglass of water. And repeat 
every three or four hours. 

Splinters, Thorns, etc. — These should be removed, if possi- 
ble, by the use of forceps. If they are left in they may cause 
inflammation, and the formation of abscesses, or gatherings. 
If the foreign body cannot be extracted, a linseed-meal or 
bread-poultice should be applied. Matter will probably form, 
and may be required to be let out by a puncture, in which case 
most probably the thorn or splinter will be evacuated at the 
same time. The inflammation will begin to subside as soon as 
this has occurred. 

Stings of Insects, etc. — Symptoms. — The stings of wasps 
or ants, or bees, as, indeed, do most of the bites of insects, 
present very much the appearance of what are called poisoned 
wounds. The history of the case will generally be that the 
patient has suddenly felt a very sharp pain in the part affected, 
though, perhaps, he has not noticed any unusual appearance 
about it. Within a short, but variable period, there is a feel- 
30 



498 MEDICINAL. 

ing of irritation about the spot, which rapidly becomes red and 
swollen, and sometimes acutely painful. On close examination, 
it will be found that there is a small speck about the centre of 
the inflamed part, and in this the sting of the insect is some- 
times found. The severity of the symptoms will of course vary, 
according to the state of health, or constitution of the patient. 
The inflammation may be confined to a small circumscribed 
spot, or it may spread over a whole limb, and be attended with 
signs of prostration. 

Treatment. — If the sting have been left in, as it usually is 
by wasps, it should be carefully extracted, if it can be got hold 
of, by forceps or tweezers. If there be simply a small red 
irritable spot, it will be sufficient to dress it with a cold evapor- 
ating lotion, such as the following: 

Vinegar, i ounce; spirits of wine, i ounce; water, 4 ounces. 
Mix. This should be kept constantly applied by means of a 
piece of lint, or soft linen rag. 

Spirits of salvolatile is also very useful for local application 
in slight cases of stings. Should, however, the inflammation 
spread much, poultices of linseed-meal should be applied. 

Should the wound have been inflicted by a snake or other 
venomous insect, and the system be at all affected, if the 
patient seem faint or prostrated, stimulants should be given 
freely, thus: Spirits of salvolatile, i drachm; water to i ounce; 
every hour; or brandy and "water, if the ammonia be not at 
hand. If the bite proceed from some animal, whose bite is 
known to be of a dangerous nature, nitrate of silver should 
be freely applied to the wound as quickly as possible. If the 
wound be on a limb, it will be as well to tie a handkerchief or 
other ligature tightly round it above the part bitten. 

The venomous effect of certain snake bites, as that of the 
cobra di capello, are so rapid in their development that, unless 
speedy or immediate aid be rendered, the patient will stand but 
little chance of recovery. The bite of the adder is occasion- 
ally followed by very serious symptoms. The bite, or rather the 
stings, of certain scorpions are often of a severe nature. In 
nearly all cases of snake-bite, the symptoms consist in a fearful 
state of depression, during which, unless the strength be sup- 
ported, the patient will sink. 

If the wound be inflicted on one of the limbs, a ligature 
should be very tightly tied round it above the wound. 

The object of the treatment, as above stated, is to support 
the strength of the patient until the poison shall have passed 
out of the system. 

Stomach-Ache: i. In Children; 2. In Adults. — i. To 
begin with this very " common heritage " of infantine and 



MEDICINAL. 499 

childish *'woe,'* first and foremost show your sense, as far as a 
fond (and foolish?) papa or mamma can be supposed to show- 
it, by preventing the " little ones " from eating and drinking 
what you know, and they don't know, to be a likely fo7is et 
origo malorum. For instance, prevent their eating raw and 
unripe fruit; going into the garden and picking and swallowing 
green peas, sour gooseberries, and so on; in short, keep them 
on their proper diet, eggs and milk, in especial, the only two 
perfect /(?r se kinds of food; good brown bread, made at home 
of whole-ground wheat, infinitely more nourishing than the fine 
white bread, too often adulterated, for the sake of the color, 
with alum, to the ruin of the teeth and confinement of the 
bowels; Scotch oatmeal porridge, with plenty of milk, not 
odious salt and the like. N. B. — Do not expect your young 
child to thrive on tea and white bread and butter only; still 
less on buttered toast. A growing child needs something bet- 
ter at breakfast than that. If you yourself know nothing 
about the proper diet for a child, then buy one of the London 
Hospital Pharmacopoeias, particularly one of the "Children's 
Hospital Pharmacopoeias," at the end of which a proper dietary 
for a child, according to its age, is given. 

If stomach-ache does come, in spite of all reasonable pre- 
cautions, then, if you have no doctor at hand, or in case you 
don't, in your wisdom, think fit to call one in, or in case 
you cannot pay him if you do — then, faute de viicux, give from 
a quarter of an ounce of tincture of rhubarb to half an ounce, 
according to age and strength, with from two to four drops of 
laudanum, and four or five drops of essence of ginger in about 
a wineglass or a little more of water. A little sugar and grated 
nutmeg in it will do no harm, and make it more palatable. 
Cut him, or her, as the case may be, a bit of thin fresh lemon- 
peel, and give it to set the little teeth into as soon as the siiccus 
amarus is swallowed, to take the taste away; or, if you cannot 
get this, then a thin slice of a ripe apple, or a small suck at an 
orange. A child won't take medicine any the better another 
time, for having had the nasty taste in its mouth for minutes 
after it has swallowed its first dose. Put the child to bed, 
warm and comfortable; and, if the pain continues, repeat the 
dose, and apply warm fomentations, flannels wrung out in hot 
water, with a few drops of spirits of turpentine sprinkled on 
them to the pit of the stomach. 

Better still, if you are near and have access to a hospital 
dispensary; or, failing that, to a good chemist's, then have the 
following recipe made up, and give it: Ten grains of carbonate 
of magnesia; lo grains of aromatic powdered chalk; 15 to 20 
drops of the tincture of rhubarb; i ounce of peppermint water. 
Repeat the dose in half an hour if the pain be not quieted. 
This will suit a child of eight or ten years of age. 



600 MEDICINAL. 

For pain in the stomach in infants, try, before you give Dill 
or any other medicine, gentle pressure with the palm of the 
warm hand on the abdomen, quietly and steadily applied. The 
pain, probably owing to wind only, will pass away, 

N. B. — Have woolen clothing (as soft flannel) worn next 
the skin. Whole-meal bread, but not bran bread for little 
children, and fine oatmeal only should be used. Avoid newly- 
baked bread too. Second day bread is the best, well-fired, 
and not raw and doughy. 

If pain be aggravated by pressure and rubbing, the stomach- 
ache may be more serious, and advice should be sought. Warm 
light poultices and one dose only of castor-oil. The directions 
for the use of laudanum must be regulated according to the 
age of the child; viz., one drop for every year of its age. For 
adults, the castor oil and peppermint draught should be advised 
too. 

2. In an Adult. — Act much in the same manner as with 
this complaint in a child, if you have nothing better within 
reach than tincture of rhubarb; only, of course, use a stronger 
dose, say from half an ounce to an ounce of the tincture, and 
from five to ten drops of laudanum. In case you can get it 
made up, probably no better prescription can be given than 
that which bears in Hospital Pharmacopoeias the barbarous 
Latin name of Haustus carjninativus, the draught, that is, that 
acts like a charm, viz: Five grains of rhubarb powder, with 
the same quantity of powdered ginger; lo grains of bicarbonate 
of soda; 20 drops of the aromatic spirits of ammonia, and I 
ounce of cinnamon water; or, if you cannot get that, plain 
water will do, 

Stone-Pock. — Symptoms. — This troublesome and disfiuring 
affection of the skin has the synonyms of "Acne," "Carbuncle- 
race," and "Rosy drop." It consists in scattered pimples, 
occurring usually on the face, chest, back, and shoulders. They 
appear first as small hard pimples, with minute black points, 
consisting of obstructed openings of the glands of the skin. 
After an uncertain period, the pimples increase in size, become 
inflamed at their base, pus forms, presenting yellow heads, 
then scabbing off in the course of a week or ten days. This is 
the form in which the eruption makes its appearance in the 
young and healthy, about the period of puberty, to their great 
annoyance and discomfort. In advanced life the eruption 
assumes a congestive character, and is of a dark or fiery red 
hue, often very obstinate and chronic in its nature. It is this 
form which has acquired the rather approDrious synonym of 
"Carbuncle-face." 

Treatment. — However anxious young people may be to 



MEDICINAL. 601 

get rid of what they feel to be a very disfiguring eruption, they 
must make up their minds to endure it with as much patience 
as may be, since it will often last for a year or two, and then 
gradually disappear. We would, therefore, warn our readers 
against taking strong medicines with a view of getting rid of it. 
A more important point is attention to diet and the general 
state of health. A nutritious, unstimulating diet should be 
taken. A simple aperient of an alkaline character, taken occa- 
sionally, together with the use of mild lotions, are the utmost 
that should be attempted. Thus, for aperient mixture: Bicar- 
bonate of potash (or soda), 2 drachms; infusion of senna, 2 
ounces; infusion of gentian, 6 ounces. Mix. Take an eighth 
part twice a day. For lotion: Corrosive sublimate, 2 grains; 
rose-water, or pure water, 8 ounces. Mix, and mark "poison- 
ous." Apply to the skin night and morning. Or, common 
washing soda, i drachm, to a pint of water, and apply freely, 
drying the skin again with a soft towel. Or, half an ounce of 
bicarbonate of soda, or potash, added to the water of a sponge 
bath. 

The chronic form of acne may be taken as a type for the 
treatment of chronic diseases of a pustular order generally. 

In all these, attention to diet is equally important, but it 
may be fuller, and some stimulant should be taken in the cases 
of adults. The internal use of arsenic, and of mineral acids, 
according to the age and state of constitution, will be found 
most serviceable, due attention being paid also to the func- 
tions of the liver and kidneys. The following prescriptions 
may be tried: Diluted nitric acid, 2 drachms; compound 
tincture of bark, 10 drachms. Mix. Take a teaspoonful three 
times a day in a wineglass of water. Or, Fowler's solution of 
arsenic, i drachm; solution of potash, 3 drachms; tincture of 
gentian, to 2 ounces. Given as above. The dose of solution 
of arsenic should be cautiously increased by 30 drops to the 
bottle at end of each ten days, for about three times. The 
dose will then be as large as it will be safe to entrust to non- 
professional hands. 

If, during the administration of arsenic in these small medi- 
cine doses, there should occur griping sickness and itching of 
the eyelids, the medicine should be stopped. Its use should 
also be discontinued if it seems to exert a depressing influence 
on the system. 

For outward application, in chronic acne and other pustu- 
lar affections, there are several ointments and lotions. Thus: 
Sulphate of zinc, 20 grains; glycerine, 1-2 ounce; water, to 6 
ounces. Mix. 

Stranguary (Difficult Micturition). — Symptoms. — This 
spasmodic affectioa may be caused by the application of a 



603 MEDICINAL. 

blister-plaster or of blistering liquid to any part of the body: 
or by inflammation of the bladder or other disorder of the 
urinary organs; by hysteria or by pregnancy. The spasm 
causes great distress by the ineffectual efforts that are made to 
empty the bladder, which, the more it is distended, the more 
severe the pain becomes, so that the slightest movement or 
■pressure becomes intolerable. 

Treatment. — It is caused by the irritation of a blister- 
plaster, a sedative (as tincture of henbane, or laudanum) and 
warm drinks, with time, will relieve the suffering. 

When it proceeds from internal causes it will depend also 
on these for its treatment; when, however, it occurs in hysteri- 
cal states, the tincture of perchloride of iron, with tincture of 
valerian, or assafcetida, may be tried. (See List of Medi- 
cines.) 

Struma, or Scrofula. — This is an unhealthy state of consti- 
tution, which gives a character to the diseases or disorders of 
those who possess it. Thus it is regarded as the basis of 
glandular swellings in the neck, and is somewhat loosely spoken 
of as "scorbutic habit of body." 

All diseases ccurring in strumous habits require a support- 
ing and tc.iic treatment. 

Sunrtroks — Symptoms. — These resemble the symptoms of 
congestion of the brain, and come on occasionally with great 
suddenness after exposure to the direct heat of the sun. In 
other cases the symptoms are slower in their approach, and in 
children resemble those of affection of the brain from teething. 

Treatment. — Apply cold to the head, and mustard-plas- 
ters to the soles of the feet and calves of the legs, giving 
repeated moderate doses of stimulants at the same time. 

Swallowing Foreig-n Bodies. — It often happens that chil- 
dren swallow money, or other hard substances, such as pins, 
etc. In these cases, if the substance be completely swallowed, 
it should be left to take its course through the stomach and 
intestines. The custom of giving purgatives in such cases is 
altogether contrary to physiological principles, as the intestinal 
movements will more safely carry them through than if vio- 
lently urged by physic. 

Toothache, How to Treat.— To alleviate the wretched pain 
— for nothing probably short of "cold steel," that is, extraction, 
can work a perfect cure — take at once a tolerably strong dose 
of opening medicine; as soon as this operates, in all probability 
the pain will be gone for a week or two. Meanwhile, apply a 
small mustard poultice outside, just over the place where 
the pain is most violent, and rub the gum and the 



MEDICINAL. 503 

tooth with chloroform and laudanum. It will ease the dread- 
ful pain. A little bit of cotton dipped in a solution of shellac, 
or of gum mastic and spirits of wine, makes a good temporary 
stopping for bad teeth. Avoid the ordinary vaunted "nos- 
trums," that is, the quack medicines said instantly to remove 
toothache. Kreasote is the safest domestic remedy to employ, 
if the pain be very bad; only get a friend to employ it, by 
putting a little bit of cotton-wool dipped in it into the hollow 
of the tooth for you, and do not try to put it in yourself, or you 
will scarify your tongue and gums. 

Vomiting", Obstinate. — When the Stomach will Retain 
Nothing. — General Directions, when a Doctor Cannot 
be Got. — Keep the patient perfectly quiet, in a bed, if possible, 
and on his back. Give no food for some time, and then only 
teaspoonful doses at a time, with long intervals; leave him to 
himself for an hour or two; then give five drops of chlorodyne 
in a little water, and, after an interval, a little chicken-broth or 
beef-tea. Milk, pure and simple, or milk with lime-water, in 
very small quantities at a time, is often useful. If you cannot 
keep these down lay a piece of lint soaked in a teaspoonful of 
brandy and a teaspoonful of laudanum mixed, on the pit of the 
stomach, cover it with a bit of oiled silk or guttapercha twice 
the size of the lint, and renew it every four or five hours. A 
mustard plaster will answer the same purpose, and is, probably, 
more easily procured. Either application will help to quiet 
the stomach. A teaspoonful of lime-water in a teacupful ot 
milk or of cold beef-tea (I have found that the stomach will 
always keep down the white of an egg, well beaten up with 
a teaspoonful of brandy, and given a very little at a time, when 
it would retain nothing else), or of arrowroot, will often abate 
the vomiting and enable the stomach to retain a small quantity 
of food. 

Thirty drops of wood naphtha and as much of the tincture 
of cardamoms, in a tablespoonful or two of water is sometimes 
used in this distressing complaint, and with success. It is very 
useful in preventing the vomiting of consumptive patients. 
Other experienced doctors say, use one drop of ipecacuanha 
wine every half hour. 

Typhoid Fever. — Intestinal, or Enteric, Fever. — Symptoms. 
—This fever generally begins with slight premonitory symp- 
toms, such as chilliness, loss of appetite, and heat of skin; 
sometimes vomiting, and generally diarrhoea, which seems to 
defy remedies. The patient becomes weaker, and, from about 
the seventh to the tenth day from the seizure, there appear on 
different parts of the body — generally on the back and front of 
the chest and abdomen — rose-colored spots, which are slightly 



504 MEDICINAL. 

raised above the surface, but which disappear on pressure, and 
quickly return when the finger is removed. At first, only two 
or three make their appearance, and are liable to be over- 
looked. More come out, but they are very variable in number; 
in ordinary cases, about a dozen. In forty-eight hours these 
spots fade out, and are replaced by fresh ones; this crop also 
fades as the former, and is replaced by another, and so on. 
The probable severity and danger bear some relation to the 
number of the spots; the abdomen feels hard, and is tender, 
but more particularly just above the right groin. The tongue 
is furred in the centre and red at the tip, as the diarrhoea con- 
tinues, the motions being loose, sometimes quite black, at other 
times light-colored. If this continue, the tongue becomes 
ulcerated, brown, and dry. The teeth become caked over with 
a brown matter called "sordes," and there is great thirst. The 
pulse ranges between 90 and 120. The temperature will reach 
102 degrees to 104 degrees. The patient may become deliri- 
ous, but this does not always denote that the disease will assume 
a serious form. In favorable cases the improvement is gener- 
ally slow. It is indicated by the number of stools diminishing 
and becoming more and more solid. The spots disappear, the 
skin becomes cooler and moist, the appetite returns, and, as 
convalesence progresses, sometimes becomes ravenous. The 
appetite requires to be carefully controlled during convalescence. 
Ulceration of the bowels being the dangerous tendency of the 
fever, indiscretion in diet will easily induce a relapse. 

Treatment, — The diet is an important point in the treat- 
ment of the disease. It should consist of light fluid food, 
easy of digestion; nothing solid should on any account be 
given. The patient should have milk and beef tea, coffee or 
tea; arrowroot or gruel are both useful. The staple article of 
diet should be milk during the first ten or twelve days, unless 
symptoms of extreme debility should occur, in which case 
beef tea and port wine may be given. Soups also may be 
given, but care must be taken that they are clear from indi- 
gestible fibres of meat and vegetable. 

The administration of wine is often a most difficult problem 
in the treatment of fever. If the signs of debility are so evi- 
dent as to render prostration imminent, an ounce of port wine, 
or even brandy, may be given every four or six hours; but it is 
necessary to caution the reader not to mistake the feeling of 
weakness, which is an inseparable attendant on fever, for dan- 
gerous debility. A vastly larger proportion of cases would do 
well without stimulants than is generally believed. It may be 
a help to the determination of the question if we point out 
some symptoms that will call for the use of alcoholic stimu- 
lants. These are great fluctuations in the number of the pulse 



MEDICINAL. 505 

and in the degrees of temperature of the body, and a want of 
muscular power to maintain a comfortable posture in bed, 
accompanied with sighing and irregular breathing. It may be 
stated broadly that it is not the number of the pulse that is so 
important as its steadiness. A pulse of a hundred and fifty — 
if it continue day after day at that number — affords a better 
sign than a pulse that beats a hundred at one time, and a hun- 
dred and twenty at another, and a hundred and something else 
at anoiher time. The same remark applies to the readings of 
the clinical thermometer. If these are steady, the case will, in 
all probability, do well without the use of alcohol. 

For medicinal means, but little is required in the shape of 
drugs. Some simple effervescing saline, or soda-water, which 
will serve to allay thirst and fever, will suffice in mild cases. 
Dilute hydrochloric acid, in small doses, is often of some ser- 
vice. Diarrhoea may be checked by chalk mixture, to which, 
if there be pain in the bowels, small doses of Dover's powder 
may be added. If there be tenderness on pressure of the 
abdomen, a mustard plaster may be applied, or a linseed poul- 
tice should be kept on day and night. When convalescence 
begins it may be assisted by the administration of quinine. 

Typhoid fever has a specific duration, viz.: either twenty- 
one or twenty-eight days; this, the ordinary duration, may, how- 
ever, be interfered with by the complication of inflammation 
of any internal organ, and convalesence may be prolonged 
through many weeks by the occurrence of mischief in the in- 
testines. The termination of the disease, if not in health, is 
in exhaustion; or sometimes by inflammation in the cavity of 
the abdomen, through the perforation of an ulcer in the intes- 
tines. In this last case, pain of a most intense character sets 
in suddenly, and is rapidly followed by collapse and death. 

Typhoid fever is not, as supposed, a milder form of typhus; 
it is distinctly different. Typhus is infectious; typhoid is not. 
The prominent symptom of typhus fever is the disturbance it 
causes in the brain. Diarrhoea is the prominent symptom of 
typhoid. 

The above distinctions are sufficient reasons with some 
authorities for dispensing with the name " typhoid," as that, 
from its similarity to " typhus," is liable to mislead, hence the 
name " Enteric " as the more appropriate distinctive designa- 
tion of this fever is frequently employed. 

Typhus. — This is an infectious fever of a very grave char- 
acter, known under various names as jail-fever, camp-fever, 
etc. It begins like most other fevers with indefinite symptoms 
of malaise, lasting an uncertain period. The incursion of the 
fever is sometimes sudden, commencing with a shivering fit, 



506 MEDICINAL. 

headache, and feeling of extreme debility. As the fever 
becomes more pronounced, the pulse is rapid, the temperature 
of the skin above loo degrees; thirst becomes urgent, the 
tongue furred; vomiting sometimes occurs. Severe headache 
and delirium occur early in the course of this fever. With the 
advance of the disease, the tongue becomes coated with fur, 
the eyes bloodshot, the skin hot and dry, the urine scanty, and 
the skin assumes a dusky hue. 

A characteristic eruption, distinctive of symptoms, appears 
on the chest and body, usually after the fifth day. By the 
peculiar features of this eruption, the disease may be identified 
and distinguished from typhoid. The appearance of the 
eruption somewhat resembles that of measles, but has mixed 
with it numerous minute spots like flea-bites. The stress of 
typhus is on the brain, as manifested by the early occurrence 
of severe headache, delirium, painful dreams, sleeplessness, 
twitching of the muscles, and, lastly, coma. The bowels, 
usually, are confined, a condition the reverse of what is observed 
in typhoid. Cough and shortness of breathing direct attention 
to the organs of respiration, inflammation of the lungs of a 
low and insidious character, being one of the most frequent 
and most dangerous complications of this fever. 

Typhus fever has no definite duration, like typhoid, but 
generally declines in fourteen days, although some cases last 
many days longer. 

Treatment. — A well ventilated apartment is essential to 
the success of treatment, and should by any means be secured. 
In the winter time a fire should be kept burning, as it not only 
supplies warmth, but it secures a change of air in the apart- 
ment. The tendency of typhus being towards depression and 
prostration of the nervous energies, the point in treatment is 
to support the vital powers by beef tea, milk, port wine, or 
brandy. The dose and the frequency of the repetition of the 
stimulants must be guided by their effects on the pulse. 

In cases where the debility is extreme and the pulse very 
rapid, a judiciously administered dose of alcohol will give it 
force and reduce its frequency. In this case the dose should 
be repeated at intervals of two or three hours, closely watching 
the effect on the pulse. In cases in which the debility is not 
so intensely marked, wine may be omitted, and the patient 
supported on milk, beef tea, soups, etc. Mild aperients should 
be given if the bowels be costive, and for medicine, four or 
five grains of carbonate of ammonia, dissolved in water, 
should be given every four hours. 

The head symptoms — e. g., headache, delirium and sleep- 
lessness — will be relieved by blistering the back of the neck. 
(See Blistering.) If the head be hot, ice-cold water should be 



MEDICINAL. 507 

constantly applied. If the excitement of the brain prevent 
sleep, a small dose of Dover's powder at bed-time will have a 
soothing effect, and perhaps favor perspiration. If there is 
cough and symptoms signifying that the chest is becoming 
affected, mustard-plasters should be applied. We repeat, how- 
ever, that the most important of all measures is good nursing 
and careful dieting. 

The infection of typhus may be guarded against by the 
free use of disinfectants, such as carbolic acid or Condy's 
fluid. (see Disinfection), and by free ventilation, which is of the 
first importance, and goes a long way to prevent the spread of 
all sorts of infectious diseases. 

Vaccination. — Vaccination is the insertion into the human 
system of the infectious matter of a mild disease called cow- 
pox. Cow-pox is really small-pox, which, having been acted 
on by the system of the cow, has been thus rendered innocu- 
ous to the human body, at the same time that it is protective of 
a second attack. Thus, in vaccination we have a mild and 
harmless form of small-pox, which is voluntarily accepted in 
the place of the more malignant form of small-pox, which 
seizes its victims against their will. 

Vaccination is the only real protector we have against the 
ravages of small-pox. This is proved by the following facts, 
among many others: In proportion as vaccination is properly 
and efficiently performed, so the mortality of small-pox is 
reduced. Secondly, by the freedom from infection which is 
enjoyed by properly re-vaccinated persons, in constant attend- 
ance upon, and actual contact with, small-pox patients. There 
has never been a case of small-pox among the nurses or the 
attendants at the Small-pox Hospital, Highgate, within a 
period of considerably over thirty years. This is simply 
because they are all properly re-vaccinated before they enter 
upon their duties. 

Mode of Vaccination. — The operation oi vaccination is 
simple, but so highly important that no care bestowed upon its 
performance is thrown away. 

The following instructions will be sufficient, if carefully fol- 
lowed: Select an arm of a vaccinated infant that has good 
vesicles on the eighth day, i. e., the day week on which the 
lymph was inserted. Then, with a perfectly clean lancet, make 
several punctures in the clear part of the vesicles, avoiding 
the red border of the inflamed skin, so as not to draw blood. 
A clear watery fluid will ooze out in beads. Take off some of 
this clear fluid on the point of the lancet, and then, taking 
the arm of the infant, or person to be vaccinated, draw the 
skin tense and insert the point of the lancet nearly horizontally 



508 



MEDICINAL. 




VACCnra /KSICLES. 



into the skin to an extent of about one-tenth of an inch (-); 
then give the lancet a turn round, withdraw it, and press it 
down upon the puncture. Five such punctures, to the distance 
of about half an inch apart, should be made on one arm. 

Supposing that an arm with mature vesicles should not be 
available, lymph may be procur- 
ed from any vaccine station. It 
will be received in that case, 
preserved either in tubes, or on 
small points of ivory. If in tubes, 
the point at each end of one 
must be broken off, and the con- 
tained lymph be gently breathed 
on to the point of the lancet, 
and inserted as above directed. 
If the lymph have been preserved 
dry on "points," one of these 
should be used for each punc- 
ture. Dip the point quickly into 
cold water, and shake off any excess of water, The object is 
just sufficiently to moisten the lymph, that it will be easily 
scraped off on to the point of the lancet, and inserted as before 
directed. 

Some degree of inflammation occasionally occurs on the 
vaccinated arm. This will generally disappear quickly under 
the application of simple water-dressing. A slight eruption of 
small, colorless pimples on various parts of the body also 
occasionally follows vaccination, and disappears in the course 
of a few days. 

To ensure the success of vaccination, the infant to be vac- 
cinated should be in good health, and free from any eruption 
of the skin, and the child from whom the lymph is taken should 
also be in perfectly good health. With these precautions, there 
is no ground for the fear that other diseases than cow-pox will 
be transmitted by the operation. Very great exaggerations 
and misrepresentations have been put forth on this point in 
order to excite prejudice against vaccination. 

Re-vaccination. — The primary vaccination of infancy, if 
well and thoroughly jDcrformed, as shown by the existence of 
several well-marked cicatrices, affords protection for life from 
severe small-pox — protection, however, not so complete but 
that modified small-pox shall not occur. It is shown by a vast 
accumulation of statistics that there is a greater tendency in 
vaccinated persons to take the small-pox between the ages of 
fifteen and twenty-five than at all other ages put together. It 
is, therefore, advisable, in order to obtain complete protection, 
the operation of vaccination should be performed at puberty, 



MEDICINAL. 509 

or when growth is completed. The insertion of lymph by three 
punctures is sufficient for re-vaccination. The lymph from a 
re- vaccinated vesicle should never be used for primary vaccin- 
ation. 

Voice, Loss of. — Sometimes without the existence of catarrh, 
or inflammation of the larynx, the voice suddenly becomes 
reduced to the faintest possible whisper, or without great 
difficulty even this is not achieved. It occurs sometimes after 
long continued speaking, but it is most frequently met v/ith in 
hysterical females. The same thing may, however, happen as 
the result of a cold, or from a more serious cause, some form 
of paralysis of the organs of the voice. 

Treatment. — When the affection is the result of catarrh, 
it may be relieved by the inhalation of the steam of hot water, 
with a few drops of creasote,' or a teaspoonful of spirits of 
salvolatile. When it proceeds from hysteria or paralysis, the 
treatment must be sought under the heads of those diseases. 

Wounds, Cuts, Stabs. — These are of several kinds — e. g., 
incised, contused, lacerated, punctured — requiring each a 
modified treatment. 

Incised Wounds. — These are clean cuts or wounds, with 
smooth defined edges. 

Contused Wounds — Are wounds attended with bruising 
of the parts, such as seen in gunshot injuries. 

Lacerated Wounds — Are pretty much the same as bruised 
wounds — the edges are rough and jagged. 

Punctured Wounds — Are where the orifice of the cut is 
small, but its extent deep, such as in stabs. 

Treatment. — Incised Wounds. — In the case of incised 
wound or clean cut, if not large in extent, it will heal readily 
by the edges being brought together by means of some simple 
unirritating plaster, such as " adhesive plaster," or " isinglass 
plaster," or goldbeater's skin. It may be advisable to bring 
the edges of a wound together with stitches. The most con- 
venient needle for this purpose is a glover's needle, and white 
silk is the best material for the sewing. If the wound has been 
inflicted by broken glass, etc., the surfaces should be carefully 
searched for any fragments or foreign bodies, before the edges 
are brought together. If the bleeding be profuse, the wound 
should be left exposed to the air for a while, or the ordinary 
means used to stop the bleeding. If the cut be a long one, 
there should be small intervals left between the strips of plaster, 
in order to allow blood or other fluids to escape. This strap- 
ping plaster need not be removed for three or four days, 



510 MEDICINAL. 

unless there be pain and throbbing in the wound; in this case 
they should be loosened, or even removed, as these symptoms 
indicate inflammation. If it be necessary to remove the strap- 
ping before union has taken place, the wound should then be 
dressed with water and lint, covered with oil-silk or gutta- 
percha. 

Scalp Wounds. — Cuts on the scalp should be carefully 
cleansed from hair, which should also be removed for about 
half an inch around the wound. If small, the edges can be 
brought together with plaster. If the wound be large, it is 
better simply treated with cold water dressing. No stitches 
should be put in these wounds, unless they are very ragged and 
gaping, as they are prone to excite erysipelas in this part of the 
skin. 

Bruised, Contused, and Lacerated Wounds. — In 
consequence of the tearing or bruising of the edges of a 
lacerated wound, the vitality of those parts is more or less 
impaired; hence these wounds do not heal as readily as a clean 
cut. In treating a contused wound, the surface should first be 
carefully sponged clean of clotted blood, or foreign bodies of 
any kind, such as portions of clothing, small shot, etc. The 
simple water dressing, or wet lint, covered with oil-silk, is the 
most suitable for this kind of injury. If the soft parts be 
much torn, they may be bound down by a roller and water 
dressing applied. After a time, the surface of a wound of this 
kind becomes sluggish in its healing, and resembles an ulcer. 
It should then be treated with zinc ointment or yellow basilicon. 

Stabs, or Punctured Wounds — Require special treat- 
ment, varying with their depth, and the part in which they 
occur. A slight wound of this sort, not penetrating deeply, 
may be dressed with isinglass-plaster, adhesive-plaster, or gold- 
beater's skin. If, however, deeper, but not entering a cavity, 
the simple water dressing should be applied, and the part 
wounded be so placed that blood may escape freely. For this 
reason it is not advisable to endeavor to heal a punctured 
wound quickly. If the bleeding from the wound does not stop 
from the exposure to cold, the wound may be plugged with 
lint or soft linen, soaked in tincture of perchloride of iron, 
diluted with an equal quantity of water, or with tincture of 
matico. The plugging may be allowed to remain in twelve 
hours. After its removal, if the bleeding be checked, dress as 
above directed with water. A deeply punctured wound is 
prone to heal at the surface. This should be prevented by 
inserting a strip of linen between the lips of the wound, so as 
to allow of the escape of matter. The healing from the bot- 
tom is sometimes to be promoted by injecting with a weak 
solution of Condy's fluid (a teaspoonful to a pint of water). 



MEDICINAL. 



51J 



Stabs, or Punctured Wounds of the Chest. — The dan- 
ger of these will depend upon the fact and extent of penetration. 
Those wounds that do not pene- 
trate the cavity of the chest may- 
be treated as ordinary stabs. (See 
previous directions.) Penetration 
of the chest is probably attended 
with a wound in the lung. This 
may be inferred if there be diffi- 
culty in breathing, or spitting of 
blood, with distress and anxiety 
of countenance. 



The first indication of treat- 
ment in wounds of the chest is to 
give remedies to stop the bleeding. 
Should this proceed from a vessel 
in the wall of the chest, it should 
be sought for, and, if possible, 
tied; should it, however, proceed 
from the lungs, ice and cold drinks 
should be given. 

For the organs within the chest, 
see diagram, which will point out 
the parts probably wounded. 

A draught as follows: Tincture ot opium, 20 mmuns; 
infusion of oak-bark, to make one ounce. This should be 
given every hour until the patient sleeps, and then discontinued. 
The sleeping is important, as it diminishes the force of breath- 
ing, and so insures a certain amount of rest to the wounded 
lung. The wound in the wall of the chest should then be 
accurately closed with stitches, or plaster, and the patient 
kept as quiet as possible. 

Should there be any heat, swelling, or pain in the part, or 
should the patient have any shivering fits, small doses of opium 
should be continued at frequent intervals; thus: Compound 
ipecacuanha powder (Dover's powder), two and a half grains. 
Every two hours. It will be as well, when these symptoms 
show themselves, to give the patient also half an ounce of 
Epsom salts, in order to open the bowels. He should be 
allowed a light, cool diet. 

Pleurisy is often a consequence of wounds in the walls of 
the chest. For its treatment, see under the -name "Pleurisy." 

Punctured Wounds of the Abdomen. — These may be 
slight and easily repaired, or they may be so serious as to end 
fatally in the course of a few hours. The gravity will depend 
upon the amount of injury inflicted upon the intestines. The 
following divisions of the subject will illustrate this ooint: 




512 MEDICINAL. 

ist. Non-perforating Wounds. — A simple wound of the 
walls of the abdomen, not passing through into the abdominal 
cavity, is not more serious than an incised or punctured wound 
elsewhere, and should be treated in the same way. A probe, 
or the finger, will readily detect the fact of a perforation; be- 
sides that, in the event of such an occurrence, there will prob- 
ably be more severe pain in the part. 

2d. Perforating Wounds. — In the event of a stab of the 
abdomen passing through its walls, either the intestines, or 
some other organ, may be wounded. Which of these may be 
injured, it may be difificult even for a surgeon to determine 
exactly. As, however, this treatise will be of more service to 
those who are beyond the reach of surgical aid, we shall 
endeaver to assist their diagnosis by referring to the positions 
of the principal internal organs relatively one to the other. A 
perforating wound, reaching to any one of the organs in the 
abdomen cavity, is attended with symptoms of alarming pros- 
tration. Means should be taken to stanch the bleeding of the 
external wound, and the patient must be supported by stimu- 
lants and light diet. Opium must be given freely to relieve 
pain. It acts beneficially also by moderating the muscular 
movements of the intestines. If there be vomiting of blood, it 
may be feared that the stomach is wounded. There is every 
inducement and hope that by rigidly enforcing rest and quiet- 
ness, with the above means, life may be saved. Wounds even 
of the liver and spleen have been known to heal. 

The next most serious effects of stabs in the abdomen, and. 
those which give rise to great fear for the results, are those 
attended with protrusion of the intestines. If, however, the 
latter be not wounded, it may be returned, and the wound 
closed as directed above. Wounds of the walls of the abdo- 
men, through which the intestines protrude, and are themselves 
wounded, call for particular treatment. 

The wounds in the intestines should first be attended to. 
The edges of these should be united by means of a continuous 
or glover's stitch, similar to the stitch used in hemming. It 
should be so done that the exterior surface of the bowel, on 
either side of the cut, shall be in contact; and then the bowel 
having been carefully washed in luke-warm water, should be 
returned, stitches and all. If all goes on well, the silk will be 
removed by the bowel when the wound is healed. The after 
treatment is to be conducted as for a simple punctured wound. 
The general treatment of the perforated wound of the intes- 
tines will be the same as that of wounds of other organs in the 
abdomen — viz., rest of the parts secured by opiates, and sup- 
port of the system by stimulants and light food. 

Gunshot Wounds are perforated, bruised wounds, compli- 



MEDICINAL. 513 

cated with nervous shock. These wounds do not bleed so 
much as cuts, but they are more troublesome to heal on 
account of the large amount of destruction of tissue they occa- 
sion. This varies on account of the size of bullet. Another 
cause for their being more dangerous than cuts is that it some- 
times happens a piece of the wad becomes lodged in the 
wound, and being difficult to detect, is sometimes left behind 
when the bullet is extracted, causing mischief by its presence 
until removed or thrown off in the sloughing of the wound. 
Inflammation generally sets in about the wound within twenty- 
four hours. The external parts become swollen and red, the 
patient complains of pain in the wound. After another day or 
so a discharge of pus and matter appears. The bruised parts, 
or rather those parts with which the ball in its passage has come 
in contact, will now begin to be cast off by sloughing, though 
this process may occupy several weeks before all the dead parts 
or foreign substances are cast off. Mortification may follow a 
gunshot wound if the destruction of tissue be considerable, or 
if much bone be included in it; if the patient be in a bad state 
of health, or if the atmosphere is confined and of an unhealthy 
character. 

Treatment. — Stimulants, such as brandy or wine, should 
be given to relieve the depression; then, if the bullet has com- 
pletely passed through, the surface should be cleaned, and a 
piece of wet lint should be applied. This should be continued 
for three or four days, and then the patient treated as for a 
bruised wound. Bullets are frerjucntly lodged in the wound. 
If visible at the orifice, they should be removed, but if not, 
there should be no attempt made by a non-professional person 
to find them, as much injury may be inflicted in the attempt to 
explore for them. Their removal must be postponed until 
surgical aid can be obtained. 

Wounds and Bruises. Dressings for. — Carded Oakum 
Stypium. — A convenient dressing for confused and lacerated 
wounds. Oakum has this advantage, that where old rope is to 
be found, this substance can be made. It can, however, be 
obtained "carded" for surgical purposes, and in this shape, 
known as "stypium," it is a clean and useful means of arrest- 
ing haemorrhage from wounds by causing coagulation of the 
blood in its meshes, as well as absorbing discharges. The 
creasote, which is one of the constituents of tar, has preserva- 
tive properties, stimulates a sluggish surface, and destroys un- 
pleasant odors. It will be found very useful in the wounds of 
compound and comminuted fracture. 

Carbolated Oil. — Solid carbolic acid liquefied by heat, 
48 minims; olive oil to 4 fluid ounces. Mix, This is an ad" 

3; 



514 MEDICINAL. 

mirable dressing for the suppurating surface of open wounds. 
It should be apphed as follows: A piece of soft linen rag, 
rather larger than the surface to be covered, should be steeped 
in the mixture, and carefully drawn from the edge of the wound 
right across it until it is completely covered. Care should be 
taken to exclude all bubbles of air, which should be pressed 
gently out, in order that the oil may be in contact with the 
whole surface. 

Isinglass Plaster. — A very clean, simple and useful kind 
of plaster can be home-made — that is isinglass plaster. What 
is called "Persian" silk, is to be firmly stretched and painted 
with a moderately thick solution of isinglass, which is then suf- 
fered to dry. This plaster has the advantage of allowing the 
state of a cut beneath it to be pretty clearly seen — it is besides 
readily removed, when required, by the application of warm 
water. 

Wounds, Hsemorrliage or Bleeding from. — Meaning of 
THE Word "Traumatic." — We have elsewhere spoken of the 
various forms of haemorrhage that arise out of the disease of 
the internal organs, and require what is, more strictly speaking, 
called "medical treatment." By "traumatic" bleeding is meant 
the consequence of wounding of the blood vessels, calling for 
surgical means to its arrest. Traumatic or surgical bleeding 
may be either arterial or venous, and require different treat- 
ment accordingly. 

Arterial Haemorrhage. — When a wound or other injury 
causes bleeding of a bright or vermillion red color, the blood 
flows from an artery. This is rendered clearer still if the 
blood flow in spirts or intermittent iets corresponding with the 
beats of the pulse. 

Venous Haemorrhage is known by the even flow of the 
blood and its darker color. 

Treatment. — Venous Bleeding. — If the bleeding from a 
wound be of the dark venous character, or being, as is often 
the case, partly arterial also, but not very profuse, gentle pres- 
sure will sometimes suffice to check the flow; or the application 
of cold water or ice, or exposure to cold air, may stop the 
bleeding. A slight flow of blood can be arrested by matico, 
or by a piece of linen lint soaked in Friar's balsam or tincture 
of perchloride of iron. 

Arterial Bleeding. — If the bleeding be arterial, as indi- 
cated by its flowing in jets, firm pressure should be made over 
the wounded vessel, if in such a position as to admit of it. 
Supposing that the pressure of the hand does not suffice to 
stanch the bleeding, then pressure should be made by tying a 



MEDICINAL. 515 

handkerchief or bandage so that the knot shall press over the 
wound. If the wound has been inflicted on one of the ex- 
tremities, the bleeding may be arrested by tying a ligature 
round the limb, so as to press a pad of lint upon the artery. If 
the pad be soaked in Friar's balsam, or tincture of matico, it 
will be of more service. 

Arresting Bleeding from the Arm. — Pressure by the 
fingers on the main artery of the arm, as it passes in the arm- 
pit along the inner side of the arm under the shoulder joint, 
will assist in checking the haemorrhage from a wound of the 
forearm or hand. The artery may also be firmly compressed 
at the elbow-joint by bending the arm firmly, and laying the 
hand of the same side on the point of the shoulder. 

Artery of the Thigh. — In cases of obstinate arterial 
bleeding from any part of the lower extremity, firm pressure 
should be made in the groin, where the large artery of the limb 
may be easily felt beating as it passes down the thigh. When, 
by the means above described, the bleeding has been arrested, 
ive should proceed to examine the wound with the help of a 
sponge, and search for the bleeding vessel. 

Of Tying an Artery. — Supposing that all these means 
have been tried, and the bleeding still continues or returns 
when the pressure is taken off, the wound should be carefully 
washed with a sponge and cold water, and pressure being ap- 
plied, the cut end of the wounded vessel sought for and tied, 
thus: When found, the bleeding end of the vessel should be 
taken hold of with a pair of fine-pointed forceps and held up, 
so that an assistant may pass a piece of silk or thread round it, 
which should then be tied into a double knot, taking care that 
the thread be not tied too tightly, as by doing so the artery 
may again be divided. One end of the thread should then be 
cut off and the other left hanging out of the wound, which 
should then be dressed with lint or linen dipped in cold water. 
The ligature will generally come away in about a week. There 
are other means of checking bleeding, if the vessel wounded is 
not very large, of which the following are the most handy: 

A piece of lint or cotton wool soaked in the tincture of the 
perchloride of iron or tincture of matico may be pressed down 
into the wound in contact with the bleeding vessel. Or, the 
vessel should be lightly and rapidly touched with a piece of 
iron ware heated red hot. This is, perhaps, the most effective 
way of checking the bleeding, and is by no means so painful 
as it might seem. Another plan is to touch the orifice of the 
bleeding vessel with a stick of nitrate of silver. 

Leech Bites. — The bleeding from these is often very 
troublesome, more especially when the leeches have been inad" 



516 MEDICINAL, 

vertently applied at some part of the body where, from the ab- 
sence of bone, there is a difficulty in applying firm pressure. 
For this reason leeches, when applied, should always be placed 
over some bone or other hard part upon which the necessary 
pressure can be applied and continued for some minutes. If 
pressure cannot, for the reason above stated, be applied, the 
bites may be touched with the point of a camel's hair brush 
steeped in tincture of the perchloride of iron, or they may be 
touched with a stick of nitrate of silver, and, as this is generally 
at hand, it is a convenient means. A ready method is to cut a 
small piece of glazed visiting card, and, having pressed with a 
dry handkerchief for a short time on the bites, then quickly, 
before the blood comes again, press the glazed surface of the 
card on the bite, and fasten it there with plaster or a bandage. 

Matico, and Tincture of Matico. — A valuable styptic 
may be kept readily at hand by steeping a few matico leaves in 
a phial with gin, brandy or proof spirit. A piece of lint soaked 
in this will stay the bleeding of slight cuts. Matico leaf itself 
laid on a bleeding surface, or a slight cut, or a leech bite, will 
also stanch the bleeding. 

Fainting. — The faintness that often occurs in cases of 
bleeding, from whatever cause, favors the stanching of the 
blood. All that is required is to place the patient on his back 
with his head low, and administer some slight stimulant. 

Worms, Intestinal. — Symptoms. — Variable and vitiated 
appetite, foetid breath, feverishness, grinding of teeth, picking 
at the nose, itching at the seat, disordered bowels, and pains in 
the stomach. There are three varieties of worms voided from 
the intestines, viz.: ist, the round worm, resembling the common 
earthworm; 2d, the threadworm — some short white worms, 
some of a larger variety; 3d, tapeworm, the length of which 
extends to many feet, and which consists of small square joints. 

Treatment. — The first two of these varieties may be ex- 
pelled by doses of calomel and scammony, or of santonine. 
The third (tapeworm) requires either the oil of male fern (one 
drachm in an ounce of water), taken fasting early in the morn- 
ing; or: Castor oil, one-half ounce; spirits of turpentine, one- 
half ounce; cinnamon water or peppermint water, 2 ounces. 
Mixed, and taken fasting. 

It is seldom necessary to repeat this dose. The tapeworm 
when voided should be carefully examined in order to ascer- 
tain that the head is expelled, since, if this be not the case the 
worm quickly grows again. The head may be recognized by 
means of a common pocket lens. It is very minute, but is 
rounded, on a narrow neck, and presents on its surface sucking 
discs, by which it attaches itself to the inner surface of the 
boweU 



MEDICINAL. 517 

MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES. 

jiemedy for Diphtherial. — The treatment consists in thor- 
oughly swabbing the back of the mouth and throat with a 
wash made thus: Table salt, 2 drachms; black pepper, gold- 
en seal, nitrate of potash, alum, i drachm each; mix and 
pulverize; put into a teacup half full of water; stir well and 
then fill up with good vinegar. Use every half hour, one, two, 
and four hours, as recovery progresses. The patient may 
swallow a little each time. Apply i ounce each of spirits of 
turpentine, sweet oil, and aqua ammonia, mixed, every hour, to 
the whole of the throat, and to the breast bone every four 
hours, keeping flannel to the part. 

Worm Lozenges. — Powdered lump sugar, 10 ounces; starch, 
5 ounces; mix with mucilage; and to every ounce add 12 grains 
calomel, divided into 20 grain lozenges. Dose, two to six. 

Soothing Syrup. — Take i pound of honey; add 2 table- 
spoonfuls of paregoric, and the same of oil of anise seed; add 
enough water to make a thick syrup, and bottle. For children 
teething, dose, teaspoonful occasionally. 

Infants' Syrup. — This syrup is made thus: i pound best box 
raisins; 1-2 ounce anise seed; 2 sticks licorice; split the 
raisins, pound the anise. seed, and cut the licorice fine; add to 
it 3 quarts of rain water, and boil down to two quarts. Feed 
three or four times a day, as much as the child will willingly 
drink. The raisins are to strengthen, the anise is to expel the 
wind, and the licorice as a physic. 

Swaim's Vermifuge. — ^Wormseed, 2 ounces; valerian, rhu- 
barb, pink-root, white agaric, of each i 1-2 ounces; boil in 
sufficient water to yield 3 quarts of decoction; add to it 30 
drops of tansy and 45 drops of oil of cloves, dissolved in a 
quart of rectified spirits. Dose, i tablespoonful at night. 

Ayer's Cherry Pectoral. — Take 4 grains of the acetate of 
morphia; 2 fluid drachms of tincture of bloodroot; a fluid 
drachm each of antimonial wine and wine of ipecacuanha, and 
3 fluid ounces of syrup of wild cherry. Mix. 

Brown's Bronchial Troches. — Take i pound of pulverized 
extract of licorice; i 1-2 pounds of pulverized sugar; 4 ounces 
of pulverized cubebs; 4 ounces of pulverized gum arable, and 
I ounce of pulverized extract of conium. Mix. 

Russia Salve. — Take equal parts of yellow wax and sweet 
oil; melt slowly, carefully stirring; when cooling, stir in a small 
quantity of glycerine. Good for all kinds of wounds, etc. 

To Extract Teeth with Little or no Pain. — Tincture of 



518 MEDICINAL. 

aconite, chloroform, and alcohol, of each i ounce. Mix. 
Moisten two pledgets of cotton with the liquid, and apply to 
the gums on each side of the tooth to be extracted, holding 
them in their place with pliers or other instruments for from 
five to ten minutes, rubbing the gum freely inside and out. 

Tooth Wash. — To Remove Blackness. — Pure muriatic 
acid, I ounce; water, i ounce; honey, 2 ounces. Mix. Take 
a tooth brush and wet it freely with the preparation, .and briskly 
rub the black teeth, and in a moment's time they will be per- 
fectly white; then immediately wash out the mouth with water, 
that the acid may not act upon the enamel ot the teeth. 

Compound Extract of Buchu. — Buchu leaves, i pound; 
boiling distilled water, 3 gallons; boil the leaves in 2 gallons of 
the water down to 6 quarts; then boil it again in the remaining 
water till reduced to 2 quarts. Evaporate the mixed liquors 
down to 6 pints, and add i quart strong sage tea, 2 drachms 
bicarbonate of potassa, 2 drachms tincture of cannabis Indica, 
5 ounces rectified spirits, 2 ounces balsam of copabia, and 
Harlem oil. Bottle. 

New Method of Embalming. — Mix together 5 pounds of 
dry sulphate of alumine, i quart of warm water, and 100 grains 
of arsenious acid. Inject three or four' quarts of this mixture 
into all the vessels of the human body. This applies as well to 
all animals, birds, fishes, etc. This process supercedes the old 
and revolting mode, and has been introduced into the great 
anatomical schools of Paris. 

Hair Dye. — No. i. — Take galic acid, 1-2 ounce; alcohol, 8 
ounces; soft water, 16 ounces. Put the acid in the alcohol, 
then add the water. 

No. 2. — Crystalized nitrate of silver, i ounce; strongest 
ammonia, 3 ounces; gum arable, 1-2 ounce; soft water, 6 
ounces. Put the silver in the ammonia; do not cork till it is 
dissolved; dissolve the gum in the water, then mix, and it is 
ready for use. 

Keep Nos. i and 2 in separate bottles, and apply each alter- 
nately to the hair. Be particular to cleanse the hair before 
applying the dye. 

Another. — Nitrate of silver, 11 drachms; nitric acid, i 
drachm; distilled water, i pint; sap green, 3 drachms; gum 
arable, i drachm. Mix. 

Another. — Nitric acid, i drachm; nitrate of silver, 10 
drachms; sap green, 9 drachms; mucilage, c drachms; distilled 
water. 37 1-2 fluid ounces. 



MEDICINAL. 519 

Hair Invigorator — Bay rum, 2 pints; alcohol, I pint; 
castor-oil, i ounce; carbonate of ammonia, 1-2 ounce; tincture 
of cantharides, i ounce. Mix them well. This compound 
will promote the growth of the hair and prevent it from fall- 
ing out, 

Razor-Strop Paste. — ^Wet the strop with a little sweet oil, 
and apply a little flour of emery evenly over the surface. 

Oriental Cold Cream. — Oil of almonds, 4 ounces; white 
wax and spermaceti, of each, 2 drachms; melt and add rose 
water, 4 ounces; orange-flower water, i ounce. Used to soften 
the skin. Apply as the last. 

Shaving Cream. — White wax, spermaceti, and almond oil, 
of each, 1-4 ounce; melt, and while warm beat in two squares 
of Windsor soap, previously reduced to a paste with rose water. 

Circassian Cream. — Take 2 ounces of perfectly fresh suet, 
either of mutton or venison; 3 ounces of olive oil; i ounce of 
gum benzoin in powder; and 1-4 ounce of alkanet root. Put 
the whole into a jam jar, which, if without a lid, must be tied 
over with bladder, and place the jar in a sauce pan containing 
boiling water, at the side of the fire. Digest for a whole day, 
then strain away all that is fluid through fine muslin, and stir 
till nearly cold. Add, say i drachm of essence of almonds 
roses, bergamot, or any other perfume desired. 

Yankee Shaving Soap. — Take 3 pounds of white bar soap, 
I pound of Castile soap, i quart of rain water, 1-2 pint of 
beef's gall, i gill spirits of turpentine. Cut the soap into 
thin slices, and boil five minutes after the soap is dissolved; 
stir while boiling; scent with oil of rose or almonds. If wished 
to color it, use 1-2 ounce vermillion. 

Freckle Cure. — Take 2 ounces of lemon juice, or 1-2 drachm 
of powdered borax, and i drachm of sugar; mix together, and 
let them stand in a glass bottle for a few days, then rub on the 
face occasionally. 

Hair Restorative. — Sugar of lead, borax, and lac-sulphur, 
of each, i ounce; aqua ammonia, 1-2 ounce; alcohol, i gill. 
These articles are to stand mixed for 14 hours; then add bay 
rum, I gill; fine table salt, i tablespoonful; soft water, 3 pints; 
essence of bergamot, i ounce. This preparation gives a splendid 
glossy appearance to the hair, turns gray hair to a dark color, 
and restores the hair when common baldness sets in. When 
the hair is thin or bald, apply twice a day with a hard brush, 
working into the roots of the hair. For gray hair, once a day 
is sufficient. 



520 MEDICINAL. 

Barber's Shampoo Mixture. — Soft water, i pint; sal soda, 

1 ounce; cream tartar, 1-4 ounce. Apply thoroughly to the 
hair. 

Febrifuge Wine. — Quinine, 25 grains; water, i pint; sul- 
phuric acid, 15 drops; epsom salts, 2 ounces; color with tinc- 
ture of red Sanders. Dose, a wine glass, three times a day. 
This is a world-renowned medicine. 

Barren's Indian Liniment, — Alcohol, i quart; tincture of 
capsicum, i ounce; oils of origanum, sassafras, pennyroyal, 
and hemlock, of each, 1-2 ounce. Mix. More than ^70,000 
have been cleared by the sale of this medicine during the last 
twelve years in the Western States. 

Paregoric. — Best opium, 1-2 drachm; dissolve it in about 

2 tablespoonfuls of boiling water; then add benzoic acid, 1-2 
drachm; oil of anise, 1-2 a fluid drachm; clarified honey, i 
ounce; camphor gum, i scruple; alcohol, 76 percent., 11 fluid 
ounces; distilled water, 4 fluid ounces. Macerate (keep warm) 
for two weeks. Dose, for children, 5 to 20 drops; adults, i to 
2 teaspoonfuls. 

Cough Syrup. — Syrup of squills, 2 ounces; tartarized anti- 
mony, 8 grains; sulphate of morphine, 5 grains; pulverized gum 
arabic, 1-4 ounce; honey, i ounce; water, i ounce. Mix. 
Dose for an adult, one small teaspoonful; repeat in half an 
hour if it does not relieve. Child in proportion. 

Camphor Ice. — Spermaceti, 1 1-2 ounce; gum camphor, 3-4 
ounce; oil of sweet almonds^ 4 teaspoonfuls. Set on stove in 
an earthen dish till dissolved; heat just enough to dissolve it. 
While warm, put into small moulds, if desired to sell; then 
paper, and put into tinfoil. Used for chaps on hands or lips. 

Imperial Drops for Gravel and Kidney Complaints. — Oil 

of origanum, i ounce; oil of hemlock, 1-4 ounce; oil of sassa- 
fras, 1-4 ounce; oil of anise, 1-2 ounce; alcohol, i pint. Mix. 
Dose, from 1-2 to i teaspoonful three times a day in sweetened 
water, will soon give relief when constant weakness is felt across 
the small of the back, as well as gravelly affections causing pain 
about the kidneys. 

Positive Cure for Gonorrohcea. — Liquor of potass, 1-2 
ounce; bitter apple, 1-2 ounce; spirits of sweet nitre, 1-2 ounce; 
balsam of copabia, 1-2 ounce; best gum, 1-4 ounce. To use, 
mix with peppermint water. Take 1-2 teaspoonful three times 
a day. Cure certain in nine days. 

Celebrated Pile Ointment. — Take carbonate of lead, 1-2 
ounce; sulphate of morphia, 15 grainsj stramonium ointment, i 



MEDICINAL. 521 

ounce; olive oil, 20 drops. Mix, and apply three times a day, 
or as the pain may require. 

Sweating Drops. — Ipecac, saffron, boneset and champhor 
gum, of each, 3 ounces; opium, i ounce; alcohol, 2 quarts. 
Let stand two weeks and filter. A teaspoonful in a cup of hot 
sage or catnip tea every hour until free perspiration is induced; 
excellent in colds, fevers, inflammations, etc. Bathe the feet in 
hot water at the same time. 

Syrup for Consumptives. — Of tamarac bark, take from the 
tree without rossing, i peck; spikenard root, 1-2 pound; dan- 
delion root 1-4 pound; hops, 2 ounces. Boil these sufficient to 
get the strength in two or three gallons of water; strain and 
boil down to one gallon; when blood warm, add three pounds 
of best honey, and 3 pints of best brandy; bottle and keep in 
a cool place. Dose, drink freely of it three times per day 
before meals, at least a gill or more; cure very certain. 

Female Complaints. — Pills to Promote Menstrual 
Secretion. — Take pills of aloes and myrrh, 4 drachms; com- 
pound iron pills, 280 grains. Mix, and form into 100 pills. 
Dose 2, twice a day. 

For Obstructed Menstruation. — Sulphate of iron, 60 
grains; potassa (sub. carb.), 60 grains; myrrh, 2 drachms. 
Make them into three and one-half-grain pills; two to be taken 
three times a day, in the absence of fever. For painful men- 
struation, take pulverized rhei, 2 drachms; pulverized jalap, 2 
drachms; pulverized opium, 2 drachms; syrup of poppies to 
mix. Divide into 200 pills, and take night and morning. To 
check immoderate flow: Tincture of ergot, i ounce; liquor of 
ammonia, 3 drachms. Mix. Dose teaspoonful in water three 
times a day. 

Stimulant. — In Low Fevers and After Uterine Hem- 
orrhages. — Best brandy and cinnamon water, of each 4 fluid 
ounces; the yolks of 2 eggs, well beaten; loaf sugar, 1-2 ounce; 
oil of cinnamon, 2 drops. Mix. Dose, from one-half to one 
(fluid) ounce, as often as required. This makes both meat 
and drink. Of course, any other flavoring oils can be used, if 
preferred, in place of the cinnamon. 

For Female Complaints. — One of the best laxative pills 
for female complaints is macrotin and rhubarb, each 10 grains; 
extract of hyoscyamus, 10 grains; Castile soap, 40 grains. 
Scrape the soap, and mix well together, forming into common 
sized pills with gum solution. Dose, one pill at bedtime, or 
sufficiently often to keep the bowels in a laxative state. 

Anodyne for Painful Menstruation. — Extract of stra- 
monium and sulphate of quinine, each 16 grains; macrotin, 8 



623 MEDICINAL. 

grains; morphine, i grain. Make into 8 pills. Dose, one pill, 
repeating once or twice only, forty to fifty minutes apart, if the 
pain does not subside before this time. Pain must subside 
under the use of this pill, and costiveness is not increased. 

Powder for Excessive Flooding. — Gums kino and cate- 
chu, each I drachm; sugar of lead and alum, each 1-2 drachm. 
Pulverize all and thoroughly mix, then divide into 7 to 10 
grain powders. Dose, one every two or three hours until 
checked, then less often merely to control the flow. 

Injection for Leucorrhea. — When the glairy mucus dis- 
charge is present, prepare a tea of hemlock inner |bark and 
witch hazel (often called spotted alder) leaves and bark, have a 
female syringe large enough to fill the vagina, and inject the 
tea, twice daily; and occasionally in bad cases, say twice a 
week, inject a syringe of the following composition: 

For Chronic Female Complaints. — White vitriol and 
sugar of lead, each 1-8 ounce; common salt, pulverized alum, 
and loaf sugar, of each, 1-2 drachm; soft water, i pint. Inject 
as above. 

For Prolapsus Uteri, or Falling of the Womb. — Not 
only the cheapest but the best support will be found to be a 
piece of firm sponge, cut to a proper size to admit, when damp, 
of being pressed up the vagina to hold the womb in its place. 
The sponge should have a stout piece of small cord sewed two 
or three times through its centre up and down, and left suffic- 
iently long to allow its being taken hold of to remove the 
sponge once a day, or every other day at the farthest, for the 
purpose of washing, cleaning, and using the necessary injec- 
tions; and this must be done while the patient is lying down, 
to prevent the womb from again falling or prolapsing. After 
having injected some of the above tea, wet the sponge in the 
same, and introduce it sufficiently high to hold the womb in 
its place. If pain is felt about the head, back, or loins, for a 
few days before the menses appear, prepare and use the fol- 
lowing: 

Uterine Hemorrhages. — Unfailing cure. Sugar of lead, 
10 grains; ergot, 10 grains; opium, 3 grains; epicac, i grain; 
All pulverized and well mixed. Dose, 10 to 12 grains, given 
in a little honey or syrup. In very bad cases after childbirth, 
it might be repeated in thirty minutes, or the dose increased to 
15 or 18 grains; but in cases of rather profuse masting, repeat 
it once at the end of three hours, or as the urgency of the case 
may require. 

In every case of female debility make a liberal use of iron, 
as the want of iron in the system is often the cause of the 
trouble. Mix fine iron filings with as much ground ginger. 



MEDICINAL. 533 

Dose, half of a teaspoonful three times daily in a little honey or 
molasses; increase or lessen the dose to produce a blackness of 
the stools. Continue this course until well. 

Nerve and Bone Liniment. — Beef's gall, i quart; alcohol, i 
pint; volatile liniment, i pound; spirits of turpentine, i pound; 
oil origanum, 4 ounces; aqua ammonia, 4 ounces; tincture of 
cayenne, 1-2 pint; oil of amber, 3 ounces; tincture of Spanish 
flies, 6 ounces. Mix well. 

Positive Cure for Ague Without Quinine. — Peruvian bark, 
2 ounces; wild cherry tree bark, i ounce; cinnamon, i drachm; 
capsicum, i teaspoonful; sulphur, i ounce; port wine, 2 quarts. 
Let it stand two days. Buy your Peruvian bark and pulverize 
it yourself, as it is often adulterated otherwise. Dose, a wine- 
glass full every two or three hours after fever is off, then two 
or three per day till all is used. A certain cure. Before taking 
the above, cleanse the bowels with a dose of epsom salts, or 
other purgative. 

Green Mountain Salve. — For rheumatism, burns, pains in 
the back or side, &c. Take 2 pounds of rosin; burgundy 
pitch, 1-4 pound; beeswax, 1-4 pound; mutton tallow, 1-4 
pound. Melt slowly. When not too warm, add oil hemlock, 
I ounce; balsam fir, i ounce; oil of origanum, i ounce; oil of 
red cedar, i ounce; Venice turpentine, i ounce; oil of worm- 
wood, I ounce; verdigris, 1-2 ounce. The verdigris must be 
finely pulverized and mixed with the oils; then add as above, 
and work in cold water like wax till cold enough to roll; rolls 
five inches long, one inch in diameter, sell for 25 cents. 

English Remedy for Cancer. — Take chloride of zinc, blood 
root pulverized, and flour, equal quantities of each,worked into a 
paste and applied. First spread a common sticking-plaster, 
much larger than the cancer, cutting a circular piece from the 
centre of it a little larger than the cancer, applying it, which 
exposes a narrow rim of healthy skin; then apply the cancer 
plaster, and keep it on 24 hours. On removing it, the cancer 
will be found to have been burned into, and appears the color 
of an old shoe sole, and the rim outside will appear white and 
parboiled, as if burned by steam. Dress with slippery-elm 
poultice until suppuration takes place, then heal with any com- 
mon salve. 

Charcoal, a Cure for Sick Headache. — It is stated that two 
teaspoonfuls of finely powdered charcoal, drank in half a tumbler 
of water will, in less than fifteen minutes, give relief to the sick 
headache, when caused, as in most cases it is, by superabund- 
ance of acid on the stomach. 

Felons. — If Recent, to Cure in Six Hours. — Venice 
turpentine, i ounce; and put it into half a teaspoonful of water, 



524 MEDICINAL. 

and stir with a rough stick until the mass looks like a candied 
honey; then spread a good coat on a cloth, and wrap 
around the finger. If the case is only recent it will remove the 
pain in 6 hours. 

Felon Salve. — A salve made by burning one tablespoonful 
of copperas, then pulverizing it and mixing with the yolk of an 
egg, is said to relieve the pain, and cure the felon in 24 hours; 
then heal with cream two parts, and soft soap one part. Apply 
the healing salve daily after soaking the part in warm water. 

Felon Ointment. — Take sweet oil, 1-2 pint, and stew a 
three-cent plug of tobacco in it until the tobacco is crisped; 
then squeeze it out and add red lead, i ounce; and boil until 
black; when a little cool add pulverized camphor gum, i 
ounce. 

Warts and Corns.— To Cure in Ten Minutes.— Take a 
small piece of potash, and let it stand in the open air until it 
slacks, then thicken it to a paste with pulverized gum arable, 
which prevents it from spreading where it is not wanted. 

Liniment for Old Sores. — Alcohol, i quart; aqua ammonia, 
4 ounces; oil of origanum, 2 ounces; camphor gum, 2 ounces; 
opium, 2 ounces; gum myrch, 2 ounces; common salt. 2 table- 
spoonfuls. Mix, and shake occasionally for a week. 

Liniment. — Good Samaritan. — Take 98 per cent, alcohol, 
2 quarts, and add to it the following articles: Oil of sassafras, 
hemlock, spirits of turpentine, tincture of cayenne, catechu, 
guaiac, (guac) and laudanum, of each i ounce; tincture of 
myrrh, 4 ounces; oil of origanum, 2 ounces; oil of wintergreen, 
1-2 ounce; gum camphor, 2 ounces; and chloroform, i 1-2 
ounces. This is one of the best applications for internal pains 
known; it is superior to any other enumerated in this work. 

Electro-Magnetic Liniment.— Best alcohol, i gallon; oil of 
amber, Bounces; gum camphor, 8 ounces; Castile soap, shaved 
fine, 2 ounces; beef's gall, 4 ounces; ammonia, 3 F's strong, 12 
ounces. Mix, and shake occasionally for 12 hours, and it is fit 
for use. This will be found a strong and valuable liniment. 

Great London Liniment. — Take chloroform, olive oil, and 
aqua ammonia, of each i ounce; acetate of morphia, 10 grains. 
Mix and use as other liniments. Very valuable. 

Ointments. — For Old Sores. — Red precipitate, 1-2 ounce; 
sugar of lead, 1-2 ounce; burnt alum, i ounce; white vitriol, 1-4 
ounce, or a little less; all to be very finely pulverized; have 
mutton tallow made warm, 1-2 pound; stir all in, and stir until 
cool. 



MEDICINAL. 525 

Judkins Ointment. — Linseed oil, i pint; sweet oil, i ounce; 
and boil them in a kettle on coals for nearly 4 hours, as warm 
as you can; then have pulverized and mixed borax, 1-2 ounce; 
red lead, 4 ounces; and sugar of lead, i 1-2 ounce; remove the 
kettle from the fire, and thicken in the powder; continue the 
stirring until cooled to blood-heat, then stir in i ounce of 
spirits of turpentine; and now take out a little, letting it get 
cold, and, if not then sufficiently thick to spread upon thin, 
soft linen, as a salve, you will boil again until this point is 
reached. It is good for all kinds of wounds, bruises, sores, 
burns, white swellings, rheumatisms, ulcers, sore breasts; and, 
even when there are wounds on the inside, it has been used 
with advantage by applying a plaster over the part. 

Green Ointment. — Honey and bees- wax, each 1-2 pound; 
spirits of turpentine, i ounce; wintergreen oil and laudanum, 
each 2 ounces; verdigris, finely pulverized, 1-4 ounce; lard, i 1-2 
pounds; mix by a stove fire, in a copper kettle, heating slowly. 

Mead's Salt-Rheum Ointment. — Aqua fortis, i ounce; quick- 
silver, I ounce; good hard soap dissolved so as to mix readily, 

1 ounce; prepared chalk, i ounce; mixed with i pound of lard; 
incorporate the above by putting the aqua fortis and quick- 
silver into an earthen vessel, and, when done effervescing, mix 
with the other ingredients, putting the chalk in last, add a little 
spirits of turpentine, say 1-2 tablespoonful. 

Itch Ointment. — Unsalted butter, i pound; burgundy pitch, 

2 ounces; spirits of turpentine, 2 ounces; red precipitate, pul- 
verized, I 1-4 ounces; melt the pitch and add the butter; stir- 
ring well together; then remove from the fire, and, when a little 
cool, add the spirits of turpentine, and lastly the precipitate, 
and stir until cold. 

Jaundice. — Dr. Peabody's Cure. — In its Worst Forms. 
— Red iodide of mercury, 7 grains; iodide of potassium, 9 
grains; aqua dis (distilled water) i ounce; mix. Commence by 
giving 6 drops three or four times a day, increasing i drop a 
day until 12 or 15 drops are given at a dose. Give in a little 
water, immediately after meals. If it causes a griping sensa- 
tion in the bowels, and fullness in the head, when you get up 
to 12 or 15 drops, go back to 6 drops, and up again as before. 

Inflammatory Rheumatism. — Wright's Cure. — Sulphur 
and salt-petre, of each i ounce; gum guaiac, 1-2 ounce; col- 
chicum root, or seed, and nutmegs, of each 1-4 ounce; all to be 
pulverized and mixed with simple syrup, or molasses, 2 ounces. 
Dose, I teaspoonful every two hours until it moves the bowels 
rather freely; then 3 or 4 times daily until cured. 

Asthma Remedies. — Elecampane, angelica, confrey, and 
spikenard roots with hoarhound tops, of each i ounce; bruise 



526 MEDICINAL.' 

and steep in honey, i pint. Dose, a tablespoonful, taken hot 
every few minutes until a cure is affected. 

Another. — Oil of tar, i drachm; tincture of veratum vi- 
ride, a drachms; simple syrup, 2 drachms; mix. Dose, for 
adults, 15 drops 3 or 4 times daily. Iodide of potassium has 
cured a bad case of asthma by taking 5 grain doses, 3 times 
daily. Take 1-3 ounce, and put into a phial, and add 32 tea- 
spoonful of water; then i teaspoonful of it will contain the 5 
grains, in which put 1-2 gill more water, and drink before meals. 

Dropsy Pills. — Jalap, 50 grains; gamboge, 30 grains; podo- 
phyllin, 20 grains; elatarium, 12 grains; aloes, 30 grains; cay- 
enne, 35 grains; Castile soap, shaved and pulverized, 20 grains; 
croton oil, 90 drops; powder all finely, and mix thoroughly; 
then form into a pill mass, by using a thick mucilage made of 
equal parts of gum arable and gum tragacanth, and divide in 
3 grain pills. Dose: i pill every 2 days for the first week; then 
every 3 or 4 days, until the water is evacuated by the com- 
bined aid of the pill with the alum syrup. This is a powerful 
medicine, and will thoroughly accomplish its work. 

Eclectic Liver Pills. — Podophyllin, 10 grains; leptandrin, 
20 grains; sanguinarian, 10 grains; extract of dandelion, 20 
grains; formed into 20 pills by being moistened a little with 
some essential oil, as cinnamon, peppermint, etc. Dose: In 
chronic diseases of the liver, take a pill at night for several 
days, or 2 may be taken at first to move the bowels; then i 
daily. 

Positive Cure for Hydrophobia. — The dried root of elecam- 
pane, pulverize it,and measure out 9 heaping tablespoonfuls, and 
mix it with 2 or 3 teaspoonfuls of pulverized gum arable; then 
divide into 9 equal portions. When a person is bitten by a 
rabid animal, take one of these portions, and steep it in i pint 
of new milk, until nearly half the quantity of milk is evaporated; 
then strain, and drink it in the morning, fasting for four oi- 
five hours after. The same dose is to be repeated three morn- 
ings in succession, then skip three, and so on till the 9 doses 
are taken. 

The patient must avoid getting wet, or the heat of the sun, 
and abstain from high-seasoned diet, or hard exercise, and, if 
costive, take a dose of salts. The above quantity is for an 
adult; children will take less according to age. 

Eye Preparations. — Eye Water. — Table salt and white 
vitriol,of each i tablespoonful; heat them up on copper or earthen 
until dry; the heating drives off the acrid or biting water, called 
the water of crystalization, making them much milder in their 
action; now add them to soft water, 1-2 pint; putting in white 
sugar, I tablespoonful; blue vitriol, a piece the size of a common 



MEDICINAL. 537 

pes. If it should prove too strong in any case, add a little 
moie <oft water to a phial of it. Apply it to the eyes three or 
four i^^es daily. 

IiJDiA Prescription for Sore Eyes. — Sulphate of zinc, 
3 grains; tincture of opium (laudanum) i drachm; rose water, 
2 ounces; mix. Put a drop or two in the eye, two or three 
times daily. 

Another. — Sulphate of zinc, acetate of lead, and rock 
salt, of each, 1-2 ounce; loaf sugar, i ounce; soft water, 12 
ounces; mix without heat, and use as other eye waters. 

If sore eyes shed much water, put a little of the oxide of 
zinc into a phial of water ; and use it rather freely. It will 
soon cure that difficulty. 

Copperas and water has cured sore eyes of long standing; 
and used quite strong, it makes an excellent application in ery- 
sipelas. 

Indian Eye Water. — Soft water, i pint; gum arabic, i 
ounce; white vitriol, i ounce; fine salt, 1-2 teaspoonful; put all 
into a bottle, and shake until dissolved. Put into the eye just 
as you retire to bed. 

Egyptian Cure for Cholera. — Best Jamaica ginger root 
bruised, i ounce; cayenne, 2 teaspoonfuls. Boil all in one 
quart of water to one-half pint, and add loaf sugar to form a 
thick syrup. Dose: One tablespoonful every fifteen minutes, 
until vomiting and purging ceases: then follow up with a black- 
berry tea. 

King of Oils, for Neuralgia and Rheumatism. — Burning 
fluid, I pint; oils of cedar, hemlock, sassafras and origanum, 
of each, 2 ounces; carbonate of ammonia, pulverized, i ounce. 
Mix, Directions. — Apply freely to the nerve and gums 
around the tooth; and to the face in neuralgic pains, by wet- 
ting brown paper and laying on the parts, not too long, for fear 
of blistering. To the nerves of teeth by lint. 

Neuralgia. — Internal Remedy. — Sal-ammoniac, 1-2 
drachm; dissolve in water, i ounce. Dose, one tablespoonful 
every 3 minutes for 20 minutes, at the end of which time, if 
not before, the pain will have disappeared. 

Wens. — To Cure. — Dissolve copperas in water to make it 
very strong; now take a pin, needle, or sharp knife, and prick 
or cut the wen in about a dozen places, just safficient to cause 
it to bleed; then wet it thoroughly with the coppwas; jvate? 
daily. 



528 MEDICINAL. 

POISONS. 

Animal Poisons. — In the first class is poisoning from cer- 
tain shellfish, such as mussels, lobsters, etc., the eating of which 
is sometimes followed by an eruption of nettle-rash over the 
whole body, which causes it to have a swollen, bloated appear- 
ance, and produces difficulty of breathing, accompanied with 
giddiness, nausea, stomach-ache, and great thirst. 

Treatment. — If commenced within two or three hours 
after the appearance of the symptoms, an emetic of mustard, 
salt, and warm water, should be given. The emetic should be 
compounded thus: 

Mustard, i teaspoonful. 

Common salt, i teaspoonful. 

Warm water, i tumblerful. 
Mix, and take as a draught. 

Should, however, a longer time have elapsed, purgatives, 
such as a teaspoonful of castor-oil, or half an ounce of epsom 
salts, should be administered and repeated until full action is 
obtained. Stimulants, such as salvolatile, or aromatic spirits 
of ammonia, and ether, may also be administered if there be 
much depression. 

The following form would be a useful draught: Take of 
nitrous spirits of ether, 30 minims; spirits of salvolatile. 30 
minims; water, to make up i 1-2 ounces. Repeat the dose 
every two or three hours until the system rallies. 

Vegetable Poisons. — Of these, the most commonly met 
with are the aconite or monkshood, belladonna or deadly night- 
shade; the hellebore, hemlock, henbane, foxglove, laburnum, 
yew, colchicum, or meadow saffron, and mushrooms, all of 
which are indigeneous to this country. Others, such as opium, 
Indian hemp, nux vomica, and gamboge, are not native here. 

Among vegetable poisons should be included oxalic acid, 
and that most deadly of all poisons, prussic acid, which is 
found in undiluted " almond flavoring," used for culinary 
purposes. 

Symptoms. — Vegetable poisons have many features in com- 
mon, thus they are strongly acrid and narcotic, or depressing, 
causing drowsiness, feebleness of pulse, vomiting, purging, 
griping. 

Under the following enumeration, the symptoms peculiar to 
each will be found, together with their appropriate treatment: 

Aconite {Monkshood). — Symptoms. — A sensation of burn- 
ing, tingling or numbness, in the mouth and throat. Giddiness, 
loss of power to stand firmly, pain in the region of the stomach, 
frothing at the mouth, vomiting and purging. The pupils are 



MEDICINAL. 529 

dilated, the skin cold and livid, the breathing becomes difficult. 
In some cases delirium and paralysis follow. 

Treatment. — An emetic should immediately be given, 
such as a mixture of mustard, salt, and warm water, thus: 
Mustard, i teaspoonful; common salt, i teaspoonful; warm 
water, a tumblerful. Or, sulphate of zinc, 20 grains; water, i 
ounce. Given every half hour until the stomach has been 
emptied of the poison. Acidulous fluids, such as vinegar and 
water, and cordials should be given freely. External warmth 
should be kept up by mustard plasters, hot water bottles to the 
feet and friction to the surface. 

Distinction. — The root of this plant is often mistaken for 
horseradish which it closely resembles; therefore great care 
should be taken not to allow the two plants to grow in the 
same garden. The leaves and seeds of the plant are also pois- 
onous. 

Belladonna {Deadly Nightshade). — The leaves, berries, 
stalks — or extract or tincture made from these — are most com- 
monly met with as a cause of poison. 

Symptoms. — Heat and dryness of mouth, a feeling of tight' 
ness in the throat. Nausea, vomiting, giddiness, indistinct or 
double sight, intense excitement, delirium of a peculiar kind, 
the patient twists himself round and round, butts against the 
wall with his head, and performs various other antics. These 
are followed by heaviness and lethargy. 

Treatment. — Begin by giving freely a mixture of about 
one part of vinegar to two of water. Then cause evacuation 
of the stomach by means of emetics, such as mustard, i tea- 
spoonful; conunon salt, i ditto; warm water, a tumblerful. 
Taken at a draught. Or, sulphate of zinc, 20 grains; water, i 
ounce. Dissolved, and taken as a draught. Promote vomiting 
by warm water slightly acidulated with vinegar. The bowels 
should be emptied by injections of castor oil. 

Digitalis Purpurea {Foxglove). — Symptoms. — Vomiting, 
purging, accompanied with severe pain in the stomach. This 
is followed by a state of lethargy, during which the patient 
will sleep for hours; this, again, is followed by convulsions. 
The pupils are dilated and insensible to the stimulating effect 
of light; the pulse becomes small and irregular; and, should 
the dose have been large, and the proper measures not adopted, 
coma or insensibility of a severe kind will rapidly set in, and 
be followed by death. 

Treatment. — A free use of emetics (see under Hemlock) 
should be pursued. Drinks containing tannic acid, such as 
82 



530 MEDICINAL. 

strong tea and infusion of gall-nuts, should be given; if the 
prostration be great, brandy should be given freely. 

All the parts of this plant are poisonous. They owe their 
poisonous properties to an active principle called digitalin. 
This, in combination with tannic acid, is rendered innocuous; 
hence the reason for its administration in cases of poisoning. 

Gamboge {Cambpgia). — Symptoms. — Violent vomiting, se- 
vere pain in the stomach and excessive purging, followed by 
great prostration of strength. 

Treatment. — Carbonate of potash should be given as fol- 
lows: Carbonate of potash, 20 grains; mucilage, or solution 
of gum, 1-2 ounce; water to make up i ounce. Mix, and take 
every hour until the purging has stopped. When this is the 
case, and the poison is supposed to have been evacuated, give 
the following every half hour: Tincture of opium, 10 drops; 
water, i ounce. Mix. Gamboge is a gum resin obtained from 
the Garcinia Morella, a native of Spain. It is but little used 
in legitimate medicine, on account of its violent and uncertain 
action. Quack pills contain it in very variable quantities. 

Hellebores, the. — The Green Hellebore {Helleborus virids). 
The White Hellebore ( Vei'atrum album). The Black Hellebore, 
or Christmas rose {Helleborus niger). The Foetid Hellebore 
{Helleborus Fcetida). All of these are powerful poisons, the 
white hellebore especially so. 

Symptoms. — Vomiting, purging, giddiness, dilation of the 
pupils, convulsions, insensibility, great heat of the throat, and 
tightness, with severe pain in the stomach. 

Treatment. — Vomiting should be excited by large doses 
of solution of gum, and other mucilaginous fluids, such as 
milk, white of egg, etc., and injections of the same materials 
should be thrown up into the bowel. Coffee should then be 
given freely, and acidulous fluids and camphor-water. The 
roots and leaves of this plant are both poisonous, the roots 
especially. 

Hemlock {Conium Maculatum). — Symptoms. — This plant 
attacks the muscular power, and causes paralysis of the limbs, 
sickness, pain in the head, drowsiness, and sometimes it so 
affects the muscles of respiration as to cause death. 

Treatment. — The stomach should be evacuated by some 
powerful emetic, such as the following: Sulphate of zinc, 20 
grains; dissolved in water, a wineglassful. Or, mustard, i tea- 
spoonful; common salt, i teaspoonful; water, a tumblerful. 
After this cold vvater should be applied to the head. Vinegar 
and water (see under Deadly Nightshade) should be adminis- 
tered. The poisonous properties of this plant reside in the 



MEDICINAL. 531 

leaves, which somewhat resemble parsley, for which they have 
occasionally been mistaken. The seeds and the root are also 
poisonous. 

Henbane {Hyoscyamus). — Symptoms. — Vomiting, double 
vision, dilatation of the pupils, sleepiness, loss of muscular 
power, a peculiar tremulous motion of the limbs, flushing of 
the countenance, heat and weight of head, giddiness, fullness of 
the pulse and general excitement. If the dose has been a 
large one, the symptoms will be aggravated; there will be loss of 
speech, delirium, coma, coldness of the surface, and jerkings 
of the muscles. 

Treatment. — As soon as possible empty the stomach by 
emetics, and give acidulous drinks; if, however, the poison has 
entered the system, purgatives must be given. The seeds are 
the most poisonous, the leaves next, and the roots last. 

Indian Hemp {Cannabis Indicd). — Haschisch. — Symp- 
toms. — Much the same as those of opium, but are of a much 
more pleasant nature to the patient, being associated with 
delightful dreams and visions. 

Treatment. — -Much the same as in the case of poisoning 
by opium. 

Cases of poisoning by this plant are very rarely met with in 
America. In hot climates, however, it is frequently met with, 
especially in India. 

Laburnum {Cyitalisus Labunmni). — Symptoms. — Pain in the 
stomach, followed by vomiting and severe convulsions if the 
dose has been a large one. There is also shivering, great 
feebleness, and severe purging. 

Treatment. — The vomiting should be encouraged by muci- 
lage, milk, white of an egg, flour and water. Should the 
feebleness be very great, cordials and brandy should be given 
in repeated and small doses. The bark and seeds of this plant 
are poisonous, and owe their deleterious properties to an active 
principle called Cytisine. 

Meadow Saffron {Colchicum autuimiale). — Symptoms.— 
A burning pain in the gullet and stomach, violent vomitings 
and sometimes bilious purging. 

Treatment. — Give some mild emetic, thus: Ipecacuanha 
wine, one-half ounce; honey, i tablespoonful; milk, a teacup- 
ful. Stir up and mix thoroughly, and let the patient take it at 
a draught. This should be repeated every quarter of an hour 
till vomiting sets in. Of course the dose of ipecacuanha wine 
shonld be sraaUer for children, one-half or one-fourth of the 
abo It, '^i4<i«4vty being ample for a child under five years old. 



639 MEDICINAL. 

Then give opium as follows (to adults only); Powdered opium, 
3 grains; confection of dog rose, sufficient to make a small 
mass with the opium. Divide this into six pills, and let the 
patient have one every four hours, until the symptoms of 
poisoning abate. Or, tincture of opium, i fluid drachm; water, 
to six fluid ounces. Mix. Two tablespoonfuls to be taken 
every two hours. 

Mushrooms {Fungi). — Symptoms. — Pain in the stomach 
accompanied with vomiting, giddiness, drowsiness, dimness of 
sight, and debility. The patient appears to be intoxicated. 

Treatment. — This cannot be better expressed than in the 
terse and plain terms of Professor Taylor. They are: "The 
free use of emetics and castor oil." 

Nux Voinica {Strychnine). — Symptoms. — An intensely 
bitter taste in the mouth. Tipsy manner, sickness, headache, 
jerking of the arms and legs, and twitching of the body; lock- 
jaw, great difficulty in breathing, with intense pain in the chest, 
and a sense of suffocation. 

Treatment. — Evacuate the stomach and bowels. Give 
vinegar (see Deadly Nightshade) and other acidulous drinks. 
If the spasm be very severe and constant, and do not yield to 
the emetics, etc., then try injections of infusions of tobacco, as 
follows: Tobacco (shag), 30 grains; water, 8 fluid ounces. 
Mix, and allow to stand for half an hour, occasionally shaking. 
Then strain and inject into the bowel in the intervals of the 
spasms. 

Strychnia is one of the most deadly poisons, a very small 
quantity being capable of killing a strong man. 

Opium. — An extract from the poppy. {Papaver Somniferd). 
— Symptoms. — Drowsiness, stupor, delirium, pallid counte- 
nance, contracted pupil, sighing, loud or snoring respiration, 
cold sweats, coma, and death. 

Treatment. — Emetics of the sulphated zinc (see under 
Hemlock), or, if the patient be too far gone to take these, the 
stomach pump should be applied. The patient should on no 
account be allowed to sleep, but his attention should be con- 
stantly aroused. A good plan is to walk the patient rapidly 
and incessantly about. A tepid bath is useful for arousing the 
sleeping energies, and cold water should be dashed over the 
head at the same time. Opium is the juice of the poppy, which 
runs from the incisions made in the unripe fruit. Its principal 
properties are due to an active principle contained in it, which 
is called morphia. In cases of overdoses of this drug, the same 
treatment should be adopted. 



MEDICINAL. 533 

Oxalic Acid. — Symptoms. — If the dose be a large one, while 
it is being swallowed a hot, burning, acid taste is experienced, 
extending downward to the stomach; vomiting then occurs, or 
within a few minutes. There is a severe feeling of tightness 
in the throat, and sometimes delirium. When the dose is 
smaller the pain is less, and vomiting does not set in so soon. 
At times there is no vomiting, at others it alone causes death 
by causing exhaustion. 

Treatment. — Some chalk and water should be immedi- 
ately administered, and a quantity of water drunk to encourage 
vomiting. This is not often administered with a criminal 
intent, the taste is too strong; but it is taken sometimes in mis- 
take for epsom salts, which it somewhat resembles. 

Prussic kffA {Hydrocyanic Acid). — Symptoms. — Pallid 
appearance, giddiness, great nervous prostration, loss of sight 
more or less complete, faintness, labored and hard respiration, 
loss of power of motion. 

Treatment. — The stomach pump should be applied; or, 
if this is not handy, emetics, such as mustard, salt and water. 
(See under Hemlock). Dash cold water over the head and 
chest. Give salvolatile as follows: Spirits of sal volatile, i 
drachm; water, to i ounce. Mix, Every quarter of an hour 
until there is some signs of revival. Prussic acid is the most 
powerful poison known. This poison is often met with in the 
essential oil of almonds, and great care should therefore be 
taken in the use of this pleasant flavoring. 

Yew {Taxus baccatd). — Symptoms. — Professor Taylor 
gives the symptoms of poisoning by this plant as follows: 
Convulsions, insensibility, coma, dilated pupils, pale counte- 
nance, small pulse, and cold extremities are the most promi- 
nent; vomiting and purging are also observed among the symp- 
toms." 

Treatment. — As in many other vegetable, indeed it might 
safely be said in all poisons, vomiting should be excited, and 
this is best done, and perhaps in the quickest, safest manner, by 
an emetic of mustard, salt and water. Should the convulsions 
be very acute, and there be great heat of head, cold should 
be applied. If the pulse is very small, and the prostration of 
the patient is great, as soon as the stomach is thoroughly 
emptied, brandy should be given. 

It is commonly supposed that the leaves of this plant are 
not poisonous when fresh, but this is erroneous. They are at 
all times poisonous. The berries also are very dangerous, more 
■ especially to children, as they have an agreeable taste, and look 
tempting. The danger of the leaves is not so much for the 
human race as it is for cattle, who are fond of eating them. 



634 MEDICINAL. 

Mineral Poisons. — The mineral poisons are perhaps the 
most commonly used for criminal and suicidal purposes, and 
they are certainly more easily detected by chemical means than 
are either the vegetable or animal poisons. Science has yet 
found out but few certain tests for the vegetable poisons com- 
pared with the large number of accurate and easily available 
tests for the mineral poisons. 

Perhaps the most important of this class of poisons is 
arsenic, as it is certainly the most fatal; others, such as anti- 
mony, copper, lead, mercury, and the acids, are in many cases 
very fatal, but few of these possess the power of destroying 
life to anything like the extent that is possessed by arsenic. 

Acid, Carbolic. — The powerful odor of this acid prevents 
its being frequently taken accidentally, but it has been taken 
with suicidal intent. 

Symptoms. — These are much the same as the other power- 
ful irritant poisons. There is an intense burning in the mouth 
and gullet, accompanied with a feeling of tightness in the throat, 
vomiting of shreds of mucus, griping pain in the stomach, 
the lips and insides of the cheeks present a charred appearance, 
and, if its action be not checked, the nervous system suffers, 
and the organs of the senses are impaired, and death rapidly 
follows. 

Treatment. — Albuminous fluids should be given in large 
doses, such as white of egg, flour and water, gruel and milk. 
Magnesia, and chalk and water, is used in these cases. Emetics 
of mustard should also be freely administered. 

Acid, Hydrochloric {Muriatic Acid, spirits of Salt). — 
Both the symptoms and treatment of a case of poisoning by 
this acid are given under Sulphuric Acid. 

Acid, Nitric {Agtia Fortis). — Symptoms. — (See Sulphuric 
Acid.) The only difference is that nitric acid does not cause 
such a dark discoloration of the lips and mouth. 

Treatment. — Precisely the same as under case of Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Acid, Sulphuric [Oil of Vitriol). — This acts as a poison by 
its powerful corrosive powers. It seldom causes death by its 
absorption into the system, but rather by the excessive irrita- 
tion and inflammation which it causes to the lining of the 
mouth, the gullet, and the stomach. It immediately causes the 
skin to have a charred appearance of a whitish hue, which 
gradually becomes darker and browner; it causes pain in the 
stomach, vomiting, and eructations of a gaseous character; ■ 
great nervous depression, which is also shared by the puls-i; 
convulsions, and death. 



MEDICINAL. 535 

Treatment. — Give magnesia and water, or lime-water; or^ 
should neither of these be at hand, give soap and water freely. 

Antiinoiiy {^Tartar Emetic Butter of Antimony). — Symp- 
toms. — These are very much the same as those of arsenic, with 
the exception that the depression, vomiting, and collapse are 
much more rapid, owing to the immediate action of the poison 
on the heart. 

Treatment. — Should the vomiting not occur freely, it will 
be as well to give an emetic, and afterwards a dose of tannic 
acid and water, thus: Tannic acid, lo grains; water, i ounce. 
Mix. Or, a dose of very strong tea, or infusion of gall-nuts, 
mixed with magnesia. 

Arsenic {Realgar or Red Arsenic, White Arsenic^ Scheelen 
Green, Orpiment, or Yellow Arsenic). — Symptoms. — An un- 
pleasantly strong metallic taste, a tightness in the throat, 
vomiting of a brown mucus character, mixed with blood, 
fainting, great thirst, excessive pain in the stomach, with 
shivering purging, the stools being very offensive and of a 
dark character, pulse small and rapid, great nervous prostra- 
tion and delirium. Arsenic is sometimes administered in 
repeated small doses, and by this means is produced a state 
which is called " chronic arsenical poisoning." In this case, 
disorder of the stomach and bowels exists, but does not form 
such a prominent symptom as in the more acute form of this 
poisoning. There will be redness and smarting in the eyes, 
great sensibility of the skin, at times accompanied either by a 
rash, which consists of minute vesicles or blisters, or else by 
nettle-rash. There is also local paralysis — that is to say, par- 
alysis of one particular set of muscles, accompanied, or rather 
preceded, by numbness and tingling in the fingers and toes. 
The patient loses flesh and becomes exhausted. Sometimes 
the skin peels off, and loss of hair occurs. 

Treatment. — A substance termed hydrated peroxide of 
iron has been strongly vaunted as an antidote to arsenic. The 
best way to give it is to mix a tablespoonful with water, and 
give every five or ten minutes. Should this not be procurable, 
it is best to use the stomach-pump or emetics, (See under 
Hemlock.) Large quantities of mucilage should be given to 
drink, or eggs, or milk. When the worst symptoms have 
subsided, and the patient is out of immediate danger, he should 
be kept in bed, with warm poultices applied to the pit of the 
stomach. Small pills of one grain of opium should be given 
every four hours while pain continues, but no violent aperient. 
Arsenic is one of those poisons which, begun with very small 
doses, and gradually increasing them, may become almost 
harmless. One form of arsenic (" Scheele's green ") is largely 



536 MEDICINAL. 

used as a coloring for room papers. In this form it often does 
insidious mischief, as it separates from the paper in minute 
particles, and circulates freely in the air of the room as dust. 
This fact may be proved by submitting some of the dust which 
collects on bookshelves, etc., in a room thus ornamented to a 
few simple chemical tests, or by causing some expert to analyze 
it. By so doing, the inquirer will often receive satisfactory 
evidence of the existence of this poison, if he has not previ- 
ously had some practical experience of its effects. 

Copper i^Blue Vitriol. Mineral Green. Verdigris). — Symp- 
toms. — These, again, are much the same as in arsenic, but rather 
less acute. It may here be stated that many alleged cases of 
poison by verdigris, from cooking vessels, etc., are in reality 
owing to bad or decomposed food. A poisonous dose of salts 
of copper is always followed (if the patient recovers from the 
first effects) by inflammation of the bowels. 

Treatment. — Begin with the stomach-pump, or an emetic. 
When the stomach has been evacuated, give white of egg, flour 
and water, milk. The subsequent inflammation of the bowels 
should be treated as described under arsenic. 

Lead {White Lead. Sugar of Lead). — Symptoms. — This 
also causes many of the symptoms described under arsenic, 
when taken in a large quantity; but there is a particular form 
of disease called lead colic, which particularly affects workers 
in lead (see colic); these people are also subject to a form of 
paralysis (see paralysis). 

Treatment. — When taken in a large dose, give an emetic 
of sulphur of zinc or copper (see hemlock). If the pain in the 
stomach be severe, small doses of tincture of opium, about lo 
minims, should be given at short intervals, combined with 
sulphate of magnesia. 

Mercury [Co7-rosive Sublimate. Calomel. White Precipi- 
tate). — Symptoms. — Intense metallic taste in the mouth, pain 
in the stomach, purging, vomiting, etc.; in fact, the symptoms 
of nearly all metallic poisons are similar. There are, of course, 
certain peculiarities belonging to each, and that belonging to 
mercury is the largely increased flow of saliva, commonly called 
" salivation," which almost invariably follows a poisonous dose 
of mercury in any of its forms. The period which elapses 
between the taking of the poison and appearance of the saliva- 
tion, varies from a few hours to some days. 

Treatment. — An emetic of sulphate of zinc or copper (as 
under hemlock) should be given in white of egg, mixed with 
milk or water, milk, and flour and water in large draughts. 
When the salivation sets in, the following will be found useful 



MEDICINAL. 531: 

when in conjunction with astringent gargles: Iodide of potas- 
sium, 24 grains; tincture of bark, i ounce; water, to 8 ounces. 
Mix, and take two tablespoonfuls three times a day. A good 
form of an astringent gargle is as follows: Alum, 30 grains; 
water, to 4 ounces. Mix, and use about a tablespoonful as a 
gargle every three or four hours. 

Ammonia. — Symptoms. — Pungent acrid odor, hot taste, 
stomach-ache, followed by convulsions, delirium, and death. 

TreatjvIent. — Vinegar and water in large doses, lemon 
juice and olive oil. For any other of the alkalies, soda or 
potash, in their caustic forms, the same treatment should be 
pursued. 

Chloride of Zinc. — Symptoms. — Pain of a burning kind in 
the throat, nausea and vomiting, griping pains in the stomach, 
pallor and coldness, the legs are drawn up, and there are 
appearances of collapse. 

Alkalies. — The strong or concentrated preparation acts 
with extreme corrosive violence on the mouth, gullet, and stom- 
ach. Should the action of this poison be further continued, it 
will' be found that it affects the nervous system. This will be 
demonstrated by the patient's sight becoming dim, and the 
power of taste and smell less acute than it is normally — by 
extreme depression, syncope, and death. 

Treatment. — Milk and white of egg should be given freely, 
and emetics of mustard and warm water, combined with flour 
or oatmeal. 

Baths and Bathing. — In infancy, bathing or washing at 
least twice a day is necessary to preserve the skin in a healthy 
condition. In so doing, however, care must be taken that the 
surface of the body be not chilled; a judicious warmth (avoid- 
ing too great heat) should be studied. In the early weeks of 
life the body does not readily maintain its own temperature; 
hence the reason that the young of animals remain a certain 
time constantly near their mother. It is the same with our 
infants; no warmth is so equable or so good for them during the 
few first days or weeks of life as the warmth of their mother; 
hence, also, the necessity for a warm bath as the means of 
cleanliness. 

A fallacy lurks in the notion of hardening children. The 
argument in favor of the attempt so to do, drawn from the 
"state of nature," is altogether a dangerous fallacy. All that 
can really be said in its favor is that it is not possible to kill all 
the children submitted to the system. The delicate ones will 
be sifted out, and the hardy ones will survive in spite of "sys' 



538 MEDICINAL. 

tem." It is an error in reasoning to quote the savage state as 
that of nature, and, therefore, worthy of imitation. It may be 
urged with greater force that the nature of man's mental en- 
dowments tends to raise him from the savage to the civilized 
state. The natural state of man is that of civilization, with its 
attendant fostering care of infantile existence. 

Sponge Bath. — In after-life the daily sponge bath con- 
tributes greatly to the preservation of health, by the promotion 
of cleanliness, and by the exhilarating influence in stimulating 
the circulation of the blood on the surface of the body. The 
warmth of reaction is more sure to follow if the bath be used 
on rising, while the body is still warm, and before the surface 
is chilled by exposure in dressing In using this, a due regard 
to the feelings should be observed. Some persons are extremly 
sensitive to cold, while others enjoy its reaction and bracing 
influence. The temperature of the water should, therefore, be 
regulated by the climate, weather, and individual susceptibility. 
After sponging, the whole body should be briskly dried with a 
rough towel, and a glow of warmth will follow. 

Cold Bath. — (Temperature 50° to 60*^.) — A cold bath 
will vary in its effects according as it is taken in a small bath, 
or in a river, the sea, or a quantity of water large enough for 
swimming, and according to the temperature of the air. The 
benefit to be derived from a cold bath is governed also pretty 
much by the state of the bather, or on the greater or less vigor 
of the heart's action, and of the circulation in the skin. A cold 
bath should not be taken with a cold skin; the best preparation 
is the warm glow of exercise. A plunge (head first) into cold 
water, even when hot and perspiring atter exercise, and a good 
swim for a few minutes, is more surely followed by healthful 
reaction than the waiting until the body is dry and cool, or per- 
haps chilled by evaporation of perspiration. A cold bath with- 
out the active exercise of swimming should not be prolonged 
beyond three or four minutes; even the good swimmer must be 
warned that prolonged action of cold incurs the risk of cramp. 

Persons in impaired state of health should take little more 
than a single immersion, and this should be followed by friction 
of the surface with towels or dry flannels. Such persons should 
avoid bathing on an empty stomach; it is better not to take a 
cold bath immediately after a meal. 

The answer to questions on the advisability of cold bathing, 
whether in the sea or otherwise, is to be found in the state of 
the pulse and of the skin. With a feeble pulse and a disposi- 
tion to palpitation of the heart, the flow of blood through the 
skin is sure to be tardy, as compared with that of health, and 
reaction will consequently be slowly established at the risk of 
congestion of internal organs. Hence, in persons disposed 



MEDICINAL. 539 

towards head, or heart, or lung affections, great caution should 
be exercised. Persons who are subject to palpitation of the 
heart, giddiness, etc., had better avoid the cold bath. 

Generally, it may be laid down as a rule that if cold bathing 
be not followed by a glow of warmth on the skin, it should not 
be repeated. 

About two or three hours after a meal is the best time for 
cold bathing. 

The Tepid Bath (temperature 70 '-' to 80 "^ ) is suitable 
for those whose health, or sensitiveness to cold, forbid the use 
of the cold bath. The same rules, however, apply especially 
as regards the delicate in health. 

The Hot Bath (temperature 98° to iio*^ ) differs from 
the cold or tepid bath, inasmuch as they are preservative of 
health, while this is curative of disease. 

It opens the pores of the skin, relaxes the muscles, soothes 
the nervous system, and (after its first stimulation of the heart's 
action is past) is a valuable agent in reducing fever and inflam- 
matory action by the profuse perspiration that it induces — so 
much so, that it is often an efficacious remedy in the treatment 
of inflammation. 

In the convulsions of infancy, the hot bath, continued from 
five to ten minutes, is an important part of the treatment. 

In order to avoid any possible risk of the sudden immer- 
sion in hot water; it is a safe plan to have the bath at about 
95 *-* to begin with, and gradually raise the temperature to 
100 ° , or even 105 *^ , if profuse perspiration afterwards be de- 
sired; in this case, the bath may be continued by an adult 
twenty minutes or half an hour. On coming out of the bath, 
after rapidly wiping the surface of the body, a warm blanket 
should be wrapped round before getting into a warm bed. 

When it is desirable to give a hot bath to a child for any 
febrile malady, or in any case where the child would be fright- 
ened at being put into the water, its fears may be disarmed by 
covering the bath with a blanket, and letting the little patient 
down gently into the bath. 

Vapor Bath (temperature 100° to 120°) is of great use 
in exciting perspiration in catarrh, in simple fever, and in rheu- 
matism. It may be extemporized by sitting on a chair en- 
closed in a blanket, and having a pail of hot water placed 
under the chair, adding to the water some red-hot stones, or 
brick, or iron chain. If a long pipe can be connected with the 
spout of a large kettle, and made to pass within the blanket, 
it affords a ready means of making a vapor bath. 

Hot-air Bath. — (Temperature 100° to 120^ .) — This acts 
in the same way as a vapor bath. It is readily made by burn- 



540 MEDICINAL. 

ing some spirits of wine under the canopy of blanket. A con- 
venient mode is, after the patient is seated and covered up to 
the throat with blankets, to place an ounce of spirits of wine in 
a cup, the cup standing in a basin with some water, then light 
the spirit and let it burn out. 

The Turkish Bath, a combination of these, is useful in 
rheumatic and other chronic diseases, but requires to be used 
for medical purposes only under medical advice. 

Hydropathy professes the cure of disease by baths of 
various kinds. It can only be properly practiced in establish- 
ments especially devoted thereto. It is expensive and, there- 
fore, only within the reach of comparatively few. 

SLEEP. 

No rule can be observed with regard to the proportion of 
time that should be given to sleep. Much depends upon indi- 
vidual habit and disposition. The active mind and cheerful 
disposition that is never more happy than when busily em- 
ployed, and finds its recreation in change of work, will gener- 
ally sleep soundly and be refreshed, by six or seven hours* 
sleep. Less than this cannot be safely devoted to sleep by any 
one who does a good day's work, either bodily or mentally. 
There have been those who could abridge their hours of sleep 
to four, three, or even two, hours out of the twenty-four, but 
they paid the penalty of such an infringement of nature's laws 
by shortening the number of their days, and embittering them 
by the impairment of health. 

The daily wear and tear of life needs the restoration of 
sleep to ensure healthy balance of nervous power, and that 
equanimity of mind so desirable in this world' s strife and tur- 
moil. 

Infants and children require more sleep than grown-up 
persons. In fact the early days of infancy are passed in 
sleeping, to the infant's great gain. If otherwise its health 
soon suffers, and shows the want of "balmy sleep." Warmth, 
sleep, and food are all that are wanted in early infancy. For 
the first three or four years the mid-day "nap" contributes to 
the vigor and activity of the young child. 

Throughout childhood up to puberty from twelve to four- 
teen hours' sleep is not an undue allowance. At all events, if 
less time be accorded for sleep, "early to bed" is a golden 
maxim. The practice of allowing infants and young children 
to be awake and up until ten or eleven o'clock at night, amid 
the glare of lights, and perhaps the noise and excitement of 
festivity, is the most injudicious sort of kindness to which they 
can be exposed. 



MEDICINAL. 541 

CLIMATE. 

This word embraces the consideration of many topics 
•which our limits forbid our touching upon; but, as the present 
tvork will doubtless be read in all parts of the country (at least 
such is our hope), it would be incomplete without a few re- 
marks thereon in relation to the causation and treatment of 
disease. 

''The climate of a country or district," Dr. Copland re- 
marks, ''depends, ist, upon its position in respect of distance 
from the equator, and upon its elevation above the level of 
the sea, and its proximity to the shores of the ocean, or the 
beds of large rivers, etc.; 2nd, upon the geological and miner- 
alogical formations constituting the basis of its soil; 3rd. upon 
the nature of the soil itself, its cultivation, and the evgetable 
productions by which it is covered; and, 4th, upon the prevail- 
ing winds or currents of the air." 

The Effect of Change of Climate. — An inhabitant of 
a temperate climate going to a tropical country will suffer from 
excitement of the nervous and vascular systems, by the heat 
and moisture of the air. The respiratory functions become 
less active; while there is a decrease of the ordinary action of 
the kidneys in carrying off the refuse matters of the circulation. 
The consequence is that the skin and the liver have an excess 
of work thrown upon them (to speak metaphorically, and also 
exactly), in order to rid the system of certain effete elements 
which the lungs cannot throw off. 

Hence the " seasoning fevers," as they are called, and the 
disorders of the liver to which Europeans are specially liable 
on arrival in a hot climate, and to which full often they render 
themselves the more obnoxious by injudicious diet. An eminent 
English authority says that: 

Europeans visiting hot climates should live abstemiously, 
taking every means to promote the functions of the skin by 
moderate exercise, and by daily free ablutions. Exposure of 
the head to the heat of the sun should be carefully avoided, as 
well as the risk of contracting fever by exposure to dews, the 
cold, and the malaria of the night air. Warm clothing should 
be worn at night by new-comers, as the extremes of day and 
night temperature in tropical regions often pass through a very 
wide range. 

The effects of a warm and moist climate upon the inhabit- 
ants of colder regions, in decreasing the functional activity of 
the lungs, and increasing that of the liver and skin, has formed 
the basis of the recommendation of a change from a cold to a 
warm climate in pulmonary affections. It is, however, verv 
doubtful whether the relaxing and enervating influence of the 
heat on the nervous system does not more than counterbalance 



543 MEDICINAL. 

this functional compensation. Certainly, when disease m tli« 
lungs has advanced much, more harm than good generally 
comes of the migration. On the other hand, the tonic and 
bracing effect of a cold climate more frequently checks the 
advance of consumption, if care is taken to protect the surface 
from sudden chills, and so to protect it as to ensure a free cir- 
culation of the blood in the skin by out-door exercise. The 
British Hippocrates, Sydenham, was wont to call horse exercise 
the " palmarium remedy " for consumption, so strongly was he 
convinced of the importance of out-door exercise. A confir- 
mation of this opinion is to be found in the fact that coachmen 
(if temperate men) are among the healthiest classes. In the 
days when locomotion was performed more on horseback than 
is now the case, it was said that " bagmen," or commercial 
travelers, enjoyed a singular freedom from consumption. 
Unfortunately, however, these men, then as now, too often 
threw away their better health by their irregularities in other 
directions. 

While the stress of the effects of removal to warm climates 
upon the inhabitants of temperate regions is thus seen to fall 
upon the liver and skin, the reverse is seen to occur when the 
natives of hot climates migrate to colder countries. The 
negro, brought direct from Africa to England, will almost surely 
be the victim of consumption. 

The change of climate must therefore be guided by these 
several conditions, both of place and person, and may further 
have to be altered according to the changes of the seasons, and 
according to the special character of the season itself. Thus, 
it not unfrequently happens that the south coast of England is 
not suitable for invalids, even so late as June, if easterly winds 
prevail. The air is then almost as keen as that of the directly 
eastern coast, and a return inland becomes inevitable. 

Consumption. — In this disease, change of climate, to be 
productive of real benefit, must be tried at a much earlier 
period than is generally done, as it is often delayed a year or 
two after the period that any good can be expected, and the 
result is that more harm than good is done thereby. Hence 
the trial is often not made through the discredit that arises out 
of its misapplication. It should be borne in mind that 
consumption is not merely a disease of the lungs, but a general 
morbid constitutional condition, of which the disease in the 
lungs is but a manifestation. The early treatment must, there- 
fore, be directed to invigorating the system and improving 
the quality of the blood. With these objects, the climate most 
suitable for winter residence are those of our southern coast, 
Madeira, Nice, Pisa, and Rome, with removal during summer 
months to the drier situations of our own islands. 



MEDICINAL. 543 

Chronic Bronchitis. — This is an affection that is often 
mistaken for consumption, and one which, through its persis- 
tence and its debilitating and emaciating effects, constitutes a 
veritable decline. The change from a cold and moist to a 
mild and dry air relieves the morbid conditions of the mucous 
surfaces. The same climates that are of service in consumption 
are beneficial in chronic bronchitis. When asthma is combined 
with chronic bronchitis, it is also relieved by the same climate 
as is found useful in chronic consumption. Torquay and Un- 
dercliff, for example, are most adapted to irritable states of the 
mucous membrane without much secretion; Clifton or Brighton 
for those in which expectoration is profuse and the system 
debilitated; Rome, Pisa, Madeira, are suited for the latter class 
of cases; Nice to the former. 

Chronic Rheumatism. — This is benefitted by residence in 
a warm climate, such as the southwestern coast of England, 
the south of France, Rome, and Pisa. 

Gout. — This also derives benefit by a warm climate. The 
West India Islands are especially marked in this respect. 

Dyspepsia and nervous affections connected therewith are 
aggravated by a cold and damp atmosphere, and are greatly 
relieved by change to a drier and warmer climate; but great 
care in dieting is needful in order to ensure the full benefit of 
the change. The use of stimulants must be very carefully 
watched. The nervous symptoms associated with dyspepsia 
are prone to take on the form of hypochondriasis; the change 
of climate should therefore be accompanied with change of 
occupation and of amusement. This class of cases rapidly 
improve under change of scene, and the relinquishment of the 
cares of business, to say nothing of " throwing physic to the 
dogs." 

diet in relation to disease. 

In acute diseases, the diet should generally be of the 
simplest and lightest kind, such as beef-tea or mutton-broth, 
sago, tapioca, arrowroot, or gruel, with, at the same time, some 
little respect paid to the palate. Due regard, however, must be 
paid to the general character and condition of the constitution. 
For instance, acute diseases may occur in a very debilitated 
state of the health, and then may require the addition to the 
above of some alcoholic stimulant. The stomach in such 
cases would not be able to digest solid food. The absence of 
this must be supplied by soups, broths, eggs, etc. 

In the feeding of invalids, even children, some attention 
may be paid to their cravings after different articles. It will 
often be found that the thing longed for is not injurious, an<J 



544 MEDICINAL. 

may be often called for in obedience to some indication by- 
nature. The following incident may serve to illustrate this 
observation: A child of about four or five years old was suffer- 
ing under diphtheria, and had got to refuse the port wine and 
beef-tea that had been ordered it. It seemed that there was 
nothing for it but that the child must die from starvation and 
diphtheria together. One day she woke up from a nap and saw 
a glass of ale, which was being drunk by its mother with her 
luncheon. This ale the child cried for, but the mother feared 
to allow her to drink. When appealed to, the medical attend- 
ant said, "By all means let the child have it; and even put it 
in her way that she may take it herself without let or hind- 
rance." The next time the child woke up she eagerly clutched 
at the malt liquor and drank off a tumblerful. From that 
moment she began to mend, and for the next forty-eight hours 
persistently refused everything else, either as food or medicine, 
and eventually made a good recovery. When the disease, 
though acute, is of a less severe character, and is not stamped 
with extreme debility, the stomach will tolerate light solids, 
such as white fish, fowls, bread, rice, light puddings, and ripe, 
pulpy fruit and vegetables may be taken with advantage, as the 
acids allay thirst. In chronic disease a fuller diet is required, 
comprising meat with some stimulant. 

Milk. — Milk is the most important article of diet in infancy, 
and is also both nutritious and digestible in diseases of adult 
life. A prejudice exists in the minds of many persons to the 
effect that milk is not easily digested. The opinion is, how- 
ever, refuted by the fact that it forms the nourishment of 
infants and of young animals of all kinds. Cow's milk, how- 
ever, is sometimes unsuited to the stomachs of infants brought 
up by hand; or, from its richness in oil and curd, to the stom- 
achs of persons enfeebled by disease. The best substitute 
that can be used is asses' or goat's milk. The latter, however, 
is richer than the former. 

For the first three or four months of an infant's life the 
best food is breast-milk alone. If for any reason this cannot 
be given, asses' milk is the best substitute. Next to this cow's 
milk, diluted with an equal proportion of water in which 
half a teaspoonful of powdered sugar of milk has been 
dissolved. Cow's mill* differs from human milk in its excess 
of cream and curd. The cream consists almost wholly of oil 
globules. The addition of a solution of sugar-of-milk reduces 
it in one direction, and raises it in another, to the level of 
human milk; thus, sugar-of-milk contains all the saline mat- 
ters of the milk from which it was made; therefore, by its ad- 
dition (with water) to cow's milk, while the curd and oil are 
diluted, the deficiency of the salts is supplied, and thereby its 



MEDICINAL. 545 

composition is as nearly as possible equalized or assimilated 
one to the other. 

Most infants will thrive well on this hand-feeding, but there 
are two points of essential importance to its success. One is 
the giving the food with regularity. For the first two or three 
weeks the child should be fed every two hours during the day^ 
and once or twice in the course of the night. The interval 
should gradually be lengthened after the month. 

The same rule as to time should be observed, whatever be 
the food, whether breast-milk or any substitute. 

Feeding-bottles Objectionable. — The next point, and 
one (if possible) more important, is that the feeding-bottle 
should be most scrupulously cleaned each time immediately 
after feeding, or small quantities of milk remaining in the tube 
or teat will become sour. The minutest particle of sour milk 
taken into the stomach with the other will act after the manner 
of a ferment, and favor the turning sour of the whole quantity. 

It should, however, here be noted, that it does not follow 
that, because when a child vomits its milk it is found curdled, 
therefore the whole has been sour at the time of taking it. 
The first step in the digestion of the milk is that it is curdled 
by the gastric juice of the stomach, and afterwards dissolved 
by it. This process, however, is very different from the curd- 
ling of milk by its having turned sour out of the stomach, and 
it has a very different result in the process of digestion. 

There is another grave objection to these tubes — they en- 
gender and foster idleness on the part of the nurse. It is a 
common practice to put an infant into its bed or cradle, with 
the teat in its mouth and the bottle in bed, and there to leave 
it to suckle itself to sleep; which it generally does, sucking the 
while even after it has fallen asleep and its bottle is emptied. 
The child goes on sucking at the tube, but getting no food; the 
infant, in popular phrase, "sucks in wind." If it does not ex- 
actly suck the wind, its fruitless sucking at a piece of india- 
rubber keeps up secretion of gastric juice in the stomach. 
This, having no food to act upon, acts abnormally upon the 
stomach itself, and sets up various disorders of that organ 
and of the intestines. Such a mode of nursing is little better 
than the " Gampish " trick of sticking into the child's mouth a 
raisin in a piece of muslin to " keep it quiet." They are alike 
occasions to evade the duty of really hand-nursing and carry- 
ing the child in arms. 

Beef Tea is the staple of existence in many cases of illness; 
\t is food and physic both in some fevers. It must be most 
carefully made, on Liebig's principles. The heat employed 
should not exceed 150*^. A thermometer, however, is not 
commonly at hand, but the meat should be cut up small and 



546 MEDICINAL. 

merely covered with water, in a bottle jar, In a sauce pan with 
cold water, near a fire, so as not to allow it to boil, but merely 
to stew for three or four hours. The fat may be separated by 
allowing it to get cold and then skimming it off. Mutton-broth 
might be made on the same plan, and would be more nourish- 
ing than that commonly made. 

In the ordinary way of making beef tea, by boiling lumps 
of meat, a strong jelly may be formed, and is supposed to show 
its strength; but each lump is really case-hardened, and the 
most nourishing part locked up in each piece. The explana- 
tion is that flesh consists largely of albumen, which coagulates 
at 150° F.; therefore the boiling temperature, 212*-^ F., 
hardens the outer part at once, and slowly the interior. To 
give a culinary illustration, the best way to cook a boiled joint 
of meat is to put it into water already boiling, and continue 
boiling the requisite time; the outside is at once hardened, and 
the gravy is locked up inside. 

Eggs. — For the same reason the white of eggs, which con- 
sists wholly of albumen, is a most excellent medium of nutri- 
ment, where, for any reason, beef tea cannot be given. The 
white of egg stirred into cold or lukewarm milk can often be 
given to children or other patients who refuse beef tea. It is 
tasteless and colorless, therefore its presence can be disguised; 
whereas the yolk of egg contains fatty matters with albumen, 
and is easily recognized by the child both from its color and 
its flavor. 

Water, either as an ordinary article of diet or a means of 
allaying the thirst in febrile states, requires that great care 
shall be taken to ensure that it shall be free from impurities. 
The most dangerous impurities to which water is obnoxious 
are gaseous matters, and insoluble animal and vegetable mat- 
ters. Gaseous matters and vapors are readily absorbed by 
water, as seen in, the ordinary experience of placing a basin or 
tub of water in a newly painted room, whereby the smell of th^ 
paint is quickly removed. Water, by reason of the same prop- 
erty, should never be drank from a cistern into which there is 
a waste pipe having a direct communication with a drain or 
reservoir. The poisonous gases arising from the decomposing 
sewage are absorbed by the water, which thus becomes the 
vehicle for the conveyance of the poison of malignant fevers. 

The decomposing animal and saline matters of sewage also 
readily percolate a porous soil; so that if a well and cesspool 
be near one another, as is often the case both in town and 
country, the water becomes the channel through which deadly 
poison is carried. 

Rain water received into leaden cisterns, or water in tanks 
having leaden pipes leading from them, is often contaminated 



MEDICINAL. 647 

by a portion of that metal becoming oxidized and dissolved, 
producing colic and other signs of lead poisoning. 

For ordinary domestic purposes, water is classed as hard or 
soft. The latter is rain water; the former spring or river water. 
These vary much in their degree of hardness, as may readily 
be noticed by their behavior with soap. With hard water the 
soap does not readily make a lather, but curdles on the han-d. 
The source of hardness of water is in the lime and other salts 
that are dissolved out of the strata of the earth through which 
it has passed. These may be separated to a considerable ex- 
tent by boiling, or by the addition of small quantities of bicar- 
bonate of soda. This is the object of some persons who put a 
«mall portion of bicarbonate of soda into the teapot when 
flaking tea. 

Insoluble impurities can be separated by filters, or by any 
arrangement by which it is made to pass through fine sand or 
broken charcoal. The charcoal has the property of absorbing 
gases from water and rendering it sweet and pure. 

In the treatment of disease, water is of primary importance, 
as it allays thirst and fever by diluting the blood and giving 
the medium by which a poison may be eliminated from the 
system. In fever and in cholera thirst is often the one great 
complaint, and the cry is for water ! water ! This indication of 
nature may safely be followed, and the patient allowed to 
drink as freely as he will. 

Water is the chief of diuretics; it increases the secretion of 
urine, and promotes thereby the evacuation of effete or irri- 
tant matters from the blood. 

Farinaceous Foods. — Farinaceous foods should be cau- 
tiously given to young infants. Neither the secretion of the 
saliva in the mouth, nor of the gastric juice in the stomach, 
is adapted for their digestion. Among the farinaceous foods, 
suitable for young children, are baked flour, corn flour, biscuit 
powder, arrowroot, ground root, etc. It is not possible to say 
in which case each of these may be most suitable; what may 
be easily digested by one child may not agree with another, 
or with the same child for long together. After five or sh 
months a crust may be given, but should be carefully watched. 
When some teeth are cut, the admixture of solids may occa- 
sionally be permitted; but, even when all the teeth are cut, it 
is advisable only to give meat every other or every third day. 
Soups, beef tea, etc., may be given at other times. 

General Diet. — It is scarcely necessary here to enter 
upon the diet for adults in health, as this will depend very 
much upon the pursuits and inclinations of each. It is well 
known that those who wgrk hara fc&n generally eat well with- 



648 MEDICINAL. 

out much regard to what is put before them — "Hunger is their 
best sauce." 

It may suffice to offer a few remarks on the digestibility of 
some article of food as a guide to invalids, and with reference 
to the diet recommended under the several headings of disease 
in the following pages. 

It may be stated generally that beef is less digestible than 
mutton, especially for persons subject to dyspepsia. Beef is 
more easily digested cold than hot by delicate stomachs. Both 
these meats will require upwards of three hours for digestion. 
Salt beef will demand twice the time. Veal, lamb, and young 
meat generally, is not so easy of digestion as the meat of ani- 
mals killed at maturer age. Pork in any form is less readily 
digested than other meats. 

Fowls, Poultry, Game, though generally regarded as 
light and digestible, are not always so in the cases of the invalid 
or convalescent; they are not wholly digested much under 
four or five hours. 

Fish, especially the white sorts, are easy of digestion, ac- 
cording as they are plainly cooked. Salted fish are more slowly 
digested fish, as also are those that are fat, such as salmon„ 
Much depends, however, upon the cooking, and of the adjuncts, 
the sauces, etc. 

Melted butter is usually taken with fish, but is better omit- 
ted when they are food of the invalid. Butter, when melted, 
or prepared in any way over fire, readily becomes altered in its 
composition, and yields various fatty acids, which are the 
sources of indigestion. This is more especially the case with 
pastry, such as short pie-crust, etc. For the delicate stomach, 
fish cannot be too plainly and simply cooked; under these 
circumstances they form a light and nutritious diet. 

Shell Fish, including under the term oysters, mussels, 
whelks, lobsters, crabs, are more or less difficult of digestion, 
and unsuitable for invalids. Oysters are, perhaps, the least 
open to the objection, but they require three or four hours' 
digestion, and are not the light nourishment usually supposed, 
unless very carefully cooked. Sweetbread and tripe are easy 
of digestion, as also are the brains of animals. Liver and 
kidneys are the reverse of digestible. 

Ripe Fruits and Vegetables are more easily digested 
than any of the preceding articles; but then, as they consist of 
a large proportion of water, they are not so nourishing as ani- 
mal substances. Vegetarians supplement the deficient nutri 
tive qualities of vegetables by a liberal allowance of animal 
matter in the shape of eggs and milk. 



MEDICINAL. 549 

CheesE) being almost entirely an albuminous substance, 
contains a very large amount of nutriment; but, from this ele- 
ment being combined with the fatty acids and some of the oily 
constituents of milk, it is not easily digested by weak stomachs 
when taken alone. It nevertheless is often useful in prompt- 
ing the digestion of other food, to which it sometimes acts 
after the manner of a ferment when taken in small quantities; 
for instance, after dinner. 

Sausage, when fresh, are not unwholesome, and they con- 
tain a large quantity of nourishment in a compact form. 

Alcoholic Stimulants. — The treatment of disease, and 
more particularly of convalescence, can scarcely be conducted 
without the adminstration of stimulants; but it is obvious that 
it should be accompanied with emphatic caution lest the use 
grow into the abuse thereof. An occasional dose may soon 
become the habitual dram, unless self-denial and self-control 
be exercised. 

We are not here called upon to follow in the wake of those 
who feel it their duty to expose the errors and weaknesses of 
their neighbors; suffice it that we admit that in all directions 
we see too free indulgence in alcoholic stimulation. There 
can be no two opinions upon that point. There is no amount 
of health or wealth that cannot or will not surely be destroyed 
by any one who determinedly gives himself up to drink. 

The medicinal uses of stimulants are most found in chronic 
disease, or in acute disease occuring in extremely debilitated 
states. It is greviously to be lamented that the medical recom- 
mendation of stimulants is not always sufficiently guarded and 
watched. There has been of late a fashion to regard and to 
teach that all disease proceeds from debility, and therefore that 
it must be treated with alcoholic stimulants. Allowing (which 
we do not) that such might be the case, yet the inference that 
alcohol is the remedy is by no means conclusive. A supply 
of wholesome nourishment with avoidance of the causes of 
disease, and bodily and mental rest, will be surer in their pres- 
ent effects and safer in future results. Few medical practi- 
tioners can pass many years, or even months, without meeting 
with the melancholy results of intemperance that began with 
the medicinal use of brandy and water, champagne, etc. The 
possibility is here referred to simply as a warning to those who, 
consulting these pages, may feel justified in advising the use of 
alcoholic stimulants as a means of combating disease, lest they 
forget to look also to the discontinuance of their use. As 
regards the dietic use of alcoholic stimulants, we have only a 
few words to add to the caution already given. 

Malt Liquors are, as a general rule, the most wholesome 
of alcoholic beverages. The alcohol is in them so combined 



650 MEDICINAL. 

with saccharine matter and tonic vegetable principles that it 
can only be separated by a distillation destructive of all other 
qualities. A small quantity of mild ale or porter, taken with 
dinner and supper, or luncheon and dinner, supports the • 
strength, and supplies wear and tear. 

Wines resemble malt liquors in that, when pure, the alcohol 
is in a state of chemical combination that can only be super- 
ceded by destructive distillation. They have not, however, so 
much solid matter suspended in them as malt liquors. They 
are, for this reason, better suited to persons of weak digestive 
powers. The dietic and the therapeutic uses of wines must 
depend upon their percentage of alcohol, and upon the devel- 
opment in them of certain acids and spirituous combinations 
termed ethers, which constitute what judges of wine call the 
"bouquet." The proportion of unfermented sugar also is a 
point to be considered in selecting wine for invalids. Thus, 
there are sweet and astringent wines, as there are red and white 
wines, and there are wines in which the fermentations of the 
sugar is checked, and the sparkling of effervescing wine is pro- 
duced. 

Effervescing wines, champagne and Moselle, are among 
the most valuable wines for medicinal purposes. The free 
carbonic acid they contain renders them very serviceable in 
sickness and vomiting, while the alcohol, being in some pecu- 
liar state of combination, is more volatile, acts as a more rapid 
stimulant, effects passing off more rapidly than those of other 
and stronger wines. 

Astringent wines, such as Burgundy, Hungarian, Bordeaux, 
etc., are less liable to ferment in the stomach. Port, Madeira, 
sherry, Marsala, are all stronger wines, and are said to be 
highly brandied, and therefore less wholesome for ordinary 
consumption; but they are (if moderately good) more useful ' 
for medicinal purposes than the lighter wines, which may be 
safer for daily use dietically. In this matter, however, as iu 
many others where eating and drinking are concerned, quantity 
is often a more important element in the question than quality. 
There is, moreover, so much in fashion that it is almost impos- 
sible to say which wines are best. Moderation is the golden 
rule. 

Spirits, the type of which may be taken to be brandy, are 
only of value as medicinal agents, and for these purposes they 
are sometimes invaluable — e. g., in low fevers, in some inflam- 
mations, and in state of debility, in sickness, and generally as 
indicated under the several headings of diseases in the pre- 
ceding pages. We have no hesitation in affirming that raw or 
diluted ravr spirits can never be advantageously used merely as 



MEDICINAL. 551 

ordinary beverages by those who can obtain wholesome malt 
liquor or wines. 

The habit of spirit-drinking (as grog every night) as prac- 
ticed by many "very respectable people" in the middle classes, 
is not one whit morally or physically better than the habits of 
the poor besotted creatures who swarm in and out of the Lon- 
don gin palaces. With the moral aspects of the habit it may 
be said that we are not concerned, but of the physical aspects 
we feel morally bound by a solemn responsibility to speak. 
From our own personal observations we would warn all whom it 
may concern, that the "night-cap," as it is miscalled, gradually 
generates disease of the brain, liver, kidneys, with all the horri- 
ble train of diseases— delirium, paralysis, dropsy, cum multis 



MEDICINAL. 



MEDICINES AND THEIR DOSES. 

Over and above the physical and psychological agencies 
which have been referred to in various parts of these remarks, 
we have now to advise with our readers on the pharmaceutical 
means of combating disease — means which are commonly 
regarded as the most direct and indispensible for the pur- 
pose of modifying or arresting morbid processes. That the 
swallowing of drugs, however, is not the whole therapeutics 
will have been seen throughout these pages; as, nevertheless, 
their judicious use allays suffering, shortens the course of 
disease, and promotes restoration to health, we have selected 
for notice some which we deem most useful, pointing out their 
most prominent properties, or most common uses. 

The appropriate doses are stated under three periods of 
life — viz.: infancy, childhood, adult age. The doses that are 
herein advised are quite within the limits of heroic treatment, 
and may be given with confidence as not unduly large. Where 
a blank is left, under the head of doses, it is implied that the 
medicine is not suited for young children. The frequency 
with which the dose is to be repeated mus be learnt from the 
instructions given under each disease. 

LIST OP MEDICINES.* 



Name. 


Property. 


Doses. 


Uses and Mode of Use. 




Infancy. 


Child- 
hood. 


Adult 
Age. 




Acetate of am- 
monia, soliiii- 
on of, orMin- 
flerorus spirit 

Aloes 

Aloes, clecccti- 
onof 


tDiuretic, 

iDiaphore- 

tic 

Purgative 
Ditto 


1 1 1 


2 drms 

2 to 5 
grains 

54 ounce 


li ouace 

5 to 10 

grains. 

1 ounce 


In febrile complaints, ca- 
tarrh, etc. 

As a purge for worms, 
or for immon costive- 
ness. 

Ditto. 



* In preparing or dispensing medicines, weights and measures should be need 
whenever practicable. They can be purchased of chemists. _ A graduated wineglass 
is a safe guide, as it is more definite than the use of spoons in administering modi- 
cines. At the same time it is advisable to procure a small glass measure for minims, 
or drops. It should be observed that the " minim " as measured is equal to two drops 
from the moutliB of many bottles. 

t Diuretic, acting on the kidney; Diaphoretic, promoting respiration. 



MEDICINAL 









Dosea. 






Name. 


Property. 








Uses and Mode of Use. 














Child- 


Adult 








Infancy. 


hood. 


Age. 




Alum 


Tonic and 


lto3 


3 to 5 


5 to 10 


In h;emorrhage,diarrhoea 




astringent 


grains 


grains 


grains 


whooping-cough. Dis- 
solved in water. 






















As a gargle. Ten grains 












to the ounce of water. 












As a lotion for the eyes. 












Two grains to the ounce 












of water. 


Ammonia, car- 


Stimulant 


1 grain 


2 grains 


5 grains 


In scarlet fever, dyspep- 


bonate of 










sia, in chronic cough. 
Dissolved in water. 


Ammonia, com- 


Stimulant 


5 drops 


10 to 20 


20 to 60 


In debility, spasms, hys- 
teria, fainting. Talien 


pound spirit 






drops 


drops 


of 










with cold water. 


Arsenical solu- 


Tonic 


— 




5 drops 


Skin diseases and neural- 


tion 










gia. To be taken in 
water with or after a 
meal. 


Bark, comp- 


Tonic 


10 to 15 


15 to 20 


20 to 60 


Debility, fevers, ague. 


ound tincture 
of 
Belladonna, ex- 




drops 


drops 


drops 


Taken in water. 


Sedative 











As an external applica- 


trrxt of 










tion. To be smeared 
on the painful part. 


Bicarbonate of 


Antacid 


3 to 5 


5 to 10 


10 to .% 


In dyspepsia. Die solved 


soda 




grains 


grains 


grains 


in water. 
Mixed with citric or tar- 
taric acid, forms effer- 
vescing draught. 


Bicarbonate of 

potash 
Bismuth, nitr- 


Ditto 


3 grains 


5 to 10 


20 grains 


Ditto. 


Tonic and 


1 to 3 


grains 
3 to 5 


5to8 


Diarrhffia, dyspepsia. 


ate of 


astrinc;ent 


grains 


grains 


grains 




Bitter sweet 


Tonic 


— 


— 


2 ounces 


Skin diseases. The stalks 


{dulcamara) 










boiled in water, viz.: 1 
ounce to a pint and a 
half boiled to 1 pint. 


Borax, powder- 








_ 


— 


Used for thrush; mixed 


ed 










with honey,and applied 
to the tongue, etc. 


Bromide of pot- 


Tonic and 


— 


5 grains 


15 to 80 


Epilepsy and other nerv- 


ass 


sedative 






grains 


ous affections. 
The dose requires to be 

gradually increased. 
Taken dissolved in water 


Calomel 


Purgative 
and absorb- 


Ig^ain 


2 grains 


3 to 5 


Inflammations, biliary 








grains. 


•disorderSjConstipation. 




ent 








May be give i as a iiowder 
or made up into pill. 


Camphor spirit 


Stimulant 





— 


— 


This medicine is used for 


or liniment 










externil application. 


Cantharides or 


Stimulant 





_ 


— 


For external application 


blistering li- 










only. 


quid or plas- 












ter 












Capsicum, tinc- 


_ 


_ 


— 


— 


Useful as an addition to 


ture 










gargles, in proportion 
of half a drachm to a 






















six 1 Qce gargle. 
For external application 


Carbolic acid 


Stimulant 


_ 


__ 


_• 




disinfect- 








as lotions; and in car- 




ant 








bolic acid soap for skin 

diseases. 


Castor oil 


Purgative 


1 drachm 


2 drachm 


4 drms to 
1 ounce 




Catecha tinc- 


Astringent 


— 


20 min- 


:% to 00 


Diarrhoea — with chalk 


ture 






ima 


minims 


mistoie. 



MEDICINAL. 









Doses. 






TTftTTlfi* 


Property. 








Uses and Mode of TJae. 






Child- 


Adult 






Infancy. 


hood. 


Age. 




Chalk 


Astringent 


5 grains 


5 grains 


10 to 30 


Diarrhoea. Made into 




and ant- 






grains 


mixture with sugar 




acid 








water. 


Chloral hy- 


Narcotic 


— 


2 to 5 


10 to 30 


Whooping-cough, sleep- 


drate 






grains 


grains 


lessness, spasmodic 
disease. This medi- 
cine has more effect in 
producing sleep than 
in relieving pain. Dis- 
solve in water. This 
medicine should be 
given with great cau- 
tion. 


Chlorate of po- 


Sedative 


1 to 3 


3to5 


5 to 10 


In ulceration of the 


tass 




grains 


grains 


grains 


month. Dissolved in 
water. 


Chloric ether 


Stimulant, 


— 


5 drops 


10 to 30 


In painful and spasmod- 




antispaa- 
modic 






drops 


ic diseases. Taken with 










water. 


Ci:i.Ic acid 


— 


— 


— 


30 grains 


To form effervescing 
draughts with 20 grains 
of bicarbonate of soda 






















or potash, each dissol- 
ved in a separate wine 






















glass of water. 


Citrate of iron 


Tonic 


8 grains 


3 grains 


5 grains 


Debility. Dissolved in 

water. 
In debility and wasting 


Cod liver oil 


Tonic and 


V^dram 


!4 dram 


Vi to 1 




nutritive 






drachm 


diseases. 
Taken in orange wine or 
some other simple fluid 
directly after meals. 


ColchicDin 


Purgative 





_ 


15 to 30 


Kheumatism and gout. 


wine 


and diu- 
retic 






drops 




Confection of 


Aperient 


— 


— 


— 


In piles or constipation. 


senna (leni- 










A teaspoonful for a 


tive electu- 
ary) 
Creosote 










dose. 


Astringent 


_ 


Idrop 


2 to 5 


Vomiting or diarrhoea. 










drops 


In water. 




Stimulant 


— 


— 


— 


As a stimulant lotion 
mixed with water. 


Dandelion {tar- 


Aperient 


— 





1 drachm 


In bilious disorders. 


axacum), ex- 










Mixed with water, or 


tract of 










the roots boiled In 
water. 


Dover's pow- 


Narcotic, 


— 


2 grains 


5 to 10 


In catarrh, diarrhoea. 


der 


sedative, 
diapho- 
retic 






grains 


rheumatism. 
As this medicine con- 
tains opium, it should 
not be given to infants. 


Epsom salts 


Aperient 


VtAtam 


2drms 


2 to 8 
drachms 
or 1 oz 


In cold water. 












Ether 


Stimulant 


— 


10 drops 


30 to 40 


In hysteria, spasms. 




antispas- 






drops 


fainting. Taken In 




modic 








water. 


Friar's balsam 


Stimulant 


— 


— 


10 to 30 
drops 


For chronic coughs. Ta- 
ken in gum water. 




Stypic 


*- 


-~ 


— 


Useful for cuts, applied 
on lint or rag. 


Gallic and tan- 


Astringent 


— 


Sgrmine 


5 grains 


In htemorrhages. Mate 


ic acids 










into pills, or mixed 










1 with gum water. 


Gentian, tlnc- 
taieof 


Tonic 


— 


— 


1 drachm I Debility and dyspepsia. 










In water. 



MEDICINAL. 



Name. 



Goulard's ex- 
tract and lo 
tion, {extract 
of lead) 

Grey powder 
(mercut-y and 
chalk] 

Giiaiacunijtinc 
ture of 

Hemlock ex- 
tract of 

Henbaae, ex^ 

tract of 
Iodide of po 

tass 

Iodine, tinc- 
ture of 



Iodide of iron, 

syrup of 
Ipecacuanha 

wine 



Ipecacuanha 
powder 

Iron, muriated 
tincture of 

Iron or steel 

wine 
Jalap powder 



pow- 



James's 

der 
Laudanum 

{tincture of 

opium) 
Lead, acetate 



Magnesia, car- 
bonate of 



Manna 
Matico 



Mercurial pill 
{"blue pilt") 

Mercury and 
chalk [see 

Grey powder] 

Morphia, mu 
riate or ace- 
tate 



Property. 



Aperient 



Stimulant 
and tonic 
Sedative 



Sedative 

Absorbent 
and tonic 

Absorbent 

and 
stimulant 



Tonic 
Emetic 



Expecto- 
rant 
Emetic 



Tonic 

Tonic 

Purgative 

Diaphore- 
tic 
Narcotic 

Astringent 



Aperient 

and 

antacid 

Aperient 

Astringent 
and styptic 



Aperient 



Narcotic 



Doses. 



Infancy. 



1 grain 



1 grain 



1 drachm 

3 drops 

2 drops 
Ya dram 

1 grain 



2 to 5 

grains 

Ya dram 



Child- 
hood. 



2 grains 



2 grains 



2 grains 



l^ dram 
1 drachm 



3 to 5 
drops 



5 drops 

1 drachm 
5 grains 
2 grains 



1 grain 
5 grains 
1 drachm 



Adult 
Age. 



5 grains 



1 drachm 
5 grains 



3 to 5 
grains 
5 to 10 
grains 



1 drachm 
1 drachm 



5 to 15 

drops 

20 to 30 



; to 30 
drops 



10 to 30 

fains 
to 5 
grains 
10 to 40 
drops 

2 grains 
^dram 



3 to 6 

grains 



MtoJ^ 
grain 



Uses and Mode of Use. 



One drachm added to a 
pint of rain water, or 
distilled water, form- 
ing a good cooling lo- 
tion. 

In sugar or treacle. 



In chronic rheumatism. 
Taken in milk,or water. 

In spasmodic and neu- 
ralgiac or other painful 
complaints; as pills. 

As a pill. 

In chronic rheumatism 
and glandular disease. 
Dissolved in water. 

For external application 
in glandular or other 
chronic enlargments. 
Apply with a feather or 
brush. 

In strumous disorders 
or debility. 

When given as emetic, 
the dose should be re- 
peated every five or 
ten minutes until the 
vomiting begins. 

For coughs and colds. 

In warm water, followed 
by copious draughts of 
water to promote vomit 

In water, to which sugar 
is added in the case of 
children. 



In catarrh and simple 

fever. 
For pains, spasms, or 

cramps ; in water. 

In haemorrhages. As a 
pftl, made up with 
moist bread crumbs. 

Dyspepsia and costive- 
ness. 

Mixed with food of an 

infant 
Applied on lint or wool, 

if in form of tincture. 

or the dry leaf applied 

on a cat. 



Only for severe pain. Not 
to be given to infants 
or young children. 



MEDICINAL. 







Doses. 






^ftm6. 


Property. 






Uses and Mode of Use. 






Child- 


Adult 






Infancy. 


hood. 


Age. 




Muriatic acid 


Tonic 





15 drops 


20 drops 


In debility, indigestion, 


{diluted, 1 










diarrhoea. In two or 


part to 10 of 










three tablespoon! uls of 


water.) 










water. 




Astringent 






~ 


As a gargle for sore 
throat. One part to 
twenty of water. 


Nitre powder 


Diuretic 


1 grain 


2 grains 


5 to 10 
grains 


In febrile disorders and 
dropsies. 




Stimulant 


— 


— 


1 drachm 


As a gargle, dissolved in 
six ounces of water. 


Nitre (sweet 


Diuretic 


— 


10 to 20 


30 to 60 


Catarrh and febrile com- 


spirit of nit- 






drops 


drops 


plaints. 


roxis etlier) 












Nitric acid (dt- 


Tonic 


— 


5 drops 


15 drops 


Debility, sore throat, etc. 


luted with 10 










Same as muriatic acid. 


parts of 












water) 
Opodeldoc 












— 


— 


— 


_ 


For external application. 


{siap lini- 
ment) 
Opium 












Narcotic 








Vi to 1 gr 


Pn painful disorders; for 












sickness and diarrhoea. 


Oxide of zinc 


Tonic and 
stimulant 




~ 


— 


Most commonly used in 
ointment, or dusted on 
the surface. 


Oxymel of 


Diuretic, 


— 


Vi dram 


1 drachm 


For coufrhs. Mixed with 


squills. 


expecto- 
rant 








paregoric or ipecacu- 
anha wine. 


Paregoric 


Sedative 





10 drops 


20 to 60 


Catarrhs and coughs 




diapho- 






drops 


alone, or as above in 




retic 








water. 


Potash, aoln- 


Absorbent 


5 drops 


10 drops 


10 to 20 


Dyspepsia and chronic 


tion of 


and ant- 
acid 






drops 


glandular enlargements 
Taken in water. 


Quinine 


Tonic 


M grain 


1 grain 


2 to 5 


Debilitv, ague— in water, 
or made into pills. 










grains 


Rhubarb pow- 


Aperient 


1 grain 


2 to 5 


5 to 20 




der 






grains 


grains 




Ditto, tincture 


— 


— 


2 drms 


2 drs to 




Salvolatile, 
spirits of (see 








1 oz. 














Ammonia) 












Santonia 


Purgative 


3 grains 


3 to 5 





Three doses should bo 




for worms 




grains 




given on alternate 
mornings, in milk or 
water. 


Senna,infusion 


Aperient 


2drmB 


Vi ounce 


1 ounce 


Infusion made by pour- 


of 










ing hot water on the 
leaves, and let stand 
until cold. 


Sulphuric acid 


Tonic 


— 


5 drops 


15 drops 


In debility and dyspep- 


(diluted with 










sia. 


10 parts of 
water) 














Astringent 




5 drops 


15 drops 


Haemorrhage, diarrhoea, 
cholera, night sweats. 
Taken with a wineglass 
of water. 


Tartar emetic 


Diaphore- 


— 





M to M 


In febrile and inflamma- 




tic,depresB- 






grain 


tory disorders. Dissol- 
ved in water. Used also 




ing 


















in form of ointment. 


Turpentine, 


Purgative 


— 


— 


1 to 2 


For tape-worm. Taken 


Bplrits cf 


stimulant 






drachms 


fasting in the morning 
in milk or water. 













MEDICINAL 



Kame. 


Property. 


Doses. 


Uses and Mode of Use. 


Infancy. 


Child- 
hood. 


Adult 
Age. 


Zinc, Bulphate 
of 


Astringent 

Stimulant 

Tonic, as- 
tringent 
Emetic 


- 


54 grain 


5 to 20 
drops 

M to i/j 

grain 

20 grains 


Hiemorrhage. Taken in 
water. 

For external use as lini- 
ment or stupes. 

In chorea and other ner- 
vous affections. 

In cases of poisoning. 
Dissolved in water. 



ARTICLES SUITABLE FOR A MEDICINE CHEST 



Acetate of ammonia, or 

Mindererus spirit. 
Acetate of lead. 
Adhesive plaster. 
Aloes. 
Alum. 

Bark.compound tincture of 
Basilicon ointment. 
Bicarbonate of soda. 
Blistering plaster,or liquid. 
Borax. 
Calomel. 

Carbonate of ammonia. 
Carded wool. 

Carded oakum. "Stypinm." 
Castor oil. 
Catechu, tincture of 
Chalk, prepared. 
Cod liver oil. 

Compound colocynth pills. 
Compound rhubarb pills. 



Creasote. 

Diluted sulphuric acid. 

Dover's powder. 

Epsom salts. 

Ether. 

Forceps of different sizes. 

Glass measures. 

Grey powder, or mercury 

with chalk. 
Iodide of potassium. 
Iodine, tincture of. 
Ipecacuanha powder. 
Ipecacuanha wine, 
iron, muriated tincture of 
Jalap. 

James's powder. 
Laudanum. 
Linseed meal. 
Lint. 

Lunar caustic. 
Magnesia. 



Mortars and pestles. 

Nitre, powdered. 

Nitre, spirits of. 

Oil silk, or gntta percha 

tissue. 
Opodeldoc. 
Oxide of zinc. 
Paregoric. 

Peppermint, essence of. 
Quinine. 
Kubarb powder. 
Scales and weights. 
Scissors. 
Senna leaves. 
Spatulas. 
Tartaric acid. 
Tincture of benzoin, or 

Friar's balsam. 
Turpentine, spirits of. 
Zinc, sulphate of. 
Zinc, oxide of. 



HOUSEHOLD 



The Kitchen, — One of the finest house-keepers in the United 
States says: "If scrimping must be done, scrimp parlor and 
sitting-room, but have the kitchen and bedrooms as comfort- 
able as possible." Another writer observes: "The kitchen is 
to the house what the stomach is to the body, and should be 
the most spacious, best lighted, and best ventilated apartment 
in the house." This remark, however, is aimed mainly at city 
homes, where the kitchen is too often a mere little basement 
cellar, badly lighted and illy supplied with pure air, from which 
it is no wonder that the servants are continually rising to the 
upper regions to "give warning." In the country the average 
kitchen is far more decent, but still the erring house-keeper, 
anxious to " have things like other people," is prone to pinch 
the poor kitchen in order to furnish the parlor in gim-cracks. 

This is all wrong. If one's house were intended for enter- 
tainment and continual festivity, then it would be well to place 
its parlor and dining-room first and foremost; but in a farm 
house, where the house-mother's work lies mainly in the kitchen 
and dairy, and where are needed all the aids and conveniences 
for making this work pleasant as well as profitable, it is simply 
silly to deny one's self valuable and useful every-day things for 
the sake of what-nots, upholstered chairs and Nottingham-lace 
curtains, that must necessarily be shut up, and of no benefit to 
anybody nine-tenths oi" the year. 

The room should he. of good size, with windows on oppo- 
site sides, as they thus give a peculiarly cheerful light. The 
ceiling and walls should be whitened or calcimined in some 



054 HOUSEHOLD. 

cheerful tint, and the woodwork oiled and varnished. For the 
floor — if it is even and of decent quality of lumber — nothing is 
better than two or three coats of oil, put on one after the other 
as fast as absorbed. Such a floor needs no scrubbing, a weekly 
mopping with plenty of warmish water, being sufficient to keep 
it clean. Comfortable litde rugs should be placed before the 
sink and the ironing table, and, if this room must do duty as a 
dining-room, there should be, in winter, a large square of car- 
peting under the dining-table. A neat screen, made by tacking 
chintz or furniture calico upon a light wooden frame, about five 
feet high and six feet wide, might be placed between the table 
and the cook-stove, not only to temper the heat, but to shut off 
the not always attractive view of saucepans, spiders, and ket- 
tles used in the dinner-getting. 

The sink should be capacious, lined with zinc, provided 
with drain-pipes, and flanked by pumps connected with cistern 
and well. Underneath may be a cupboard for pots and kettles, 
and above it a row of pegs on which to hang a dishcloth holder, 
a stiff brush for cleaning vegetables, a little mop for wash- 
ing bottles and narrow-necked pitchers and jars, the lamp 
scissors, and such small articles as are in daily use in this 
department of the kitchen. Two small shelves should be 
placed at either end for soap dishes. A large, conveniently 
arranged sink goes a great way in making kitchen work easy, 

A good-sized, substantial table of white-wood or pine is 
needed for ironing and baking days. It should have three 
drawers — a large one for ironing sheets, shirt-board and holders, 
and two smaller ones for baking-tins, spoons and knives used 
in cooking, and boxes of spices, salt, etc. Having once used 
such a table, no housekeeper will like to be without it. Above 
this table can be fastened a hanging rack for ironed clothes. 
These are much more convenient than the sort which stand on 
the floor, and when not in use can be folded back against the 
wall, entirely out of the way. 

For washing days are needed a long bench two and a half 
feet wide, and of the right height, two or three tubs, a wringer, 
and, for heavy clothes, a washer. The latter, which costs $5 
or $6, can be fitted to any tub, and ought to be an indispen- 
sable article. It is to washing-day what a reaping-machine ia 



HOUSEHOLD. 555 

to an eigkty-acre wheat field; and no farmer should neglect to 
provide one for his kitchen, unless he is willing to settle down 
to his harvesting with merely the sickle and the " cradle " of his 
forefathers! These items come under the head of kitchen 
furniture, but are, of course, kept in the cellar, or in a closet 
opening from the kitchen. 

Along with a first-class cooking-stove, for it is not economy 
to have a poor one, should be selected the following quite nec- 
essary articles: Wash-boiler, tea-kettle, soup-pot, frying-kettle, 
spider, two or three granitized saucepans of different sizes, four 
bread-tins, two gem irons, coffee and tea-pots, large and small 
iron spoons, wire steak-broiler, wire toaster, steamer, pudding 
mold, patty pans, potato masher, skimmer, cream whipper, gravy 
strainer, egg-beater, half a dozen cake and pie tins, large and 
small graters, a dozen muffin rings, or a muffin pan, which is 
more convenient than the rings, a colander, a quart measure, 
and a griddle. No doubt other items will readily suggest 
themselves, but these, at any rate, are essential, if good house- 
keeping is the object. A proper and convenient place to keep 
them is a large, deep-shelved cupboard, with close doors, in 
which the common crockery and glass can also be kept. 

The best arrangement is to have cupboard room for all 
table and cooking ware, and keep food and provision stores in 
a cool, well ventilated closet, that can be effectually closed to 
dust and flies. 

Let the farmer provide a large, pleasant kitchen and interest 
himself in its conveniences for work — being as enthusiastic in 
furnishing labor-saving machines for this department of farming 
as for his outside fields — and he will find that he makes an 
investment that pays an hundred fold. Let the farmer's wife 
make the kitchen a bright and sweet-aired realm, and be proud 
to be its intelligent and efficient queen. Let her beautify her 
work as much as possible, and lift it above the dull, discourag- 
ing slough of drudgery. With conveniences for work, and a 
cheerful, comfortable place to work in, the women are few who 
will not make their homes '^the dearest spot on earth " to all 
who dwell within them. 

The Dining'-rooin. — Although there are many country 
kitchens so shining and orderly and clean aired that it is a 



556 HOUSEHOLD. 

pleasure to break bread in them, there are many others which, 
owing to a large family and a pressure of work, cannot always 
be nice and orderly at meal times; so it is well, if it can be 
afforded, to have a small cheerful room opening from the kitchen, 
easily warmed in winter, and from which heat and flies can be 
excluded in summer, where meals can be eaten in the healthful 
serenity and comfort which is almost as essential as the food 
itself. What can be more refreshing to the laborer than to 
enter from the blistering glare of a harvest day into a cool, softly 
lighted room, in which the fragrance of fresVily gathered flowers, 
or the aroma of leafy boughs, mingles its poetry with the cheer- 
ful prose of the beef and vegetables? And how pleasant and 
restful it is for his helpmate to lay aside her kitchen cares and 
kitchen apron together, and come smiling and tidy to her little 
throne behind the tea-service. 

Such a room requires very little furniture. The walls should 
be of neat and quiet tint, with two or three pleasing pictures 
and some brackets for pots of ferns, or such vines as will grow 
prettily in the shade during the hot summer weather. In 
winter a few petunias and two or three foliage plants will_fill the 
sunny windows with brightness and bloom. There should be 
a long, substantial table, with plenty of elbow room for all, and a 
side-board or cupboard for table-crockery. A small table will 
be found a convenience — if there is no side-board — for holding 
such dishes as are used toward the end of a meal at dinner 
time, when the varieties of food have a tendency to crowd each 
other. The window curtains may be plain shades of color 
suited to the walls of the room. Nothing can be better for the 
floor in summer time than an oiled surface, like that of the 
kitchen, which can be"' made comfortable to the feet in winter 
by a large " crumb-cloth " of drugget or home-made carpeting. 

In more opulent farm homes, where the wife has liberty to 
devote more time and means to house decoration and furnish- 
ing, very handsome dining-rooms can be achieved with a 
moderate outlay. There should be high walls, a fire place, and 
a fine large window looking to the south or east. All the rest 
is in the hands of the mistress. If the floor has been laid in 
light and dark woods, well and good. It will be a thing of 
beauty through more than one life time and always look genu- 



HOUSEHOLD. 557 

ine and substantial, as everything about a dining-room should. 
If, however, the floor is of pine, it may be stained in blocks or 
stripes, in a bordering two feet in width, covered with two 
coats of the best varnish, and the centre adorned with three or 
more breadths of pretty carpeting. 

Have a carpenter constiuct a side-board of simple but sub- 
stantial form, faced with oak or maple, or else made of the best 
pine. Glue artificial wood carvings of fruits in the centre of 
the top, and upon each door and drawer, and finish the whole 
with oil and varnish. 

The table may also be home-made, and large and solid, with 
rounded corners, and substantial turned legs with casters. If 
not of real oak, the legs should be nicely stained to imitate it. 
If colored table-linen is used, it should be buff and white, with 
green borders, or buff and green in any neat, small patterns. 
These cloths, however, are generally covered with plain white 
ones at meal time. 

Above this table there should be a handsome hanging lamp 
or small chandelier, with perhaps a little basket of Kennelworth 
ivy, or other gracefully growing vine, suspended from it. Such 
a light glorifes the plainest tea table. 

As for chairs, there are a great many ways for achieving 
handsome ones without paying five dollars apiece for them at 
furniture shops. If a dozen oak chairs without seats can be 
obtained ''in the rough" at the factory, they can be transformed 
into something pretty and substantial at small cost. Thev 
should first be oiled and varnished. Then with some stout 
sacking or canvas, some rich, dark cretonne, some gimp and 
furniture tacks, and either hair or wool for stuffing the seats — 
being careful to fasten the canvas securely in place and to cut 
the cretonne to fit neatly — even the cheap "splint-bottoms" 
which cost much less than oak, can be made into handsome 
chairs by painting the wood-work black, ornamenting it with 
gilt and scarlet lines, and varnishing — the seats to be uphol- 
stered in cretonne, striped linen, or common chintz. 

The Parlor. — If means are small, and best room furniture 
seems to be among the things never to be obtained, let not the 
whole house be made dismal because of it; but rejoice that 
there is a kitchen, that there are comfortable bedrooms, and 



658 HOUSEHOLD. 

that there is a bit of Heaven in the form of a flower garden 
under the windows ! 

Even if one have but a small room to devote to this pur- 
pose, it can be made very pleasing, and has the advantage of 
requiring less furniture. A fire-place, with a mirror above it 
and a large wide-ledged window opposite, make the room 
already half-fitted up. The ceiling calcimined with the palest 
blue, and the walls with a tint two shades deeper, will have 
the effect to make the room appear more spacious, A border 
of dark and light blue, or of bluish-green and gold, should be 
used on such walls. The wood-work should be stained walnut 
color and varnished. The most suitable carpet would be 
an ingrain in small figures of blue and gray, with perhaps a 
bit of yellow or a bit of rose-colored scattered through it. 
Plain blue or gray lambrequins should be used for the win- 
dows, trimmed with fringe of the same color. For the cur- 
tains beneath them, sheer Swiss muslin is always pretty and 
graceful. Sometimes they are made with a knife plaiting or a 
fluted ruffle down the inner edges and across the bottom; but 
they look well when finished with simple hems, and are much 
easier laundried. 

The fire place should be treated after the manner described 
in a previous chapter, and will be found the most effective 
feature in the room, especially if furnished with a good sized 
mirror, which will reflect back all the light and beauty of the 
apartment, and, like the cool color on the walls and ceiling, 
enhance its size. All those tasteful but restricted house-keep- 
ers who are anxious to have really attractive parlors, should 
aim for simply these three things — a large, wide-silled win- 
dow, a fire-place, and a generous-sized mirror to place above 
it — letting curtains and carpet and chairs come about as they 
can; or using for a while plain shades for the windows, and a 
neat matting for the floor. Adding two or three pictures, a 
few books, some growing vines, and an easy chair to such a 
room, it is already cosy and hospitable in its aspect. In this 
room, as in all others, one should avoid a cluttered, crowded 
appearance. Do not afilict the wall with a general outbreak 
of small pictures, brackets, and fancy articles, as if a notion 
Store were being fitted up. It is better to distribute such 



. HOUSEHOLD. 559 

things throughout the house, that each room may have its two 
or three touches of graceful fancy. 

For a table obtain something in a round or oval shape. It 
may be of pine or whitewood, but must be strong and sub- 
stantial. Paint the legs black and varnish them. The top 
can be covered with a blue or gray cloth, embroidered about 
the edges, if one has time, with silk or white zephyr wool. 
Above the table suspend a pretty hanging lamp with shade. 

Sometimes old chairs can be purchased at an auction, or 
dragged out of a garret, and transformed into beautiful things, 
with paint and varnish, decalcomania-gildings, and stuffed 
seats of rep or cretonne. These, with a light willow rocker, 
or a camp-chair and a handsome foot-stool or two, will com- 
fortably complete the furnishing. 

Remarks. — The dining or breakfast-room should be cool, 
light, and airy, with not much more than the indispensable 
furniture. 

In summer, the floor covered with a staw-matting or an 
oil-cloth; in winter, with a dark, warm-looking carpet. 

A sideboard, or narrow tables, at the side or end of the 
room, for the convenience of dessert and changes of dishes; 
or else have dumb waiters (which are stands supporting large 
trays). 

Most modern houses are built with sliding closets; when 
the dining room is above the kitchen, this is almost indispensa- 
ble; or the waiters' pantry — between the dining room and 
kitchen — has an open communication with it, that the dishes 
may be passed to and fro from the cook, without the delay and 
awkwardness of opening and shutting the doors; or, when 
there are no servants in attendance, it is convenient to have 
the dessert arranged on a tray, covered with a white napkin, 
and placed on a stand or small table at the left hand of the 
mistress or head of the table, and one on the other hand for 
receiving empty plates, etc. 

For Breakfast. — Have a white cloth, with the folds regu- 
lar and perceptible; let each dish be polished with a soft nap- 
kin, as it is placed upon the table, otherwise there is apt to be 
a dimness from having been put together before they were 
perfectly dried; and, further, to remove the traces of the neces- 



560 HOUSEHOLD. 

sary handling, in putting them to their places and returning 
them to the table. 

The plates may be put in a pile at the left hand of the 
carver or at regular intervals around the table. A vast diffcr- 
ance may be made in the appearance and neatness of the 
table, by the manner in which the knives and forks, and 
spoons, and other paraphernalia, are placed. 

The coffee-urn or pot should have on its brightest face 
and all the recommendative warmth of its nature — ready for a 
free outpouring; the cream or boiled milk should not lack 
heat, and, not to "waste its sweetness" on the unappreciating 
air, should be contained in a covered pitcher of tin or other 
metal; the sugar-basin, whether the same as the other dishes, 
or of metal, should be bright and covered, with a large-sized 
tea or sugar-spoon beside it; the cups and saucers may be 
placed in heaps of three, within the circle of the sugar, slop, 
and cream vessels. Let the urn or coffee-pot be set at the 
right hand side of the person who serves it; and, if tea is used, 
let it be placed on the same side in a line with it; the one to 
be least called for, to stand at the outer corner of the tray — 
which may be placed at the middle of the broadside of the 
table, or at one end. 

Before putting the dishes on it, the tray should be covered 
with a white napkin, fringed at the ends. Small napkins or 
doyles, folded in four and ironed very smoothly, may be laid 
at each plate; which should be reversed, or turned the bottom 
side up, and the knife and fork at the right side, or the knife 
at the side and a silver fork in front of the plate. Since so it 
is, that many Americans dislike the use of a' silver fork — find- 
ing it exceedingly clumsy and awkward — it is best to place the 
one belonging to the knife with it, at the side of the plate, 
leaving it optional which to make use of. 

Let the cruet-stand or castor occupy the centre of the 
table. If there are more than five or six persons, have two 
small plates of butter, one at either end of the table, and 
opposite each other. Let there be two plates of bread or rolls, 
or one of either of these, and the other place for hot griddle- 
cakes, or corn-bread, or toast. 

Opposite the tray or head of the table, let the steak, or fry, 



HOUSEHOLD. 561 

(or whatever principal dish,) be placed, with the carving-knife 
and fork before it, and dishes of hominy, or boiled rice, or 
mashed potatoes, and boiled eggs, or hash, opposite each other, 
and the plates of bread between the steak dish and tray, 
having one of the plates of butter between each two, and the 
castor in the centre; also one or two salt stands filled with fine 
salt, and neatly marked with a teaspoon or otherwise, and a 
salt-spoon across each, and may be placed diagonally opposite 
each other. These, with a pitcher of ice-water and several 
tumblers, occupying the corners of the table on either side of 
the carver, complete the breakfast-table. 

If there is a servant or waiter in attendance, let such 
stand at the left hand of the mistress, or head of the table, 
with a small tray, and pass the cups to and from her, presenting 
it at the left hand. 

The Dinner Table. — Without a perfect knowledge of the 
art of carving, it is impossible to perform the honors of the 
table with propriety; and nothing can be more disagreeable 
to one of a sensitive disposition, than to behold a person, at 
the head of a well-furnished board, hacking the finest joints, 
and giving them the appearance of jiaving been gnawed by 
dogs. 

It also merits attention in an economical point of view; a 
bad carver will mangle joints so as not to be able to fill half a 
dozen plates from a sirloin of beef, or a large tongue; which, 
besides creating a great difference in the daily consumption of 
families, often occasions disgust in delicate persons, causing 
them to loathe the provisions, however good, which are set 
before them. One cannot, therefore, too strongly urge the 
study of this useful branch of domestic economy. 



562 



HOUSEHOLD. 



Carving. — An ox is divided by the butcher into the follow- 
ing joints, London style: 



1. Sirloin. 

2. Top, or aitch-bone. 

3. Rump. 

4. Buttock, or round. 

5. Mouse buttock. 

6. Veiny piece. 




13. Shoulder, or leg-of- 
mutton piece. 

14. Brisket. 15. Clod. 

16. Sticking. 

17. Shin. 

18. Cheeks, or Head. 



^ Fish is cut with a silver fish-slice, or the more modern large 





MIDDLE-CUT OF SALMON. 



HOUSEHOLD. 



563 



silver-fish knife and fork. Large flat fish, as turbot, brill, John 
Dorey, etc., must first be cut from head to tail down the mid- 
dle, and then in portions across to the fin, which, being con- 
sidered a delicacy, is helped with the rest. (See cut.) 

Salmon is cut in slices down the middle of the upper side, 
as from A to B, and then in slices across D to C, and a little 
of the " thick," or upper side, and " thin," or under side, are 
put on each plate. 

A mackerel divides between four people; the fish-knife is 
passed between the upper and under side from head to tail, 
and each side is halved to help. A cod is cut cross-ways, like 




COD FISH. 



salmon, from C to B, and in down slices as from A to B, and a 
small piece of the sound is sent with each helping. Small fish, 
as smelts, are sent whole, one on each plate, as are whiting. 

Fried soles are cut across right through the bone. The 
" shoulder " or head end, should be first helped. 

A sirloin of beef is cut across for the under-cut, and 
lengthways for the upper. You should ask your guest if he or 




SIBLOIN OP BEEF. 



she prefers the under-cut, which is by some considered the 
most delicate part of the beef, and is disliked by others. 
Slices from the under cut should be thick. 

Rolled ribs and a round of beef are easily carved in hori» 



564 



HOUSEHOLD. 



zontal slices over the whole surface. The slices should be 
"^ry thin. 

Boiled beef should also be cut in thin horizontal slices the 




AITCH-BONE. 



size of the joint itself in length and breadth. (See cut.) 

Mutton appears on the table in four forms — the saddle, the 

leg, the shoulder, the loin. 

The saddle is the joint ordered for a large dinner party. It 

is cut in very thin slices close to the backbone; B to A and 




SADDLE OP MUTTON. 



then downwards from A to D and C; but a lady is scarcely 
ever required in the present day to carve a saddle of mutton. 
A shoulder must lie with the knuckle towards your right, 
and the blade-bone towards your left hand. 




SHOULDER OF MUTTON. 



SHOULDER OP MUTTON. 



In the middle of the edge of the part farthest from you 



HOUSEHOLD. 



665 



place the fork, and then give one sharp cut from the edge to 
the bone. The meat flies apart, and you cut rather thick slices 
on each side of the opening A to E till you can cut no more. 

You will then find two or three slices from the centre bone 
to the end B to C. Afterwards the joint must be turned over, 
and slices cut from the under side. 

Some people, instead of cutting the joint in this manner, 
begin with slices cut lengthways near the middle of the joint 
from the end to the knuckle, and it is the better way. 

A leg of mutton must be placed with the knuckle towards 
your left hand; you then cut into the side farthest from you 




LEG OF MUTTON. 



•wwards the bone B to C, helping thin slices from the right and 
thick slices towards the knuckle. The little tuft of fat near 
the thick is a delicacy, and must be divided among your guests. 

A loin of mutton is carved either through the joints, which 
brings it into the form of " chops," or it is cut lengthways, in a 
parallel line with the joints. The latter is the best mode for a 
lady, but a loin is rather for family consumption than for guests. 

A fore-quarter of lamb consists of a shoulder, the breast, 
and the ribs, and, alas! when the carver has to dissect it! If a 
lady is obliged to carve this joint, she must first place her knife 
upon the shoulder, draw it through horizontally, [and then 
A. 




FORE-QUARTER OF LAMB. 



remove the joint whole, placing it on a separate dish, which is 
held for its reception. She must then cut off the breast and 



666 



HOUSEHOLD. 



separate the ribs (see cut); but the cook should always cut off 
the shoulder, and leave it on the joint. 

The hind-quarter consists of a leg and loin. 

A fillet of veal is cut in horizontal slices like a round of 




FILLET OF VEAIi. 



beef; they must not be too thin. The stuffing in the centre is 
taken out and helped with a spoon. 




BREAST OP VEAL. 



In a breast of veal the ribs should be first separated from 
the brisket, after whicb, either or both may be sent round. 

A calf's head must be cut down the centre in rather thin 
slices on each side. The meat round the eye is scocpsd Qnt; 




HALF OP calf's BEAD. 



it is considered a delicacy. A small piece of Che palate and 
accompanying sweetbread must be sent on each plate. 

Roast pork is never seen at dinner parties, bwt is occasion* 
ally served at a family dinner. 



HOUSEHOLD. 



567 



The leg is carved like a leg of mutton, but the slices should 
be thicker and not so large. 

A ham may be cut in three ways — ist. By beginning at the 
knuckle, which must be turned towards your left hand and cut 




in a slanting direction; or at the thick end, which is then 
turned towards your left; or in the ordinary manner, like a leg 
of mutton, beginning in the centre. 

The slices must be as thin and delicate as you can possibly 

cut them. One slice is given as accompaniment to fowl or veal. 

A rabbit has the legs and shoulders removed with a sharp- 




BOILED RABBIT. 



pointed knife, then the back is broken into three or four pieces 
at the joints. 

Hare is thus carved: First, takeoff the legs. Cut two long 
thin slices off each side of the back B to A; then take off the 
shoulders, and break the back [into four pieces with the fork. 
Cut off the ears, insert the point of the knife exactly in the 




centre of the palate, and drawing it to the pose, split the head 



568 



HOUSEHOLD, 



in two. But when only a small portion of the hare is eaten, 
and it is only served at second course, it is more elegant for a 
lady to help a portion of the side with a spoon, as we have 
often seen done. 

The best parts of a hare are the slices from the back, the 
head, and ears. But ladies never eat the two latter. They 
should be sent to any gentleman guest who is known to be an 
epicure. 

A chicken is carved thus: Take off the wings, cut slices 
from the breast, take off the merrythought and side bones. 
The liver wing is the best part of the chicken after the breast; 





BOAST FOWL. 



BOILED TURKEY. 



but you should help the breast first, then both wings. If you 
have many to help, manage to reserve a slice of white meat to 
send with the legs and sides. 

A partridge is carved like a fowl; so is a pheasant. 

A pigeon is cut in halves right down the middle, and half is 
sent at once to the guest. 

A snipe is treated in the same way. 

Very small birds are sent whole. 

A turkey and goose are helped by cutting slices off the 
breast, and then the wings and legs are taken off. Wild duck 
is helped in the same manner. 




HAUNCH OF VENISON. 



A haunch of venison should be cut from A to B close to 
the knuckle. (See cut first.) Then from C to A. 

Coffee is sent to the gentlemen in the dining-room. Tea 



HOUSEHOLD. 569 

only -is handed after dinner, when the gentlemen have left the 
dinner-table. 

A few hints are prefixed on the etiquette of the dinner-table, 
which will be found useful. In that, however, much must be 
left to a quick and observant eye, and a determination to ren- 
der yourself as agreeable as possible. 

As Host. — The important day on which you feast your 
friends being arrived, you will be duly prepared to receive the 
first detachment. It were almost needless to observe that the 
brief interval before dinner is announced may be easily filled 
up by the common-place inquiries after health, and observa- 
tions on the weather; as the company increases, provided they 
were previously acquainted, you will find your labors in keep- 
ing up the conversation very agreeably diminished. 

While your guests are awaiting the announcement of din- 
ner, it will be expedient that you should intimate to the 
gentlemen of the party, as unobtrusively as possible, which 
lady you wish each to take in charge, that, when the moment 
arrives for your adjournment to the dining-room, there may not 
be half a dozen claimants for the honor of escorting la plus 
belle of the party, while some plain demoiselle is under the 
painful necessity of escorting herself. Such a scene as this 
should be carefully provided against by the mode above 
suggested. 

When dinner is announced, you will rise and request your 
friends to proceed to the dining-room, yourself leading the 
way, in company with your most distinguished female visitor, 
followed immediately by the hostess, accompanied by the 
gentleman who has the best claim to such an honor. The 
remainder of the guests then follow, each gentleman accom- 
panied by the lady previously pointed out to him. 

Arrived at the dining-room, you will request the lady whom 
you conducted, to take her seat on your right hand; then, 
standing behind your chair, you will direct your visitors to 
their respective seats. 

Having taken your seat, you will now dispatch soup to each 
of your guests, from the pile of plates placed on your right 
hand, without questioning any whether you shall help them or 
not; but, dealing it out silently, you will first help the person 



670 HOUSEHOLD. 

at your right h«fid, then at your left, and so throughout the 
table. You will not ask to be allowed to help your guests, but 
supply a plate in silence, and hand it to your servants, who will 
offer it to such of the company as are unprovided. Never 
offer soup or fish a second time. 

If a dish be on the table, some parts of which are preferred 
to others, according to the taste of the individuals, all should 
have the opportunity of choice. You will simply ask each 
one if he has any preference for a particular part; if he replies 
in the negative, you are not to repeat the question, nor insist 
that he must have a preference. Do not attempt to eulogize 
your dishes, or apologize that you cannot recommend them, — 
this is extremely bad taste; as is also the vaunting of the excel- 
lence of your wines, etc., etc. Do not insist upon your guests 
partaking of particular dishes. Do not ask persons more than 
once, and never force a supply upon their plates. It is ill-bred, 
though common, to press any one to eat; and, moreover, it is 
a great annoyance to be crammed like turkeys Neither send 
away your plate, nor relinquish your knife and fork, till your 
guests have finished. 

Soup being removed, the gentleman who supports the lady 
of the house on the right, should request the honor of taking 
wine with her. This movement will be the signal for the rest. 
Should he neglect to do this, you must challenge some lady. 
Until the cloth be removed, you must not drink wine 
except with another. If you are asked to take wine, it is a 
breach of etiquette to refuse. In performing this ceremony, 
(which is very agreeable if the wine be good,) you catch the 
person's eye and bow politely. It is not necessary to say any- 
thing. 

If you have children, never introduce them after dinner, 
unless particularly asked for, and then avoid it if possible. 

Never make any observations to your servants at dinner, 
other than to request them to provide you with what you require, 
or take away that which may be removed. 

With the dessert, you will have a small plate, two wine- 
glasses, and doyles, placed before each guest. If fresh fruit 
be on the table, as pears, apples, nectarines, etc., a knife Avith a 
ilver or silver-plated blade should be placed by the side of 



HOUSEHOLD. 571 

each plate; a steel blade, in addition to being discolored by 
the juice, imparts an unpleasant flavor to the fruit. 

As Guest. — To dine out, it is usually understood that you 
must be invited. There are^ however, some gentlemen who 
have attained to that high degree of refinement which enables 
them to dispense with such a stupid ceremony. They drop in 
as dinner is being served up, when it is impossible that the 
party on whom they intrude can do other than to request them 
to stay and dine, though we suspect he has a much stronger 
inclination to kick the unwelcome guest into the street. We 
would recommend you to eschew such practices; but when 
invited, return ati answer in plain terms, accepting or declining. 
If you accept, be there at the appointed time. It is inconven- 
ient, on many accounts, to yourself and your friends, to be 
either too late or too early. You will probably have to wait a 
little time before dinner is announced. During this short 
period, render yourself as agreeable as possible to the assembled 
company. 

Your host will doubtless point out to you the lady he wishes 
you to escort to the dining room. You will be in readiness to 
attend upon her the moment you are summoned to adjourn. 
Offer her your right arm, and follow in order. Should you 
have to pass down stairs, you will give the lady the wall. You 
will take your seat at the table on the right hand of the lady 
you conducted. Being seated, soup will be handed round. 
When offered, take it; but if you prefer fish, pass it on to your 
neighbor. You must not ask for soup or fish a second time; it 
will not be offered — you would not be so rude or selfish as to 
keep the company waiting for the second course, that you may 
have the pleasure of demolishing a double portion of fish. 

Fish must be eaten with a silver fork, as the acid in the 
sauce, acting on the steel of an ordinary fork, gives an unpleas- 
ant flavor to the dish. For this reason, also, a knife should 
not be used in eating fish. 

If asked whether you have a preference for any dish, or any 
particular part of a dish, answer plainly and distinctly as you 
wish. 

Pay as much attention to your companion on your left, as 
politeness requires, but do not be unnecessarily ofticious. 
99 



572 HOUSEHOLD. 

People do not like to be stared at when eating. When you are 
helped to anything, do not wait until the rest of the company 
are provided. This is very common in the country, but shows 
a want of good breeding. 

Do not allow your plate to be overloaded with a multifar- 
ious assortment of Vegetables, but rather confine yourself to 
one kind. When you take another sort of meat, or a dish not 
properly a vegetable, you must change your plate. 

If you have the honor of sitting on the right hand of the 
hostess, you will, immediately on the removal of soup, request 
the honor of taking wine with her. 

Finally, to do all these things well, and to be au fait at a 
dinner party, be perfectly at your ease. To be at ease is a 
great step towards enjoying your own dinner, and making your- 
self agreeable to the company. Fancy yourself at home; per- 
forming all the ceremonies without any apparent effort. For 
the rest, observation and your own judgment will be the best 
guide, and render you perfect in the etiquette of the dinner 
table. 

Condiments and Beverages.-Condiments are simply season- 
ing or flav ring agents, and, though hardly coming under the 
head of food, yet have an important part to play. As food by 
their use is rendered more tempting, a larger amount is con- 
sumed, and thus a delicate or uncertain appetite is often aided. 
In some cases they have the power of correcting the injurious 
character of some foods. 

Salt stands foremost. Vinegar, lemon juice, and pickles owe 
their value to acidity; while mustard, pepper, black and red, 
ginger, curry-powder, and horseradish, all depend chiefly upon 
pungency. Under the head of aromatic condiments are ranged 
cinnamon, nutmegs, cloves, allspice, mint, thyme, fennel, sage, 
parsley, vanilla, leeks, onions, shallots, garlic, and others, all of 
them entering into the composition of various sauces in general 
use. 

Salt is the one thing indispensable. The old Dutch law 
condemned criminals to a diet of unsalted food, the effects be- 
ing said to be those of the severest physical torture. Years ago 
an experiment tried near Paris demonstrated the necessity of 
its use. A number of cattle were fed without the ration of 



HOUSEHOLD. 573 

salt; an equal number received it regularly. At the end of a 
specified time, the unsalted animals were found rough of coat, 
the hair falling off in spots, the eyes wild and the flesh hardly 
half the amount of those naturally fed. 

A class of extreme Grahamities in this country decry the 
use of salt, as well as any form of animal food; and I may add 
that the expression of their thought, in both written and spoken 
speech, is as savorless as their diet. 

Salt exists, as we have already found, in the blood; the 
craving for it is a universal instinct, even buffaloes making 
long journeys across the plains to the salt-licks, and its use 
not only gives character to insipid food, but increases the flow 
of the gastric juice. 

Black pepper, if used profusely, as is often done in Ameri- 
can cooking, becomes an irritant, and produces indigestion. 
Red pepper, or cayenne, on the contrary, is a useful stimulant 
at times; but, as with mustard, any overuse irritates the lining 
of the stomach. 

So with spices and sweet herbs. There should be only 
such use of them as will flavor well, delicately, and almost im- 
perceptibly. No one flavor should predominate, and only a 
sense of general savoriness rule. Extracts, as of vanilla, lemon, 
bitter almond, etc., should be used with the greatest care, and 
if possible always, be added to an article after it cools, as the 
heat wastes the strength. Tea is valuable chiefly for its warm- 
ing and comforting qualities. Taken in moderation, it acts 
partly as a sedative, partly as a stimulant, arresting the de- 
struction of tissue, and seeming to invigorate the whole nervous 
system. The water in it, even if impure, is made wholesome 
by boiling, and the milk and sugar give a certain amount of 
real nourishment. Nervous headaches are often cured by it, 
and it has, like coffee, been used as an antidote in opium-pois- 
oning. 

Pass beyond the point of moderation, and it becomes an 
irritant, precisely in the same way that an overdose of mor- 
phine will, instead of putting to sleep, for just so much longer 
time prevent any sleep at all. The woman who cannot eat, 
and who braces her nerves with a cup of green-tea, — the most 
powerful form of the herb, — is doing a deeper wrong than she 



674 HOUSEHOLD. 

may be able to believe. The immediate effect is delightful. 
Lightness, exhilaration, and sense of energy are all there; but 
the reaction comes surely, and only a stronger dose next time 
accomplishes the end desired. Nervous headaches, hysteria 
in its thousand forms, palpitations, and the long train of ner- 
vous symptoms, own inordinate tea and coffee drinking as 
their parent. Taken in reasonable amounts, tea can not be 
said to be hurtful; and the medium qualities, carefully pre- 
pared, often make a more wholesome tea than that of the high- 
est price, the harmful properties being strongest in the best. 
If the water is soft, it should be used as soon as boiled, boiling 
causing all the gases Avhich give flavor to water to escape. In 
hard water, boiling softens it. In all cases the water must be 
fresh, and poured boiling upon the proper portion of tea, the 
teapot having first been well scalded with boiling water. Never 
boil any tea but English breakfast tea; for all others, simple 
steeping gives the drink in perfection. 

The most valuable property of coffee is its power of reliev- 
ing the sensation of hunger and fatigue. To the soldier on 
active service, nothing can take its place; and in our own 
army it became the custom often, not only to drink the 
infusion, but, if on a hard march, to eat the grounds also. In 
all cases it diminishes the waste of tissue. In hot weather it is 
too heating and stimulating, acting powerfully upon the liver, 
and, by producing over-activity of that organ, bringing about 
a general disturbance. 

So many adulterations are found in ground coffee that it 
is safest for the real coffee-lover to buy the bean whole. 
Roasting is usually more perfectly done at the grocers', in 
their rotary roasters, which give every grain its turn; but, by 
care and constant stirring, it can be accomplished at home. 
Too much boiling dissipates the delicious aroma we all know; 
and the best methods are considered to be those which allow 
no boiling, after boiling water has been poured upon it, but 
merely a standing to infuse and settle. The old fashion, how- 
ever, of mixing with an egg, and boiling a few minutes, makes 
a coffee hardly inferior in flavor. In fact, the methods are 
many, but results, under given conditions, much the same; 
and we may choose urn or old-fashioned tin pot, or a French 



HOUSEHOLD. 575 

biggin, with the certainty that good coffee, well roasted, boiling 
water, and good judgment as to time, will give always a 
delicious drink. Make a note of the fact that long boiling 
sets free tannic acid, powerful enough to literally tan the 
coats of the stomach, and bring on incurable dyspepsia. 
Often coffee without milk can be taken, where, with milk, it 
proves harmful; but, in all cases, moderation must rule. Taken 
too strong, palpitation of the heart, vertigo, and fainting are the 
usual consequences. 

In chocolate — a preparation of cocoa — the cocoa is carefully 
dried and roasted, and then ground to a smooth paste, the nuts 
being placed on a hot iron plate, and so keeping the oily 
matter to aid in forming a paste. Sugar and flavorings, as 
vanilla, are often added, and the whole 'pressed into cakes. 
The whole substance of the nut being used, it is exceedingly 
nutritious, and made more so by the milk and sugar added. 
Eaten with bread, it forms not only a nourishing but a hearty 
meal; and so condensed is its form, that a small cake carried 
in traveling, and eaten with a cracker or two, will give tempor- 
arily the effect of a full meal. 

Alcohol is last upon our list, and scientific men are still 
uncertain whether or not it can in any degree be considered as 
a food; but we have not room for the various arguments for 
and against. You all know, in part, at least, the effects of 
intemperance; and even the moderate daily drinker suffers 
from clouded mind, irritable nerves, and ruined digestion. 

This is not meant as an argument for total abstinence; but 
there are cases where such abstinence is the only rule. In an 
inherited tendency to drink, there is no other safe road; but 
to the man or woman who lives by law, and whose body is in 
the best condition, wine in its many forms is a permissible 
occasional luxury, and so with beer and cider 'i.nd the wider 
range of domestic drinks. In old age its use is? almost essen- 
tial, but always in moderation, individual temperament modi- 
fying every rule, and making the best knowledge an imperative 
need. A little alcoholic drink increases a delicate appetite; a 
great deal diminishes or takes it away entirely, and also hin- 
ders, and, in many cases, stops, digestion altogether. In its 
constant over-use the membranes of the stomach are gradually 



57G HOUSEHOLD. 

destroyed, and every organ in the body suffers. In ales and 
beers there is not only alcohol, but much nitrogeneous and 
sugary matter, very fattening in its nature. A light beer, well 
flavored with hops, is an aid to digestion, but taken in excess 
produces biliousness. The long list of alcoholic products it is 
not necessary to give, nor is it possible to enter into much 
detail regarding alcohol itself. 

Soyer's Cafe au Lait.— One cup of best coffee, freshly 
roasted, but unground, two cups of boiling water, one quart of 
boiling milk. Put the coffee in a clean, dry kettle, or tin jDail; 
fit on a close top, and set in a sauce-pan of boiling water. 
Shake it every few minutes, without opening it, until you judge 
that the coffee grains must be heated through. If, on lifting 
the cover, you find that the contents of the inner vessel are 
very hot and smoking, pour over them the boiling water 
directly from the tea-kettle. Cover the inner vessel closely, 
and set on the side of the range, where it will keep very hot, 
without boiling, for twenty minutes. Then add the boiling 
milk; let all stand together for five minutes more, and strain 
through thin muslin into the coffee urn. Use loaf sugars for 
sweetening. 

Vienna Coffee. — With very little extra trouble morning cof- 
fee can be greotly improved. Beat the white of an egg to a 
stiff froth, mix with an equal quantity of whipped cream, and 
use in coffee instead of cream* put in cream first, then coffee, 
and lastly this mixture. 

Good New England Coffee. — For a family of six, take six 
large tablespoonfuls of best Java coffee, well browned and 
ground (not too fine), beat into it half an egg and one cup of 
cold water. After it is thoroughly beaten, let it stand half an 
hour well covered. Then put into coffee-pot, pour on two and 
a half quarts of boiling water and put on the stove; stir once 
or twice at first, to prevent burning. Let it scald fifteen or 
twenty minutes. If desired to be very nice, beat up eight 
instead of six tablespoonfuls of coffee; put six in the pot to 
boil for twenty minutes, and about five minutes before it is 
done, throw in the rest and cover quickly. 

Cream and Milk for Coffee. — Sweet, rich cream, well beaten 
to free from lumps, is best for coffee, but boiling fresh milk is 



HOUSEHOLD. 677 

a good substitute. The white of an egg, thoroughly beaten 
and added (California coffee) to thin cream or rich milk, is also 
very fine. 

Tea. — Tea is made variously as the taste of people require. 
Black, green, Japan, and English breakfast, all require differ- 
ent methods. For green or Japan tea, scald the tea-pot and 
allow from one-half to one teaspoonful for each person, as the 
strength of the herb may indicate. Pour over this one-half a 
cup of boiling water, steep in a hot place (but do not let it boil) 
ten minutes, then turn in water at a keen boil, in proportion 
one quart to every three persons. 

English Breakfast, or Oolong. — Take two teaspoonfuls for 
three persons, and proceed as above, only letting the tea boil 
for ten minutes. 

An English gentleman, whose tea was quite famous, put it 
to steep in cold water, as soon as the one o'clock dinner was 
over, and left it steeping until supper time, when it was brought 
to a boil. Others put it on to steep when the fire is made for 
supper, and let it stand until the meal is announced; served 
boiling hot. 

Iced Tea. — To each glass of tea add the juice of half a 
lemon; fill up the glass with pounded ice, and sweeten. 

Chocolate. — Four heaping tablespoonfuls grated chocolate, 
one of sugar, and wet with one of boiling water; rub this 
smooth. Then stir into one pint of boiling water; then add 
one pint of boiling milk. Let this boil three minutes, it is 
greatly improved by milling, while boiling, with a Dover egg- 
beater. If desired sweet, add to the boiling milk one heaping 
teaspoonful of sugar. 

A dainty addition is two tablespoonfuls of whipped cream, 
that has been sweetened and flavored with vanilla, laid on the 
top of each cup. 

Stock and Seasoning.— The preparation called stock is, for 
some inscrutable reason, a stumbling-block to average cooks, 
and even by experienced housekeepers is often looked upon as 
troublesome and expensive. Where large amounts of fresh 
meat are used in its preparation, the latter adjective might be 
appropriate; but stock in reality is the only mode by which 



o78 HOUSEHOLD. 

every scrap of bone or meal, whether cooked or uncooked, can 
be made to yield the last particle of nourishment contained in 
it. Properly prepared and strained into a stone jar, it will 
keep a week, and is useful in the making of hashes and gravies 
as in soup itself. 

The first essential is a tightly-covered kettle, either tinned 
iron or porcelain lined, holding not less than two gallons ; three 
being a preferable size. Whether cooked or uncooked meat is 
used, it should be cut into small bits, and all bones broken or 
sawn into short pieces, that the marrow may be easily ex- 
tracted. 

To every pound of meat and bone allow one quart of cold 
water, one even teaspoonful of salt, and half a saltspoonful of 
pepper. Let the meat stand till the water is slightly colored 
with its juice; then put upon the fire, and let it come slowly to 
a boil, skimming off every particle of scum as it rises. The 
least neglect of this point will give a broth in which bits of 
dark slime float about, unpleasant to sight and taste. A cup 
of cold water, thrown in as the kettle boils, will make the scum 
rise more freely. Let it boil steadily, but very slowly, allow- 
ing an hour to each pound of meat. The water will boil away, 
leaving, at the end of the time specified, 'not more than half of 
one-third the original amount. In winter this will become a 
firm jelly, which can be used by simply melting it, thus obtain- 
ing a strong, clear broth; or can be diluted with an equal 
quantity of water, and vegetables added for a vegetable soup 

The meat used in stock, if boiled the full length of time 
given, has parted with all its juices, and is therefore useless as 
food. If wanted for hashes or croquettes, the portion needed 
should be taken out as soon as tender, and a pint of the stock 
with it, to use as gravy. Strain, when done, into a stone pot 
or crock kept for that purpose, and, when cold, remove the 
cake of fat which will rise to the top. This fat, melted and 
strained, serves for many purposes better than lard. If the 
stock is to be kept for several days, leave the fat on till ready 
to use it. 

Fresh and cooked meat may be used together, and all re- 
mains of poultry or game, and trimmings of chops and gteaka, 
may be added, mutton being the only meat which caa not at 



HOUSEHOLD. 579 

well be used in combination; though even this, by trimming off 
all the fat, may also be added. If it is intended to keep the 
stock for some days, no vegetables should be added, as vegeta- 
ble juices ferment very easily. For clear soups they must be 
cooked with the meat; and directions will be given under that 
head for amounts and seasonings. 

The secret of a savory soup lies in many flavors, none of 
which are allowed to predominate; and, minutely as rules for 
such flavoring may be given, only careful and frequent tasting 
will insure success. Every vegetable, spice, and sweet herb, 
curry-powders, catchups, sauces, dried or fresh lemon peel, can 
be used; and the simple stock, by the addition of these various 
ingredients, becomes the myriad number of soups to be found 
in the pages of great cooking manuals like Gouffee's or Fran- 
catelli's. 

Brown Soups are made by frying the meat or game used in 
them till thoroughly brown on all sides, and using dark spices 
or sauces in their seasoning. 

White Soups are made with light meats, and often with the 
addition of milk or cream. 

Purees are merely thick soups strained carefully before 
serving, and made usually of some vegetable which thickens in 
boiling, as beans, peas, &c., though there are several forms of 
fish purees in which the foundation is thickened milk, to which 
the fish il added, and the whole then rubbed through a com- 
mon sieve, if a regular puree sieve is not to be had. 

Browned flour is often used for coloring, but does not 
thicken a lioup, as, in browning, the starchy portion has been 
destroyed; and it will not therefore mix, but settles at the bot- 
tom. Burned sugar or caramel makes a better coloring, and 
also adds flavor. With clear soups grated cheese is often served, 
either Parmesan or any rich cheese being used. Onions give a 
better flavor if they are fried in a little butter or dripping be- 
fore using, and many professional cooks fry all soup vegetables 
lightly. Cabbage and potatoes should be parboiled in a sepa- 
rate water before adding to a soup. In using wine or catchup, 
add only at the last moment, as boiling dissipates the flavor. 
Unless a thick vegetable soup is desired, always strain into tha 
tureen. Rice, sago, macaroni, or any cereal may be used ai 



580 HOUSEHOLD. 

thickening; the amounts required being found under the dif- 
ferent headings. Careful skimming, long boiling, and as care- 
ful removing of fat, will secure a broth especially desirable as 
a food for children and the old, but almost equally so for any 
age; while many fragments, otherwise entirely useless, discover 
themselves as savory and nutritious parts of the day's supply 
of food. 

RECIPES. 

Soups. — Beef Soup with Vegetables. — For this very ex- 
cellent soup take two quarts of stock prepared before hand, as 
already directed. If the stock is a jelly, as will usually be the 
case in winter, an amount sufficient to fill a quart measure can 
be diluted with a pint of water, and will then be rich enough. 
Add to this one small carrot, a turnip, a small parsnip, and two 
onions; all chopped fine; a cupful of chopped cabbage; two 
tablespoonfuls 01 barley or rice; and either six fresh tomatoes 
sliced, or a small can of sealed ones. Boil gently at least one 
hour: then add one saltspoonful each of pepper, curry powder 
and clove. If the stock has been salted properly, no more will 
be needed; but tasting is essential to secure just the right fla- 
vors. Boil a few minutes longer, and serve without straining. 

This is an especially savory and hearty soup, and the com- 
binations of vegetables may be varied indefinitely. A cup of 
chopped celery is an exceedingly nice addition, or, if this is not 
to be had, a teaspoonful of celery salt, or a saltspoon^l of cel- 
ery seed. A lemon may also be sliced thin, and added at the 
last. When tomatoes are used, a little sugar is always an im- 
provement; in this case an even tablespoonful being sufficient. 
If a thicker broth is desired, one heaped tablespoonful of corn- 
starch or flour may be first dissolved in a little cold water; then 
a cup of the hot broth gradually mixed with it, and the whole 
added to the soup and boiled for five minutes. 

Perfect Mock Turtle Soup. — Endeavor to have the 
head and the broth ready for the soup, the day before it is to 
be eaten. It will take eight hours to prepare it properly. 

Hours. 

Cleaning and Boaking the bead.. .1 

To parboil it to cut up... ,.1 

Cooling, nearly .....1 

Making-the broth aad flnJBhing tba aoay , .d 

*5 



HOUSEHOLD. 581 

Get a calf's head with the skin on (the fresher the better); 
take out the brains, wash the head several times in cold water, 
let it soak for about an hour in spring water, then lay it in a 
stewpan, and cover it wich cold water, and half a gallon over; 
as it becomes warm, a great deal of scum will rise, which must 
be immediately removed; let it boil gently for one hour, take it 
up, and, when almost cold, cut the head into pieces about an 
inch and a half by an inch and a quarter, and the tongue into 
mouthfuls; or rather make a side dish of the tongue and brains. 

When the head is taken out, put in the stock meat (about 
five pounds of knuckle of veal), and as much beef; add to the 
stock all the trimmings and bones of the head; skim it well, 
and then cover it close and let it boil five hours (reserve a 
couple of quarts of this to make gravy sauces); then strain it 
off and let it stand till the next morning; then take off the fat, 
set a large stewpan on the fire with half a pound of good fresh 
butter, twelve ounces of onions sliced, and four ounces of green 
sage; chop it a little; let these fry an hour; then rub in half 
a pound of flour, and by degrees add] your broth till it is the 
thickness of cream; season it with a quarter of an ounce of 
ground allspice, and half an ounce of black pepper ground very 
fine, salt to your taste, and the rind of one lemon peeled very 
thin; let it simmer very gently for an hour and a half, then 
strain it through a hair sieve; do not rub your soup to get it 
through the sieve, or it will make it grouty; if it does not run 
through easily, knock your wooden spoon against the side of 
your sieve; put it in a clean stewpan with the head, and season 
it by adding to each gallon of soup two tablespoonfuls of 
Tarragon vinegar, and two tablespoonfuls of lemon juice; let 
it simmer gently till the meat is tender; this may take from half 
an hour to an hour; take care it is not overdone; stir it 
frequently to prevent the meat sticking to the bottom of the 
stewpan, and when the meat is quite tender the soup is ready. 

A head weighing twenty pounds, and ten pounds of stock 
meat, will make ten quarts of excellent soup, besides the two 
quarts of stock you have put by for made dishes. 

Observations. — If there is more meat on the head than 
you wish to put in the soup, prepare it for a pie, with the addi- 
tion of a calf's foot boiled tender; it will xoake an CTc e l lcnt 



582 HOUSEHOLD. 

ragout pie; season it with zest and a little minced onion, put 
in half a teacupful of stock, cover it with puif paste, and bake 
it one hour; when the soup comes from table, if there is a deal 
of meat and no soup, put it into a pie dish, season it a little, 
and add some little stock to it; then cover it with paste, bake 
it one hour, and you have a good mock-turtle pie. 

To Season the Soup. — To each gallon put four table- 
spoonfuls of lemon juice, two of mushroom catsup, and one 
teaspoonful of mace, a teaspoonful of curry powder, or a quar- 
ter of a drachm of cayenne, and the peel of a lemon pared as 
thin as possible; let it simmer for five minutes more, take out 
the lemon peel, add the yolks of four hard boiled eggs, and 
the soup is ready for the tureen. 

While the soup is doing, prepare for each tureen a dozen 
and a half of mock-turtle forcemeat balls, and put them into 
the tureen. Brain balls, or cakes, are a very elegant addition, 
and are made by boiling the brains for ten minutes, then put- 
ting them in cold water and cutting them into pieces about as 
big as a large nutmeg; take savory or lemon thyme dried and 
finely powdered nutmeg grated, and pepper and salt, and 
pound them all together; beat up an egg, dip the brains in it, 
and then roll them in this mixture, and make as much of it 
as possible stick to them; dip them in the egg again, and then 
in finely grated and sifted bread crumbs; fry them in hot fat, 
and send them up as a side-dish. 

A veal sweet-bread, not too much done or it will break, cut 
into pieces the same size as you cut the calf's head, and put in 
the soup just to get warm before it goes to the table, is a superb 
** bonne bouche" and pickled tongue, stewed till very tender, 
and cut into mouthfuls, is a favorite addition. We order the 
meat to be cut into mouthfuls that it may be eaten with a spoon; 
the knife and fork have no business in a soup plate. 

N. B. — In helping this soup, the distributer of it should 
serve out the meat, forcemeat and gravy in equal parts; how- 
ever trifling and needless this remark may appear, the writer 
has often suffered from the want of such a hint being given to 
the soup-server, who has sometimes sent a plate of more gravy 
without meat, at others, of meai; without gravy, and sometimes 
scarcely anything but forcemeat balls. 



HOUSEHOLD. 683 

Observations. — ^This is a delicious soup within the reach 
of those who " eat to live;" but if it had been composed 
expressly for those who only " live to eat," I do not know how 
it could have been more agreeable; as it is, the lover of good 
eating will " wish his throat a mile long, and every inch of 
k a palate." 

Summer or Winter Corn Soup. — Boil a leg of mutton 
•r shank of beef in six quarts of water for four hours. 
After the meat and fat have been removed (it is better to stand 
over one day to cool, so that the grease may all be taken off), 
add a quart or more of sweet corn nicely cut from the cob, and 
boil twenty or thirty minutes. In cutting the corn (with a sharp 
knife) take off only the point of the kernels, and scrape the 
milk or pulp, thus avoiding the hull or skin, which is indigesti- 
ble and unpalatable. Just before serving, add to the soup a 
coffee-cup of cream, with two tablespoonfuls of flour stirred 
smoothly in and boil for a minute. This can be made in win- 
ter by using the Yarmouth canned com or the dried corn soaked 
over night, and boiled till tender. 

Corn Soup. — Cut the grains from twelve ears of sweet 
corn and scrape the milk; add one pint of water. Let it boil 
until quite done — thirty to forty minutes— then add two quarts 
of new milk, and when it boils stir in one-quarter pound of 
butter rubbed into two tablespoonfuls of flour, pepper and salt- 
Beat the yolks of two eggs in the tureen and pour the soup in 
boiling, stirring all the time. 

Turkey Soup. — Place the rack of a cold turkey and what 
remains of dressing or gravy in a pot, and cover with cold 
water. Simmer gently three or four hours, and let it stand 
until the next day. Take off what fat may have risen, and 
take out with a skimmer all the bits of bones. ' Put the soup on 
to heat till boiling, then thicken slightly with flour wet up in 
water, and season to the taste. Pick off all the turkey from 
the bones, put them in the soup, boil up and serve. 

Calf's Head Soup. — Take the head, pluck and feet. Put 
them into a pot with cold water. Be careful to skim well when 
it boils. Chop a dozen small onions and let them all boil 
together until the meat cleaves from the bones. Then strain 



584 HOUSEHOLD. 

it. After putting the liquor into the pot again, add tliyme, 
cloves, salt, pepper and cayenne to your taste. But all the 
meat from the head and feet, half the liver and lights, the 
whole of the heart and tongue; put all into the pot and boil 
about three-quarters of an hour. Before it is done take half a 
pound of butter with as much flour as will make into balls; 
stir until dissolved. Then add two tablespoonfuls of tar- 
ragon vinegar, four hard boiled eggs cut in slices, and a 
lemon to improve the flavor. This will make two gallons, 
and may be kept several weeks, to be used as occasion 
requires. 

Tomato Soup. — One quart ot water, eight good-sized ripe 
tomatoes cut up; boil twenty minutes and add one half tea- 
spoonful of soda; then boil and add one pint or more of milk, 
and season as you do oysters. 

Black Bean Soup. — One quart of black beans, soaked 
over night in four quarts of water, one pound of beef, half 
pound of salt pork. Grate one large or two small carrots, and 
slice one large onion, and add to the beans and the water in 
which they were soaked. Boil all together for three or four 
hours, then strain through a colander. When in the tureen add 
one tablespoonful of mushroom sauce, one sliced lemon and 
one sliced or chopped boiled egg. 

Pea Soup. — Soak one quart of peas (split, if you can get 
them) over night; next morning early put them over the fire 
with one pound of corned beef or pork (beef is the best to my 
taste, however), and let them boil hard for three hours. Then 
add a chopped carrot and turnip, and an onion, if liked, a tea- 
spoonful of celery seed or a handful of celery tops, and boil 
another hour or more; then strain through a sieve, season with 
pepper, and cut up two thin slices of toasted bread in the shape 
of small dice; put in the tureen, turn on your soup and serve. 
A cup of milk boiled in it for twenty minutes is an improve- 
ment. Small, white beans can be substituted for peas and made 
in the same manner. 

Oyster Soup. — For four cans of oysters, have twelve crack- 
ers rolled fine, two quarts of boiling water, one pint of good 
rich milk. Let the milk and water come to a boil, add the 
crackers, salt and pepper, boil one minute briskly; pour in'the 



HOUSEHOLD. 585 

oysters and let all come to a scald; add about a quarter of a 
pound of butter as they are poured into a tureen. 

Oyster Soup, No. 2. — To one quart of oysters add one 
quart of water: pour the water on the oysters and stir them; 
take them out one at a time, so that no small particle of shell 
may adhere to them; strain the liquor through a sieve and put 
it in a stew-pan over the fire, with two or three blades of mace, 
and season with red pepper and salt to taste; when this boils 
put in your oysters, add a teaspoonful of flour rubbed to a 
paste with one ounce of butter; let them scald again, then add 
one half pint of cream and serve hot. 

Fish. — The most essential point in choosing fish is their, 
freshness, and this is determined as follows: If the gills are 
red, the eyes prominent and full, and the whole fish stiff, they 
are good; but if the eyes are sunken, the gills pale and the flesh 
flabby, they are stale and unwholesome, and, though often 
eaten in this condition, lack all the fine flavor of a freshly- 
caught fish. 

The fish being chosen, the greatest care is necessary in 
cleaning. If this is properly done, one washing will be suffici- 
ent; the custom of allowing fresh fish to lie in water after 
cleaning destroys much of their flavor. 

Fresh-water fish, especially the cat-fish, have often a muddy 
taste and smell. To get rid of this, soak in water strongly 
salted; say a cupful of salt to a gallon of water, letting it heat 
gradually in this, and boiling it for one minute ; then drying it 
thoroughly before cooking. 

All fish for boiling should be put into cold water, with the 
exception of salmon, which loses its color unless put into boil- 
ing water. A tablespoonful each of salt and vinegar to every 
two quarts of water improves the flavor of all boiled fish, and 
also makes the flesh firmer. Allow ten minutes to the pound 
after the fish begins to boil, and test with a knitting needle or 
sharp skewer. If it runs in easily, the flesh can be taken off. 
If a fish-kettle with strainer is used, the fish can be lifted out 
without danger of breaking. If not, it should be thoroughly 
dredged with flour, and served in a cloth kept for the purpose. 
In all cases drain it perfectly, and send to table on a folded 
napkin laid upon the platter. 



580 HOUSEHOLD. 

In frying, fish should, Hke all fried articles, be immersed in 
the hot lard or drippings. Small fish can be fried whole; 
larger ones boned, and cut in small pieces. If they are egged 
and crumbed, the egg will form a covering, hardening at once, 
and absolutely impervious to fat. 

Pan-fish, as they are called — flounders and small fish gen- 
erally — can also be fried by rolling in Indian meal or flour, and 
browning in the fat of salt pork. 

Baking and broiling preserve the flavor most thoroughly. 

Cold boiled fish can always be used, either by spicing as in 
the rule to be given, or by warming again in a little butter and 
water. Cold fried or boiled fish can be put in a pan, and set 
in the oven till hot; this requiring not over ten minutes; a 
longer time giving a strong oily taste, which spoils it. Plain 
boiled or mashed potatoes are always served with fish where 
used as a dinner course. If fish is boiled whole, do not cut off 
either tail or head. The tail can be skewered in the mouth if 
liked; or a large fish may be boiled in the shape of a letter S 
by threading a trussing-needle, fastening a string around the 
head, then passing the needle through the middle of the body, 
drawing the string tight, and fastening it around the tail. 

To Fry or Broil Fish Properly. — After the fish is well 
cleansed; lay it on a folded towel and dry out all the water. 
When well wiped and dry, roll it in wheat flour, rolled crackers, 
grated stale bread, or Indian meal, whichever may be preferred; 
wheat flour will generally be liked. 

Have a thick-bottomed frying-pan or spider with plenty of 
sweet lard salted (a tablespoonful of salt to each pound of 
lard), for fresh fish which have not been previously salted; let 
it become boiling hot, then lay the fish in and let it fry gently, 
until one side is a delicate brown, then turn the other; when 
both are done take it up carefully and serve quickly, and keep 
it covered with a tin cover, and set the dish where it will 
keep hot. 

To Broil. — Have a clean gridiron, and a clear but not 
fierce fire of coals; rub the bars with a bit of beef suet, that 
the fish may not stick; fish must be broiled gently and 
thoroughly. There are few things more offensive than undone 
fish. 



HOUSEHOLD. 587 

For the broil, have ready a dish with a good Lit of butter 
in which is worked a little salt and pepper, enough for the 
fish. Lay the fish upon it, when both sides are nicely done, 
and with a knife-blade put the butter over every part;, fish 
should be turned with a broad-bladed knife or a pancake 
turner. 

All salt fish require to be soaked in cold water before cook- 
ing, according to the time it has been in salt. When it is hard 
and dry it will require thirty-six hours soaking before dressing; 
the water must be changed three or four times. When fish is 
not very salt or hard, twenty-four hours will be sufficient. 

For frying fish, beef suet or dripping or sweet oil may be 
used in place of lard. Butter is not good: it spoils the color 
and tastes strong. 

Fish have a fine appearance prepared in the following man- 
ner: Clean and wash them, and wipe them dry with a nice 
soft towel; then wet them over with beaten egg, and dip them 
in bread crumbs or rolled crackers. If done twice over with 
egg and cracker or crumbs, it will have a finer appearance. 

The largest sized pan fish, weighing nearly or quite a 
pound each, should be scored or cut across each side from the 
head to the tail, nearly to the bone, and about an inch apart, 
that it may be well done. Garnish with sprigs of parsley. 
Have ready a thick-bottomed frying pan, with plenty of lard 
salted; let it become boiling hot; lay the fish carefully in and 
let them fry gently, until one side is a rich yellow brown, then 
turn the other and do likewise; when both are done, take them 
carefully up on a hot dish and serve. Garnish with fried parsley. 

Dried Codfish. — This should always be laid in soak, at 
least one night before it is wanted; then take off the skin and 
put it in plenty of cold water; boil it gently (skimming it 
meanwhile) for one hour, or tie it in a cloth and boil it. Serve 
it with egg sauce; garnish with hard boiled eggs cut in slices, 
and sprigs of parsley. Serve plain boiled or mashed potatoes 
with it. 

Stewed Salt Cod. — Scald some soaked cod by putting it 
over the fire in boiling water for ten minutes; then scrape it 
white, pick it in flakes, and put it in a stewpan, with a table- 
spoonful of butter worked into the same of flour, and as 

36 



688 HOUSEHOLD. 

much milk as will moisten it; let it stew gently for ten minutes; 
add pepper to taste, and serve hot; put it in a deep dish, slice 
hard boiled eggs over it, and sprigs of parsley around the edge. 
This is a nice relish for breakfast, with coffee and tea, and 
rolls or toast. 

Codfish Cakes. — First boil soaked cod, then chop it fine, 
put to it an equal quantity of potatoes boiled and mashed; 
moisten it with beaten eggs or milk, and a bit of butter and a 
little pepper; form it in round small cakes, rather more than 
half an inch thick, flour the outside, and fry in hot butter or 
beef drippings until a delicate brown. Like fish, these must be 
fried gently, the lard being boiling hot when they are put in; 
when one side is done turn the other. Serve for breakfast. 

To Bake a Dish of Cold Boiled Cod. — Chop fine some 
cold boiled cod, put to it an equal quantity or more of boiled 
potatoes chopped and mashed; add a good bit of butter and 
milk to make it moist, and put it in a stewpan over a gentle 
fire; cover it, and stir it frequently until it is thoroughly 
heated, taking care that it does not burn; then take it up, 
make it in a roll or any other form, mark the surface, take a 
pinch of ground pepper between your finger and thumb, and 
put spots at equal distances over it; or wet it over with melted 
butter, and brown it in an oven before the fire. 

Fresh Cod. — Fresh cod, when good, are firm, and the 
gills red, and the eyes are full; if at all soft and flabby it is 
not good. A fine fish is thick at the back; the shoulder or 
piece near the head of a large cod is better for boiling than 
a small fish. 

To Boil Fresh Cod. — If you have not a fish kettle, 
after cleaning the fish properly, lay it on a plate in a circle, 
and tie a clean towel about it; to a gallon of hot water put 
a tablespoonful of salt and a gill of vinegar; put in the fish 
and boil according to its weight. Serve with plain boiled 
potatoes and drawn butter, parsley, or egg sauce. Garnish 
with sprigs of parsley. Lay a folded napkin on the dish under 
the fish. 

Fried Codfish Steaks. — Cut the fish in steaks of about 



HOUSEHOLD. 589 

one inch thickness; or it may be split as for broiling; dip each 
piece in wheat flour or rolled cracker, or Indian meal; have 
some lard, (which is salted in proportion, a tablespoonful of 
salt to a pound,) let it become boiling hot in a frying pan; lay 
in the steaks; let them fry gently, without stirring them, until 
one side is a fine brown, then turn each steak carefully with a 
broad knife; when both sides are done, serve hot, with sprigs 
of parsley over it. 

Baked Cod. — Clean a good sized fish, weighing four or five 
pounds; wash it and dry it well in a cloth; rub it inside and 
out with a mixture of pepper and salt; cut a slice from a loaf 
of bread, spread it thickly with butter; moisten it with hot 
water, and fill the body of the fish; tie a thread around it to 
keep the dressing in, then put bits of butter, the size of a 
hickory nut, all over the surface; dredge flour over it until 
it looks white; then lay a trivet on some muffin rings in a 
dripping-pan, and lay the fish on; put in a pint of water to 
baste with, then put it in a hot oven, and baste frequently; in 
one hour it will be done. Take it up on a hot dish, add a gill 
of vinegar to the gravy, or a lemon cut in very thin slices; 
dredge in a little flour; let it boil up once^ stir it well; add a 
very little hot water if necessary, then strain into a gravy-boat, 
lay the slice over the fish, and serve. 

Haddock. — These are chosen and dressed the same as cod. 

Shad. — These are in season from the last of March until 
May; they are chosen by the same rules as other fish. 

These fish may be fried, baked, boiled or salted. 

Fried Shad. — Scale the fish, and cut off the head, then 
split it open down the back, at the side of the backbone; take 
out the entrails; keep the roe or eggs to be fried with the fish; 
then cut it in two from head to tail, and cut each side in pieces 
two or three inches wide; rinse them in cold water, wipe them 
dry, and dip each in wheat flour, a^i fry in salted lard; when 
the inside, which must always be cooked first (of any fish), is 
done a fine brown, turn the other; the fat must be boiling hot 
when the fish is put in, and then fried gently, that it may not 
be too dark colored. 

Broiled Shad. — Cut the fish the same as for trying, or 



590 HOUSEHOLD. 

merely split it in two; lay it on a gridiron over a bright steady 
fire of coals; let it broil gently; put the inside to the fire first 
that it may be done through; have ready a steak dish with 
nearly a quarter of a pound of sweet butter, and a teaspoonful 
of salt and pepper each, worked into it; when both sides of the 
fish are done, lay it on the dish, turn it several times in the but- 
ter, cover it with a tin cover, and set the dish where it will keep 
hot, until ready to serve. 

Baked Shad. — Scale the shad clean, cut off the head, and 
split the fish half way down the back; scrape the inside per- 
fectly clean; make a stuffing thus: Cut two slices of a baker's 
loaf of wheat bread, spread each thickly with butter; sprinkle 
with pepper and salt, and a little pounded sage if liked; mois- 
ten it with hot water; fill the belly with this; wind a cord 
around it to keep in the stuffing, dredge the outside well with 
flour; stick bits of butter, the size of a hickory nut, all over 
outside; mix a teaspoonful each of salt and pepper together, 
and sprinkle it all over the whole surface; then lay the fish on 
a trivet or muffin rings in a dripping pan; put in a pint of 
water to baste with, and keep the gravy from burning; if this all 
wastes before the fish is done, add more hot water; bake for 
one hour in a quick oven; baste frequently. When done, take 
the fish on a steak dish; if there is not enough gravy in the pan 
(there should be at least half a pint), add more hot water; dredge 
in a heaping teaspoonful of flour, then put to it a bit 
of butter, and, if liked, a lemon sliced thin, and the seeds taken 
out. Stir it smooth with a spoon, and pour it through a gravy- 
strainer into a gravy-boat; lay the slices of lemon over the fish, 
and serve with mashed potatoes. 

To Fry Black Fish. — Scale the fish, and scrape the in- 
side clean to the backbone; wash in water, with a little vine- 
gar; wipe it dry with a clean towel; then dip it in wheat flour, 
or rolled crackers. Have in a thick-bottomed frying pan plenty 
of lard salted (a large tablespoonful of salt to a pound of lard), 
let it become boiling hot; then lay in the fish and fry it gently, 
until one side is a fine brown; then turn it carefully. When 
both sides are done, take it up and serve. 

Fried fish may be garnished or ornamented with sprigs of 
green or fried parsley, or thin slices of lemon, sliced. 



HOUSEHOLD. 591 

Stewed Black Fish. — Put a fish weighing about five 
pounds on a fish-drainer; after having properly cleansed it, put 
it into the fish-kettle with hot water to cover it; add to it a few 
blades of mace, a large teaspoonful of salt, and a wineglass of 
port wine; let it simmer or boil gently for half an hour; then 
skim it clear; work into a smooth mass a quarter of a pound of 
sweet butter, and a heaping tablespoonful of wheat flour; 
take from the fish part of the water in which it was boiled, 
leaving it scarcely covered; then add the flour and butter, with 
a teaspoonful of pepper; dip a bunch of parsley into boiling 
water, cut it small and add it to the stew; cover it close for 
twenty minutes, and let it simmer gently; then take the fish up 
on a dish, and serve with the gravy or sauce over. A sliced 
lemon without the pits may be added with the parsley by those 
who like it. Served with plain boiled or mashed potatoes. 
Black fish dressed in this manner is very delicious. 

Perch. — Clean these fish well, wash and wipe them dry, 
then fry them as directed. 

Striped Bass. — These fish are best fried or boiled. See 
directions for boiling or frying fish. 

Halibut. — This fish is fine, whether cut in steaks and 
i>rdiled or fried; or the thick part boiled. Fry or broil as 
directed for codfish. Steaks or fillets cut from the tail part are 
very fine, and may be fried or broiled more nicely than any 
other. 

To Boil Halibut. — Take a piece weighing four or five 
pounds, scrape the skin clean, dredge flour over it, and boil 
according to its weight — ten minutes to a pound. Serve with 
plain boiled potatoes, and drawn butter, or egg, or parsley 
sauce. Cold boiled halibut may be served the same as codfish; 
any of the sauce which may remain may be put with the cold 
fish. 

Salmon. — ^When salmoh is fresh and good, the gills and 
flesh are of a bright red, the jscales clear, and the fish stiff. 
When first caught, there is a whiteness between the flakes, 
which, by keeping, melts down, and the fish becomes richer. 
Salmon requires to be well broil&d. When underdone it is 
unwholesome. 



593 HOUSEHOLD. 

Broiled Salmon.— Cut some slices about an inch thick, 
and broil them over a gentle, bright fire of coals for ten or 
twelve minutes. When both sides are done, take them on to a 
hot dish; butter each slice well with sweet butter; strew over 
each a little salt and pepper to taste, and serve. 

Spiced Salmon (Pickled). — Boil a salmon, and, after 
wiping it dry, set it to cool; take of the water in which it was 
boiled, and good vinegar each equal parts, enough to cover it; 
add to it one dozen cloves, as many small blades of mace, or 
sliced nutmeg, one teaspoonful of whole pepper, and the same 
of allspice; make it boiling hot, skim it clear, add a small bit of 
butter (the size of a small egg), and pour it over the fish; set it 
in a cool place. When cold it is fit for use and will keep a long 
time, covered close, in a cool place. Serve instead of pickled 
oysters for supper. A fresh cod is very nice done in the same 
manner; as is also a striped sea bass. 

Boiled Salmon. — Run a long needle with a packthread 
through the tail, centre and head of a fish, to bring it in the 
form of a letter S. Put it in a fish-kettle, with hot water to 
cover it, and a teaspoonful of salt (cut three or four slanting 
gashes in each side of the fish before making it into the form, 
otherwise the skin will break and disfigure it); allow ten min- 
utes gentle boiling for each pound of fish. Or a piece of a 
large fish may be boiled. Serve with lobster, or anchovey, or 
draw butter sauce, and plain boiled or mashed potatoes. 

A Dish of Salt Salmon. — Salmon is often put down in 
brine. It is to be soaked and boiled, as directed for salt cod- 
fish, or it may be boiled for breakfast. Or pull off the skin, 
and pick in flakes the thickest side of a salmon; pour scalding 
hot water over it, let it stand for a few minutes; then pour it 
off; add to it enough milk or hot water to moisten it; put it 
over the fire and let it simmer for five minutes; then add a 
tablespoonful of butter, shake over it a little wheat flour and 
pepper to taste, stir it for a few minutes, and it is done. A fine 
relish for breakfast or supper. 

Eels. — Eels, to be good, must be as fresh caught as 
possible; skin them, cut off the heads, cut them open and scrape 
them clean to the back bone. 

For frying or boiling, the middle-sized fat ones are best; 



HOUSEHOLD. 593 

those caught in fresh water have a muddy taste, and should 
be put in salted water a short time before cooking. Eels may 
be boiled and served with drawn butter or parsley sauce, and 
boiled potatoes. 

Fried Eels. — After cleaning the eels well, cut them in 
pieces two inches long; wash them and wipe them dry; roll 
them in wheat flour or rolled cracker, and fry as directed for 
other fish, in hot lard or beef dripping, salted. They should be 
browned all over and thoroughly done. 

Fresh Mackerel. — These fish to be good must be cooked 
as soon as possible after they are caught. They may be broiled, 
fried, or baked, the same as shad — also salted. 

Dried Mackerel. — Take fresh caught mackerel, scale 
them and cut them down the back to the tail; leave the heads 
on; then hang them by the tail in a cool place to drain; strew 
some salt on the bottom of the pan; sprinkle the fish plentifully 
with it, and lay them two by two, the insides together, in a pan; 
let them lie twelve hours, then rinse off the salt and hang them 
to drain for half an hour, after which pepper the insides a little 
and lay them on stones, aslant towards the sun, to dry; take 
care never to put them out when the sun is not hot on them, 
nor until the stones are heated and dry; lay the insides to the 
sun — they will be perfectly cured in one week; stretch them 
open with two sticks. Or, instead of drying, after having pre- 
pared them in this manner, smoke them. 

Salt Mackerel. — Split fresh caught mackerel down the 
back, scrape the inside clean, spread them open on a board, 
and strew them plentifully with salt; then strew salt over the 
bottom of a tub; lay the fish two by two, the insides together, 
and lay them in the tub; strew salt between each layer; half 
coarse and half fine salt; then cover them close — put plenty of 
salt above the last layer of fish. 

To Dress Salt Mackerel. — Take mackerel from the salt, 
and lay them inside downward in a pan of cold water for two 
or three days, change the water once or twice, and scrape the 
fish clean without breaking it. When fresh enough, wipe one 
dry and hang it in a cool place; then fry or broil, or lay one 
in a shallow pan, the inside of the fish down; cover it with hot 
water, and set it over a gentle fire or in an oven for twelve or 



594 HOUSEHOLD. 

fifteen minutes; then pour off the water, turn the fish, put bits 
of butter in the pan, and over the fish, sprinkle with pepper, 
and let it fry for five minutes, then dish it. 

Trout. — These may be stewed, fried, boiled, or baked. 

Pike or Pickerel. — These may be stewed, fried or 
broiled. 

There are many more fine fish not mentioned herein, but as 
the process of stewing, boiling, broiling, and frying is very 
nearly the same for all sorts of fish, it does not seem necessary 
to mention more. 

Herrings. — These are eaten in three varieties — fresh, 
salted, smoked, or red herrings. Salted herrings are to be 
soaked in clean water before boiling, the same as mackerel. 
Red herrings are to be skinned, split in two, and the insides 
and the backbone to be taken out; or they may first be broiled, 
then skinned. To cook fresh herrings, scale and prepare them 
the same as any other fish. 

Chowder. — Slice some salt pork very thin, strew it over 
with onions chopped small, and some line pepper; then cut a 
haddock, fresh cod, or any other firm fish, in thin steaks; take 
out the bones; lay some of the sliced pork at the bottom of 
the kettle with some of the seasoning; then put a layer of fish, 
then put over some soaked crackers or biscuit, then another 
layer of the seasoned pork, after which fish and crackers and a 
few bits of butter, and so on alternately, pork, fish and crack- 
ers, until the kettle is two-thirds full; then put in about a pint 
of water, and cover the pot with a thick iron cover with a rim; 
set it over a gentle fire, put coals and ashes on the cover, and 
bake two or three hours, or more, if the pot is large. When 
done, turn it out on a dish and serve with pickles. It may be 
baked in an oven. 

Shell Pish. — To Choose Lobsters. — These are chosen 
more by weight than size; the heaviest are best. A good small 
sized one will not unfrequently be found to weigh as heavily 
as one much larger. If fresh, a lobster will be found lively, 
and the claws have a strong motion when the eyes are pressed 
with the finger. Hen lobsters are preferred for sauce or salad, 
on account of their coral. The head and small claws are 
never used. 



HOUSEHOLD. 595 

To Boil Lobsters. — Put in a large kettle water enough to 
cover the lobster, and salt — a dessertspoonful to a quart of 
water; when it boils fast put in the lobster, head first, which 
kills it instantly; keep boiling briskly for half an hour, then 
take it from the water with the tongs and lay it to drain; wipe 
off the scum from it and rub it over with a bit of butter tied 
in a cloth, or some sweet oil; break off the large claws, and 
crack each shell without shattering, but so that they may come 
easily to pieces; lay a napkin on a large steak dish; with a 
sharp knife split the body from head to tail, and lay it open on 
the napkin; put a large claw at either end, and serve with 
melted butter sauce. Or else take out all the meat from the 
shells, and lay it neatly on a dish, and serve with melted butter. 

Lobster Salad. — Break apart one or two heads of white 
heart lettuce, lay the leaves in cold water, rinse them well, then 
shake the water from each leaf, and lay them, the largest first, 
in a salad bowl, the stalk inwards. Lay the delicate small 
leaves around the edge; or cut it all small before putting it 
in the bowl. 

Having boiled a hen lobster, take the meat from the shell 
and cut it small; rub the coral to a smooth paste, with the green 
inside if liked, and a tablespoonful of oil or melted butter; 
add to it a teaspoonful of made mustard, and a saltspoonful of 
black pepper; add a gill of sharp vinegar; stir it smooth, then 
mix it with the minced lobster and salad, and serve with cold 
butter and crackers or rolls. The lobster and dressing must 
not be put with the lettuce until ready to serve. 

To Choose Crabs. — If fresh, the joints of the clav/s will 
be stiff, and the inside have an agreeable smell; the heaviest for 
their size are best; the light ones are watery. Crabs are stale 
when the eyes look dull. 

To Boil Crabs. — Have a pot of boiling water in which is 
salt (a tablespoonful to the quart), throw the crabs in and keep 
them boiling briskly for twelve "minutes, if large; then take 
them out, wipe the shells clean, and rub them over with a bit 
of butter; break off the small claws, spread a napkin on a 
large dish, and lay the crabs on it in regular rows, beginning at 
the outside. Serve with cold butter and rolls. 



696 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Boil Soft Shell Clams. — Wash the shells clean, and 
put the clams, edges downwards, in a kettle; then pour about 
a quart of boiling water over them; cover the pot and set it 
over a brisk fire for three quarters of an hour. Pouring boil- 
ing water over them causes the shells to open quickly and let 
out the sand which may be in them. Take them up when 
done; take off the black skin which covers the hard part, trim 
them clean, and put them in a stewpan; put to them some of 
the liquor in which they were boiled; put to it a good bit of 
butter, and pepper and salt to taste; make them hot; serve 
with cold butter and rolls. 

To Fry Soft Shell Clams. — Get them from the shell, 
as they are very troublesome to clean; wash them in plenty of 
water, and lay them on a thickly folded napkin to dry out the 
water; then roll a few at a time in wheat flour, until they will 
take up no more; have a thick bottomed frying pan one-third 
full of boiling hot lard, and salted (in proportion, a tablespoon- 
ful of salt to a pound of lard); lay the clams in with a fork, one 
at a time; lay them close together and fry gently, until one side 
is a delicate brown; then turn carefully and brown the other; 
then take them off on a hot dish. When fried properly, these 
clams are very excellent. 

Hard Shell Clams. — Hard shell clams may be prepared 
for table in a variety of ways. The sand clams, either large 
or small, are preferable to any other, being whiter and more 
tender. Those called Quahogs are least delicate eating of all. 

To Boil Hard Shell Clams. — Wash the shells until they 
are perfectly clean, then put them into a kettle, with the edges 
downwards; add a pint of water, cover the pot and set it over 
a brisk fire; when the shells open wide they are done. Half 
an hour is generally enough for them; if a strong taste to the 
juice is not liked, put more than a pint of water to them. When 
done, take the clams from the shells into a deep dish; put to 
them some of the juice, a good bit of butter, and some pepper, 
or toast some thin slices of bread, butter them and cut them 
small, and put them in the dish before putting in the clams and 
juice. 

Stewed Clams. — Take fifty large sand clams from their 



HOUSEHOLD. 597 

ehells, and put to them their own liquor and water in equal 
parts, nearly to cover them; put them in a stewpan over a 
gentle fire for half an hour; take off any scum as it rises, then 
add to them a teacup of butter in which is worked a table- 
spoonful of wheat flour, and pepper to taste; cover the stew- 
pan, and let them simmer for fifteen minutes longer, then serve. 
Pour it over toast if 'preferred. Substituting milk for water 
makes them more delicate and white. Any other than sand 
clams, require one hour to stew; that is, three-quarters of an 
hour before putting in the seasoning. 

Fried Hard Shell Clams. — Get the large sand clams; 
wash them in their own liquor; dip them in wheat flour or 
rolled crackers, as may be preferred, and fry in hot lard or beef 
dripping, without salt; or dip each one in batter made as for 
clam fritters. 

Clam Chowder. — Butter a deep tin basin, strew it thickly 
with grated bread crumbs or soaked crackers; sprinkle some 
pepper over, and bits of butter the size of a hickory nut, and, 
if liked, some finely chopped parsley; then put a double layer 
of clams, season with pepper, put bits of butter over, then 
another layer of soaked cracker; after that clams and bits of 
butter; sprinkle pepper over, add a cup of milk or water, and 
lastly a layer of soaked crackers. Turn a plate over the basin, 
and bake in a hot oven for three-quarters of an. hour; use half 
a pound of soda biscuit, and a quarter of a pound of butter 
with fifty clams. 

Oysters. — Oysters must be fresh and fat to be good. They 
are in season from September to May. 

The small ones, such as are sold by the quart, are good for 
pies, fritters, or stews; the largest of this sort are nice for fry- 
ing or pickling for family use. 

Oyster FRiTTERS.-Take a quart of oysters from their own 
liquor, strain it and add to it half a pint of milk and two well 
beaten eggs, stir in it by degrees flour enough to make a smooth 
but rather thin batter; when perfectly free from lumps put the 
oysters to it, have some lard or beef dripping made hot in a 
frying pan, salt it a little, and when it is boiling hot put in the 
butter with a large spoon, having one or more oysters in each; 



598 HOUSEHOLD. 

hold it over a gentle fire until one side is a delicate brown — 
turn each fritter separately. When both sides are done, take 
them on a hot dish and serve for breakfast or supper. 

Fried Oysters. — Take large oysters from their own liquor 
into a thickly folded napkin to dry them off; then make a 
tablespoonful of lard or beef fat hot, in a thick-bottomed fry- 
ing pan, add to it a half saltspoonful of salt; dip each oyster 
in wheat flour, or cracker rolled fine, until it will take up no 
more, then lay them in the pan, hold it over a gentle fire until 
one side is a delicate brown; turn the other by sliding a fork 
under it; five minutes will fry them after they are in the pan. 
Oysters may be fried in butter, but it is not so good; lard and 
butter half and half is very nice for frying. Some persons like 
a very little of the oyster liquor poured in the pan after the 
oysters are done; let it boil up, then put it in the dish with the 
oysters; when wanted for breakfast this should be done. 

Broiled Oysters. — Take the large oysters from their own 
liquor, lay them on a folded napkin to dry off the moisture, 
then dip each one in wheat flour or rolled cracker, or first into 
beaten egg and then into rolled cracker; have a gridiron made 
of coarse wire, put it over a bright but not fierce fire of coals, 
lay the oysters carefully on; when one side is done turn the 
other, put some sweet butter on a hot plate, sprinkle a little 
pepper over, lay the oysters on and serve with crackers. 

To Stew Oysters. — Put the oysters with the broth to boil, 
and when they begin to curl, skim them out of the kettle into 
a pan of cold water; let them lie in the water until the broth 
has been skimmed and seasoned with butter, salt and pepper, 
add mace if you like; then drain off the water and return the 
oysters to the broth. When they begin to boil up again they 
are ready to serve, and will be found to be more plump and 
hard by the process. 

Griddled Oysters. — Heat a griddle very hot, butter it 
and lay oysters all over it; when brown on one side, turn as 
you do griddle cakes. They should be washed first from the 
liquor, and this must be boiled and skimmed, and turned over 
the oysters when served, first seasoning it with butter, salt and 
pepper; serve on bread or cracker toast. 

Panned Oysters. — Take the oysters from their liquor, and 



HOUSEHOLD. 599 

put them in a saucepan or spider that is hot. Let them cook 
quickly, season with salt and pepper, and a little butter, and 
lay upon toast. A little juice will exude from the oysters while 
cooking, which will keep them from getting too dry, and they 
will prove very palatable to all who will try it. 

To Fry Oysters with Batter. — Take fine large oysters, 
beat as many eggs with cream (say two eggs to a cup of cream) 
as will moisten all the oysters required; dip the oyster thor- 
oughly into this r 'xture and then cover well with cracker 
crumbs which have been seasoned with salt, pepper and a lit- 
tle mace, if desired. Put into your frying pan or spider equal 
quantities of butter and lard, and when hot fry the prepared 
oysters to a delicate brown tint and serve hot. If preferred, 
add three tablespoonfuls of flour to the eggs and cream, and 
omit the cracker crumbs. 

Oysters Broiled on the Shell. — The oysters should 
be of the largest size. Clean the shells with a stiff brush, then 
open and save the juice; turn boiling water over the oysters 
for only a minute or two; drain it off, and lay the oysters on 
one-half of the shell, putting it on a well-heated gridiron 
over a Very hot fire. Boil the liquor that came from the oys- 
ters when opened, add it to the shell with a sprinkle of salt, 
pepper, and n bit of butter, serve hot on the shells, laid on 
large platters. 

Unsurpassed Fricasseed Oysters. — For one can of oysters 
use one pint of thin cream; clean all the liquor from the oys- 
ters and put them over steam until hot; at the same time 
thicken the cream with flour and season with salt, pepper and 
a small pinch of mace, and the same of cinnamon and a very 
little butter; cook this well, and when done thoroughly, add to 
it the liquor of the oysters which has been scalded and well 
skimmed until clear; then add the oysters, letting them remain 
just long enough to get plump (if left too long they grow 
tough). Have ready some toast on a platter and pour the 
whole over it, or have leaves and triangles of rich paste around 
the dish and partially moistened by the fricassee. Your plat- 
ter must be very hot, as fricasseed oysters chill like a new- 
born baby. 

Oyster Pie. — Two cans of oysters, or three pints of solid 



600 HOUSEHOLD. 

oysters, one quart of cream, one dozen rolled crackers, pepper, 
salt, etc. Stir all together and pour into a dish lined with 
thick puff paste, co.ver with another paste and bake three-quar- 
ters of an hour. This is a delicious mode of cooking oysters. 

Oyster Patties. — Put the oysters in a saucepan with 
enough of the liquor to cover them; let them come to a boil, 
skim well, add two teaspoonfuls of butter for one quart of 
oysters, season with pepper and a little salt. Two or three 
spoonfuls of cream will add to the richness. Have ready 
small tins lined with puff-paste; put three or four oysters in 
each, according to the size of the patty; cover with paste a.id 
bake in a quick oven twenty minutes; when done wash over 
the top with beaten egg and set in the oven for two minutes to 
glaze. 

Scalloped Oysters. — Have plenty of fine crushed cracker 
crumbs — either soda or butter crackers; put a layer in the bot- 
tom of a buttered pudding dish; wet slightly with oyster liquor 
and milk, mixed; next a layer of oysters; season with salt and 
pepper and small bits of butter; then more crumbs and oys- 
ters, alternately, until the dish is full. Let the top layer be of 
crumbs. Beat an egg and mix it with a little milk to pour over 
the top; place little lumps of flour all over the top, cover the 
dish and bake half an hour; remove the cover a few minutes 
before taking from the oven to let it brown. 

Chicken and Oyster Croquettes. — Take equal quanti- 
ties of chicken and oysters, chopped fine, with a cup of sifted 
bread crumbs and a piece of butter; season with salt and pep- 
per, and, if liked, :: little mace. Moisten with one or two well 
beaten eggs. Form into long, slender rolls, and fry in lard to 
a light brov/n; serve on c napkin, and garnish with celery tops 
or parsley, and slices of lemon. 

Pickled Oysters. — Strain the liquor from the oysters; boil 
and skim until clear; drop in the oysters and let them come to 
a boil; skim them out and put them in a jar. Take about half the 
liquor remaining, add vinegar until it tastes sharp, a few whole 
cloves and allspice; boil and pour over the oysters hot; cever 
them and let them stand two or three days before using. If 
you wish to use them any sooner take a little more vinegar. 



HOUSEHOLD. 601 

Saaces and Salads. — The foundation for a large proportion 
of sauces is in what the French cook knows as a roux^ and we 
as "drawn butter," As our drawn butter is often lumpy, or 
with the taste of the raw flour; we give the French method as 
a security against such disaster. 

To Make a Roux. — Melt in a saucepan a piece of butter 
the size of an egg, and add two even tablespoonfuls of sifted 
flour; one ounce of butter to two of flour being a safe rule. 
Stir till smooth, and pour in slowly one pint of milk, or milk 
and water, or water alone. With milk it is called cream rouXy 
and is used for boiled fish and poultry. Where the butter and 
flour are allowed to brown, it is called a brown roux, and is 
thinned with the soup or stew which it is designed to thicken. 
Capers added to a white roux — which is the butter and flour, 
with water added — give caper sauce for use with boiled mutton. 
Pickled nasturtiums are a good substitute for capers. Two 
hard-boiled eggs, cut fine, give egg sauce. Chopped parsley 
or pickle, and the variety of catsups and sauces, make an end- 
less variety; the white roux being the basis for all of them. 

Bread Sauce. — For this sauce boil one pint of milk, 
with one onion cut in pieces. When it has boiled five min- 
utes, take out the onion, and thicken the milk with half a pint 
of sifted bread-crumbs. Melt a teaspoonful of butter in a 
frying-pan; put in half a pint of coarser crumbs, stirring them 
till a light brown. Flavor the sauce with half a teaspoonful 
of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, and a grate of nutmeg; and 
serve with game, helping a spoonful of the sauce and one of 
the browned crumbs. The boiled onion may be minced fine 
and added, and the browned crumbs omitted. 

Celery Sauce. — ^Wash and boil a small head of celery, 
which has been cut up fine, in one pint of water, with half a 
teaspoonful of salt. Boil till tender, which will require about 
half an hour. Make a cream roux, using half a pint of milk, 
and adding a quarter of a saltspoonful of white pepper. Stir 
into the -celery; boil a moment, and serve. A teaspoonful of 
celery salt can be used, if celery is out of season, adding to i: 
the full rule for cream roux. Cauliflower may be used in the 
san-e way as celery, cutting it very fine, and adding a large 
cupi'ul to the sauce. Use either with boiled meats. 



602 HOUSEHOLD. 

Mint Sauce. — Look over and strip off the leaves and 
cut them as fine as possible with a sharp knife. Use none of 
the stalk but the tender tips. To a cupful of chopped mint 
allow an equal quantity of sugar, and half a cup of good vine- 
gar. It should stand an hour before using. 

Cranberry Sauce. — Wash one quart of cranberries in 
warm water, and pick them over carefully. Put them in a 
porcelain-lined kettle, with one pint of cold water and one 
pint of sugar, and cook without stirring for half an hour, turn- 
ing then into molds. This is the simplest method. They can 
be strained through a sieve, and put in bowls, forming a 
marmalade, which can be cut in slices when cold; or the 
berries can be crushed with a spoon while' boiling, but left 
unstrained. 

Egg Sauce. — Cut up three hard boiled eggs in small dice, 
salt, pepper, minced onions (one teaspoonful), parsley and 
thyme; add all these to the drawn butter recipe. It is very 
nice for boiled chickens, fish or leg of mutton. 

Oyster Sauce. — Scald one pint of large fresh oysters just 
enough to plump them, adding a tablespoonful of pepper, 
vinegar, a little black pepper and salt; pour this into a recipe 
of well made drawn butter (as above) at boiling point; stir 
thoroughly, and serve. 

Tomato Sauce. — Scald and peel six large, ripe tomatoes; 
cut them up and stew slowly; cream together one tablespoon- 
ful of butter, one tablespoonful of sugar, one tablespoonful of 
flour; when the tomatoes are thoroughly done and reduced to 
a fine pulp, add pepper and salt; stir the butter, sugar and flour 
in; let boil up, and serve. In winter this sauce may be made 
from nice canned tomatoes. 

Pepper Vinegar. — Fill a quart bottle or jar with small 
peppers, either green or ripe; put in two tablespoonfuls of 
sugar and fill with good cider vinegar. Invaluable in season- 
ing sauces, and good to eat with fish or meat. 

Chili Sauce. — Twelve ripe tomatoes, four ripe peppers, 
two onions, two tablespoonfuls of salt, two of sugar, three tea- 
cups of vinegar, a little cinnamon, chopped tomatoes, peppers 
and onions, very fine; boil one hour. 



HOUSEHOLD. G03 

White Sauce for Fowls. — Take the neck, gizzard and 
liver of fowls, with a piece of veal or calf's foot; boil in one 
quart of water with a few whole peppers, and salt, till reduced 
to one pint; then thicken with two tablespoonfuls of flour 
mixed with two tablespoonfuls of butter; boil five or six min- 
utes; have ready the yolks of two eggs beaten with one teacup 
of cream from the morning's milk; pour into the saucepan and 
shake a moment until done. 

Mushroom Sauce. — Wash and pick one pint of fresh 
mushrooms (or one can of French mushrooms), put in a sauce- 
pan with a little salt, nutmeg (three grates), one blade of mace, 
one pint of very sweet cream, a lump of butter (size of a pullet's 
egg) rubbed in one teaspoonful of flour; boil up, stir until 
cooked, and serve with chickens. 

Horse-radish Sauce. — One teacupful of grated horse- 
radish, one tablespoonful of ground mustard, one tablespoonful 
of sugar, four tablespoonfuls of vinegar and one of olive oil, 
pepper and salt. 

Mint Vinegar. — Take a glass can and put loosely into it 
enough nice, clean mint leaves to fill it; then pour over enough 
good vinegar to fill the bottle full. Cork tight and let stand 
for three weeks; then pour off into another bottle and keep to 
flavor mint sauce, etc. 

Dutch Sauce. — For Fish. — One-half teaspoonful of flour, 
two ounces of butter, four tablespoonfuls of vinegar — tarragon 
vinegar is best — yolks of two eggs, juice of half a lemon, salt to 
the taste. Put all the ingredients except the lemon juice into a 
stewpan. Set it over the fire and stir constantly until it heats 
(but not boils). Scald the lemon. 

Meats. — Beef. — The best beef is of a clear red color, 
slightly marbled with fat, and the fat itself of a clear white. 
Where the beef is dark red or bluish, and the fat yellow, it is 
too old, or too poorly fed, to be good. The sirloin and ribs, 
especially the sixth, seventh and eighth, make the best roast- 
ing pieces. The ribs can be removed and used for stock, and 
the beef rolled oi skewered firmly, making a piece very easily 
carved, and almost as presentable the second day as the first. 
For steaks sirloin is nearly as good, and much more economi- 
37 



604 HOUSEHOLD. 

cal, than porter-house, which gives only a small eatable por- 
tion, the remainder being only fit for the stock-pot. If the 
beef be very young and tender, steaks from the round may be 
used; but these are usually best stewed. Other pieces and 
modes of cooking are given under their respective heads. 

Mutton. — Mutton should be a light, clear red, and the fat 
very white and firm. It is always improved by keeping, and 
in cold weather can be hung for a month, if carefully watched 
to see that it has not become tainted. Treated in this way, 
well-fed mutton is equal to venison. If the fat is deep yellow, 
and the lean dark red, the animal is too old; and no keeping 
will make it really good eating. Four years is considered the 
best age for prime mutton. 

Pork. — Pork should have fine, white fat, and the meat 
should be white and smooth. Only country-fed pork should 
ever |be eaten, the pig even then being liable to diseases 
unknown to other animals, and the meat, even when carefully 
fed, being at all times less digestible than any sort. Bacon, 
carefully cured and smoked, is considered its most wholesome 
form. 

Poultry. — Poultry come last. The best turkeys have black 
legs; and, if young, the toes and bills are soft and pliable. 
The combs of fowls should be bright colored, and the legs 
smooth. 

Geese, if young and fine, are plump in the breast, have 
white, soft fat, and yellow feet. 

Ducks are chosen by the same rule as geese, and are firm 
and thick on the breast. 

Pigeons should be fresh, the breast plump, and the feet 
elastic. Only experience can make one familiar with other 
signs; and a good butcher can usually be trusted to tide one 
over the season of experience, though the sooner it ends the 
better for all parties concerned. 

Boiled Meats and Stews. — All meats intended to be boiled 
and served whole at table must be put into boiling water, thus 
following an entirely opposite rule from those intended for 
soups. In the latter, the object being to extract all the juice. 



HOUSEHOLD. €05 

cold water imist be used first, and then heated with the meat 
in it, and half an hour to the pound allowed. In the former, 
all the juice is to be kept in; and by putting into boiling water, 
the albumen of the meat hardens on the surface and makes a 
case or coating for the meat, which accomplishes this end. 
Where something between a soup and a plain boiled meat is 
desired, as in beef bouilli, the meat is put on in cold water, 
which is brought to a boil very quickly, thus securing good 
gravy, yet not robbing the meat of all its juices. With corned 
or salted meats, tongue, etc., cold water must be used. If to 
be eaten cold, such meats should always be allowed to cool in 
the water in which they were boiled; and this water, if not too 
fait, can be used for dried bean or pea soup. 

Boiled Meats. — In boiling meat, simply for the meat's 
fake, or the use of it, you follow an opposite rule, in the 
beginning, from that in regard to boiling meat for soup. You 
put it into boiling, instead of cold, water. 

Cold water draws the juice of meat, which is precisely what 
you want in broth and soup. Boiling water contracts and 
coagulates the surface, and keeps in the juice; which again is 
precisely what you want. 

Certain preparations of meats, however, which are, in char- 
fl.cter, between a soup and a boiled dish, as will appear in 
detail, are covered at first with cold water, and then brought 
to a quick boil. This method steers between the two results, 
and secures at once a good gravy and an eatable, nourishing 
piece of meat. Corn and salted meats are put on to boil in 
cold water. 

Beef Bouilli. — This is one of the dishes, just now referred 
to, which comes between a soup and a simple boiled meat. It 
is, in fact, merely a whole stew. 

Take a nice round of fresh meat. Trim off almost all the 
fat — all the gristle and hard, outside, scrappy bits — and take 
out the bone. Wash it, and lay it in a deep stew-pan, or soup- 
pot; cover it once and a half with cold water, and set it on the 
fire where it will come quickly to a boil. Take off the scum 
carefully, as it rises. Cut up in small bits and slices two car- 
rots, two small turnips, or one large one, two onions, and a 
large head, or two small ones, of celery. If you have 



606 HOUSEHOLD. 

no celery, you can do without it by adding celery 
seed or celery salt to the spicing. When the scum is well 
removed, put in some vegetables and set the pot where it will 
only boil, or simmer, very gently, yet steadily, like soup. Scat- 
ter in a dozen whole cloves. Keep closely covered. Allow 
four hours; cook it till quite tender. One hour before it is 
done, put in a teaspoonful of made mustard, a large 
spoonful of any fine catsup or sauce, and a gill or more of wine 
if you choose. Still keep closely covered. When the beef is 
done, take it carefully on a deep dish, hot, and set it near the 
fire until you finish your gravy. Do this by stirring in a little 
smooth flour thickening. Prepare two teaspoonfuls of flour to 
a quart, mixed with a little cold water, and added gradually, 
till you are sure you want it all. The vegetables will already 
have partly thickened the soup. Boil up and turn over the 
meat. 

Scatter some bits of nice mixed pickles — cauliflower, sliced 
gherkin, with bits of some red pickle for the color — over the 
meat, before it goes to table. 

Corned Beef. — Salted and corned meats are put to boil 
in cold water. 

Buy corned beef from the round of a large, well-fed crea- 
ture. Put to soak over night in cold water. Early in the 
morning wash and wipe, and put into the pot to boil. Cover 
twice deep with cold water, and set where it will heat up 
gradually and come to a very gentle boil. Take the scum 
off as it comes up. Boil four hours — a large solid piece may 
take from four to five — and be sure that it is tender when you 
take it off. If it is to be served hot for dinner, cook it in time 
to allow of removing it from the flour and letting it stand in the 
liquor it was boiled in until cooled down from the boil as far 
as will still be palatable. This makes it richer and more ten- 
der. Make a smooth drawn butter sauce to eat vath it. 

If it is to be eaten cold, take it from the fire and from the 
pot as soon as done. With a knife and fork, chiefly with the 
fork, divide and shred it into small pieces; mix these, fat and 
lean — disregarding all undesirable bits — equally together; 
pack all down into a pan; set a pan, just a little smaller, inside, 
upon the meat, so as to press it down, and put a heavy weight 



HOUSEHOLD. 607 

/— flatirons answer the purpose very well — into the upper pan, 
and set all away for some hours, or over night. It will cut in 
delicious, tender, marbled slices, and is excellent for a Sunday 
lunch with hot vegetables. 

Boiled Tongue. — Smoked tongue is best. 

Wash, and lay in cold water over night. Put on to boil in 
cold water, and boil, not furiously, but steadily, for four hours. 
Take out, peel off the skin, and put back into the hot liquor, 
and set away to grow cold. It may remain in the water 
through the rest of the day and over night, if not wanted sooner. 
Cut tongue in lengthwise slices, beginning at the outside of the 
bend. This makes a wonderful difference in tenderness and 
flavor. 

Boiled Veal. — Take out the bone from a fillet of veal. 
Make a stuffing, as for roast meat. Fill the place of the bone 
with the stuffing, and draw the ends of the meat as tight as 
possible with a needle and a coarse, strong thread. Scald and 
flour a cloth, as for boiled mutton, and sew or tie the meat in 
it tightly. Boil three hours, or until tender, trying with a knit- 
ting-needle. Make an oyster sauce, by soup recipe, to serve 
with it. Well cooked, it is much like boiled turkey similarly 
served. 

Boiled Mutton. — A shoulder of mutton will boil in an 
hour, or a little more. A leg will take from an hour and a 
half to two hours, according to size. Try with a knitting- 
needle, to ascertain when it is tender. Have a cloth to boil it 
in. Wring this out of scalding water, dredge it thickly with 
flour, and tie up the meat tightly in it. Put it into a large ket- 
tle of boiling water, and throw in two heaping tablespoonfuls 
of salt. When done, put it, rag and all, into a pan, and turn 
cold water over it enough to cover. Let it stand a few min- 
utes, but not long enough to cool too much. Then take off 
the cloth, and send at once to table. Serve with it a smooth 
butter sauce, with capers separately. 

Boiled Lamb. — Same way, allowing about a fourth less 
time. It must depend upon the size, however. Eight minutes 
to the pound, then try it. 

To Choose Beef. — When beef is good it may be known hf 



608 HOUSEHOLD. 

its texture and.color; the lean will have a fine, open grain of a 
deep coral or bright carnation red; the fat rather inclining to 
white than yellow; and the suet firm and white. Very yellow 
fat is generally sufficient proof of inferior beef. 

The better roasting pieces of beef are the prime ribs, sir- 
loin, and what is known as the porter-house piece; it may be 
recognized by the bone. 

The best steaks are cut from the sirloin and porter-house. 
The last mentioned cut probably took its name from having 
been the most highly esteemed steak, and so dished for the 
palate of the epicure at porter-houses, which were formerly 
the only eating-houses. Fine steaks may be cut from between 
the ribs. 

The round of tender, fat beef, cuts very good steaks, as does 
also the cross-ribs, but they are juiceless compared with the 
other pieces. The lean of fat beef is the most juicy and 
tender. 

The neck, shin, or marrow bone, leg or head make good 
soups. 

Beef skirts are good for sausage meat, stewing, hashes, or 
for mince-pie meat; or they may be broiled or fried. 

To Fry Tripe. — Take prepared tripe, lay it in a little 
water over night; in the morning scrape the rough side 
clean, then wipe it dry; then dip in wheat flour or rolled 
crackers. Have a thick-bottomed frying pan, put into it a cup 
of lard or beef dripping; let it become boiling hot; then lay 
the tripe in, the rough side down first, let it fry gently; when 
this side is a delicate brown turn the other and do likewise; 
then take it from the pan, add to it the fat in which it was fried 
a wineglass of vinegar, let it boil up once, then pour it in the 
dish with the tripe; or you may use water instead of vinegar. 

Beef Liver. — Cut the liver in thin slices; dip each slice in 
wheat flour or rolled crackers, and fry in hot lard or beef drip- 
ping; season with pepper and salt. It must be thoroughly 
cooked and a fine brown. 

To Stew a Round of Beef. — Boil the beef till it is 
rather more than half done; gash it with a sharp knife, then 
rub it over with salt and pepper and sweet herbs chopped 



HOUSEHOLD. 009 

small; one 'sliced carrot, also a leek or onion sliced small; 
dredge it white with flour; strew bits of butter over it, and put 
it into a dinner pot with a pint or more of the water in which 
it was boiled; cover it close, and let it bake or stew slowly for 
two hours; add a little hot water when it may be necessary to 
keep it from burning; turn it once; when it is nicely browned 
take it up, add a little boiling water to the gravy, stir it well 
together, let it boil up once, then pour it over the meat. 

Beef Heart Baked or Roasted. — Cut a beef heart in 
two; take out the strings from the inside; wash it with warm 
water; rub the inside with pepper and salt, and fill it with a 
stuffing of bread and butter moistened with water, and sea- 
soned with pepper and salt, and, if liked, a sprig of thyme 
made fine; put it together and tie a string round it; rub the 
outside with pepper and salt; stick bits of butter on, then 
dredge flour over and set it on a trivet or muffin rings, in a 
dripping pan; put a pint of water in to baste with, then roast 
it before a hot fire or in a hot oven; turn it round and baste 
frequently. One hour will roast or bake it; when done take it 
up, cut a lemon in thin slices, and put it in a pan with a bit of 
butter; dredge in a teaspoonful of flour; let it brown, add a 
small teacupful of boiling water; stir it smooth, and serve in a 
gravy tureen. 

Beef Kidneys. — These may be split jand fried, or broiled, 
or they may be chopped small and made a hash or stew. Cut 
them in half, or mince them, and put them in a stewpan with 
enough hot water to moisten them; then cover them close and 
let them simmer gently until tender; add a good bit of butter, 
pepper and salt to taste, and some browned flour; a wineglass 
of wine or catsup may be added, if liked. Toast some thin 
slices of bread delicately brown, take off the crust and lay 
them in a dish, and put the stew or hash over. A finely 
chopped onion or leek may be added to it, if liked. 

Hashed Beef. — Take some very rare done or uncooked 
beef, chop it fine, one-fourth as much fat as lean, and moisten 
it with water or gravy; if with water, add a bit of butter rolled 
in flour; put it in a closely covered stewpan over a gentle 
fire for half an hour; then dredge in a little browned flour, add 
salt and pepper to taste, and cover it for fifteen minutes, and 



610 HOUSEHOLD. 

serve. Or, cut some thin slices of toast in neat squares, put 
them in the dish and put the hash on it; or serve it on boiled 
rice. Some persons like a teaspoonful of made mustard or 
catsup put to it before dishing it. 

Beef Steaks. — Sirloin, and what is known in New York 
markets as porter-house steaks, are the choicest cuts. If the 
beef is not very tender and young, it maybe improved by beat- 
ing gently with a rolling-pin or potato-beetle before cooking; 
the steaks should be nearly the thickness of an inch; beef 
steaks must on no account be washed. By keeping beef as 
long as possible without tainting, it may be improved in flavor, 
and will become more tender; broiling is by far the best man- 
ner of cooking beef steaks. 

Fried Beef Steaks. — Cut some of the fat from the steak 
and put it into a frying-pan and set it over the fire; if the 
steaks are not very tender, beat them with a rolling-pin, and 
when the fat is boiling hot, put the steak evenly in, cover the 
pan and let it fry briskly until one side is done; sprinkle a little 
pepper and salt over, and turn the other; let it be rare or well- 
done, as may be liked; take the steak on a hot dish, add a wine- 
glass or less of boiling water or catsup to the gravy; let it boil 
up once and pour it in the dish with the steak. 

Beef and Onion Stew. — Cut two pounds of meat in pieces 
the size of an egg, and put it into a stewpan with enough warm 
water nearly to cover it; cover the stewpan and let it simmer 
slowly for half an hour; then skim it clear, peel five or six small 
onions and cut them in thick slices; pare half a dozen large 
potatoes and cut them in half, or quarters; add a tablespoon- 
ful of salt, and a small teaspoonful of pepper to the stewed 
meat; then put in the potatoes and onions. If the meat is 
lean, (it is best to have a small portion of fat,) add a bit of 
butter the size of a large egg; shake over it a tablespoonful of 
wheat flour, or work it into the butter; cover the stev/pan close, 
and let it stew gently that it may brown without burning; one 
hour is required for making this stew. If the potatoes are cut 
smaller than halves, they should be put in twenty minutes 
before it is done; half an hour will be required to cook them 
if cut in two. 



HOUSEHOLD. Gil 

To Roast Beef. — Have a bright, clear fire before putting 
down the roast; if it is large, have afire according; let it be a 
clear, steady fire, with a bed of coals at the bottom — this is for 
a wood fire; for a coal fire, make one large enough to last the 
length of time required for the roast (fifteen minutes for each 
pound of meat); make the front of the fire clear from ashes, 
and brush up the hearth; rinse the meat in cold water, wipe it 
dry; mix salt and pepper, a teaspoonful of salt, and asaltspoon- 
ful of pepper for each pound of meat; rub it over every part* 
then put it evenly on the spit, taking care not to run it through 
the best parts; or if it is done in a reflector, set it on a trivet or 
muffin rings, and turn the pan about as occasion may require; 
then put it down at a little distance from the fire, that the out- 
side may not be too much done before the inside is cooked; 
put at least a pint of water into the dripping-pan, with which 
to baste; replenish with boiling water, so that there shall not be 
less than a pint of gravy when the meat is done, for a piece 
weighing five or six pounds; when about half done, clear the 
front of the fire and set it a little nearer; turn the meat so 
that all sides may be done evenly; fifteen minutes before it is 
done, if you please, dredge with the fat of the meat wheat flour 
until it looks white; baste it freely and set it to finish; when 
done, take it on to a large dish and cover with a tin cover; set 
the dripping over the fire, dredge in a small tablespoonful of 
flour, stir it smooth; when it is a fine brown, add a teacupful of 
boiling water, let it boil up, stirring it meanwhile; then pour 
it through a gravy strainer into a tureen; if there is much fat 
skim nearly all of it off; or, instead of dredging in flour, make 
a thin, smooth batter of a tablespoonful of flour, and a small 
cup of cold water; let the gravy in the pan become boiling hot 
before stirring it in; then stir it smooth, and when it is a fine 
rich brown, strain it into the tureen and serve with the meat. 

The vegetables most proper with roast beef are plain boiled 
or mashed potatoes, with boiled spinach, beets or dressed celery, 
and turnips mashed, or squash. If you please, pickles, or 
grated horseradish, may also be served with roaj^t beef instead 
of spinach or celery, with made mustard and catsup in the 
castor. In roasting meat it should be so placed as to bring the 
largest or thickest part nearest the fire. In roasting 'Meat its 



612 HOUSEHOLD. 

juiciness depends on the frequency of basting it, after it has 
fairly begun to roast. 

Veal. — Veal should not be kept long before dressing, as it 
by no means improves by keeping. The loin is apt to taint 
under the kidney. When soft and slimy it is stale; it will be 
cool and firm and have an agreeable smell when fresh. 

In the shoulder, if the vein is a clear red, it is good. When 
there are any yellow or dark spots it is stale. The breast and 
neck, when good, look white and clear. Veal must always be 
well cooked. The leg of veal is generally boiled or made soup 
of. The loin also may be boiled, but it is best roasted, and 
cut into chops and broiled and fried. The shoulder may be 
roasted; it may be boned and stuffed and then roasted, or it 
may be split, after having been boned, and fried or broiled. 
The breast may be roasted, stewed, or broiled, or made a pie. 
Steaks are cut from leg or shoulder. The neck, or scrag, may 
be cut in chops and fried, broiled, or stewed; or a dish of soup 
may be made of it. 

Calf's liver is cut in steaks, and fried like beef liver, or it 
may be broiled and buttered. 

Veal sweet-breads are roasted with the breast, or they may 
be fried or stewed. 

Calf's head may be boiled and served with a sauce, and a 
soup made of the liquor in which it is boiled. 

The head and feet are used for making jellies. 

To Broil Veal. — Put in hot water (not boiling) to cover 
it, put to it a teaspoonful of salt, cover the pot, and let it boil 
very gently, taking off the scum as it rises; allow fifteen min- 
utes for each pound of meat; four pounds of meat will require 
one hour gentle boiling. Serve boiled veal with drawn butter, 
or oysters, or lemon, or parsley sauce, and plain boiled pota- 
toes with pickles, or lettuce, or celery. Boil the loin and 
serve with egg sauce. 

Calf's Head. — Clean it very nicely and soak it in salt and 
water, that it may look white (clean as directed for beef tripe), 
take out the eyes, take out the tongue to salt, and the brains to 
make a little dish; boil the head very tender, and serve with a 
sauce, or take it up, put bits of butter all over it, dredge with 



HOUSEHOLD. 613 

flour, and season with pepper and finely sifted sweet herbs, if 
liked, set it in a hot oven or before the fire; baste with some of 
the water in which it was boiled, or squeeze the juice of a 
lemon over; roast it a fine brown; then take it on a hot dish 
and put on a tin cover; add a piece of butter, the size of an 
egg, to the gravy; cut a small lemon in thin slices, and make 
the gravy boiling hot; add them to it; let them fry brown, then 
put a teaspoonful of browned flour, and a teacup of boiling 
water to the gravy, and serve with the meat. Tho lemon may 
be dispensed with if preferred — it will generally be liked. 

To Make a Dish of Calf's Brains. — Wash them in salt 
and water, then boil them tender, and take them in a dish; put 
butter and pepper over, and serve. Or, after washing the 
brains in salt and water, wipe them dry, and dip them in wheat 
flour, or in beaten egg, and then into bread crumbs, and fry 
in hot lard or beef dripping; season with pepper and salt, and 
slices of lemon fried, if liked. 

Calf's Head Cheese. — Boil a calf's head in water enough 
to cover it, until the meat leaves the bones, then take it with a 
skimmer into a wooden bowl or tray; take from it every parti- 
cle of bone; chop it small; season with pepper and salt, a heap- 
ing teaspoonful of salt, and a teaspoonful of pepper will be 
sufficient; if liked, add a teaspoonful of finely chopped sweet 
herbs; lay a cloth in a cullender, put the minced meat in it, 
then fold the cloth closely over it, lay a plate over, and on it a 
gentle weight. When cold it may be sliced for supper or sand- 
wiches. Spread each slice with made mustard. 

Calf's Head (a fine dish). — Boil a calf's head (after 
having cleaned it), until tender, then split it in two, and keep 
the best half (bone in it if you like); cut the meat from the 
other in uniform pieces, the size of an oyster; put bits of butter 
the size of a nutmeg all over the best half of the head; 
sprinkle pepper over, and dredge on flour until it looks white, 
then set it on a trivet or muffin rings in a dripping pan; put a 
cup of water into the pan and set it in a hot oven or before a 
hot fire; turn it that it may brown evenly; baste once or twice. 
Whilst this is doing, dip the prepared pieces of the head in 
wheat flour or batter, and fry in hot lard or beef dripping, a 



ei4 HOUSEHOLD. 

delicate brown; season with pepper and salt, and slices of 
lemon, if liked. When the roast is done put it in a hot dish, lay 
the fried pieces around it and cover with a tin cover; put 
the gravy from the dripping pan into the pan in which the 
pieces were fried, with the slices of lemon, and a teaspoonful 
of browned flour, and, if necessary, a little hot water. Let it 
boil up once, and strain it into a gravy boat and serve with the 
meat. 

Veal Chops. — Cut your chops about an inch thick; beat 
them flat with a rolling pin, put them in a pan, pour boiling 
water over them, and set them over the fire for five minutes; 
then take them up and wipe them dry; mix a tablespoonful of 
salt and a teaspoonful of pepper for each pound of meat; rub 
each chop over with this, then dip them, first into beaten egg, 
then into rolled crackers as much as they will take up; then 
finish by frying in hot lard or beef dripping; or broil them. 
For the broil have some sweet butter on a steak dish; broil the 
chops until well done, over a bright, clear fire of coals (let 
them do gently that they may be well done) then take them 
on to the butter, turn them carefully over once or twice in it, 
and serve. Or, dip the chops into a batter, made of one egg 
beaten with half a teacup of milk, and as much wheat flour as 
may be necessary. Or, simply dip the chops without parboil- 
ing into wheat flour; make some lard or beef fat hot in a fry- 
ing pan; lay the chops in, and when one side is a fine, delicate 
brown, turn the other. When all are done, take them up, put 
a very little hot water into the pan, then put it into the dish 
with the chops. 

Or, make a flour gravy thus: After frying them as last di- 
rected, add a tablespoonful more of fat to that in the pan, let 
it become boiling hot; make a thin batter, of a small table- 
spoonful of wheat flour and cold water; add a little more salt 
and pepper to the gravy, then gradually stir in the batter; stir 
it until it is cooked and a nice brown; then put it over the 
meat, or in a dish with it; if it is thicker than is liked, add a 
little boiling water. 

Veal Stewed with Vegetables {Ragout). — ^Wash three 
pounds of veal in cold water, then cut it small and put it in a 
stewpan with water nearly to cover it; add a tablespoonful of 



HOUSEHOLD. G15 

salt and a teaspoonful of pepper; cover the stewpan, and let it 
simmer for twenty minutes, then skim it clear. Whilst the meat 
is stewing, scrape one large or two small carrots and cut them 
in thin slices, a quarter of an inch thick, notch the edges, and put 
them in a stewpan, with boiling water to cover them, and set it 
over the fire until they are tender; dip a bunch of parsley into 
boiling water and mince it fine; cut a leek into thin slices; pare 
and cut six small potatoes in halves or quarters, then take- the 
carrot from the water with a skimmer; put quarter of a pound 
of sweet butter to the meat; dredge over it a tablespoonful of 
browned flour, and add the vegetables; cover the stewpan and 
let it stew gently for an hour; then take the meat on a dish, put 
,the vegetables around it, pour the gravy over, and serve. 

To Roast Veal. — Rinse the meat in cold water; if any 
part is bloody, wash it off; make a mixture of pepper and salt, 
allowing a large teaspoonful of salt and saltspoonful of pepper 
for each pound of meat; wipe the meat dry; then rub the sea- 
soning into every part, shape it neatly and fasten it with skewers, 
and put it on a spit, or set it on a trivet or muffin rings, in 
a pan; stick bits of butter over the whole upper surface; dredge 
a little flour over, put a pint of water into the pan to baste with, 
and roast it before the fire in a Dutch oven or reflector, or put 
it into a hot oven; baste it occasionally, turn it if necessary that 
every part may be done; if the water wastes, add more, that the 
gravy may not burn; allow fifteen minutes for each pound of 
meat; a piece weighing four or five pounds will then require one 
hour or an hour and a quarter. When it is nicely browned 
and done, take it up; add a bit of butter the size of a large egg 
to the gravy, dredge in a tablespoonful of flour, stir it smooth, 
let it brown, add a cup of boiling water to it; then strain it into 
a gravy-boat, and serve with the meat; serve plain boiled or 
mashed potatoes with the meat, with such green vegetables as 
may be liked. 

Plain boiled or mashed potatoes, with any other vegetable 
which may be liked may be served with roast veal; also pickles 
of any kind. 

Veal Hashed. — Cut a pound of cold veal small, season it 
to taste with pepper and salt, dredge a small teaspoonful of 
wheat flour over it, add a bit^pf butter the size of an egg, put 



816 HOUSEHOLD. 

it in a stewpan, put water enough to make it moist; then cover 
it close and set it over a gentle fire for half an hour; stir it 
occasionally; if liked, a bunch of parsley may be cut small and 
added to it; when half done, toast some thin slices of bread 
delicately brown, cut it in small squares or diamonds, and serve 
the hash on it, for breakfast. A glass of wine may be added. 

Veal Pie. — Cut a breast of veal small and put it in a stew- 
pan, with hot water to cover it; add to it a tablespoonful of salt 
and set it over the fire; take off the scum as it rises; when the 
meat is tender, turn it into a dish to cool; take out all the small 
bones, butter a tin or earthen basin or pudding-pan, line it 
with a pie paste (see clam pie), lay some of the parboiled meat 
In to half fill it, put bits of butter the size of a hickory nut. 
all over the meat, shake pepper over, dredge wheat flour over 
until it looks white; then fill it nearly to the top with some of 
the water in which the meat was boiled, roll a cover for the top 
of the crust, puff paste it, giving it two or three turns, and roll 
it to nearly half an inch thickness; cut a slit in the centre and 
make several small incisions on either side of it; lay some 
skewers across the pie, put the crust on, trim the edges neatly 
with a knife, bake one hour in a quick oven. A breast of veal 
will make two quart basin pies; half a pound of nice corned 
pork, cut in thin slices and parboiled with the meat, will make 
it very nice, and little, if any, butter will be required for the 
pie; when pork is used no other salt will be necessary. 

Potato and Veal Pie. — Peel and cut small some cold 
boiled potatoes; cut some cold veal small; put some of the meat 
in the bottom of a baking dish, or tin basin, put on a layer of 
potatoes, sprinkle pepper and salt over and bits of butter; then 
another layer of meat and potatoes and seasoning, and so con- 
tinue until the pan is nearly full, then add to it water or gravy 
to moisten it; cover it with a pie crust, and bake in a quick 
oven for three-quarters of an hour. 

To Boil Pickled Beef. — Put on the fire in cold water; let 
it simmer slowly, allowing fifteen minutes to every pound; do 
not let it boil; keep skimming or it will look dirty; if it is left in 
the pot until the water is cold it will be much more tender. 

Spiced Beef. — Take a piece of beef from the fore-quartei) 



HOUSEHOLD. 617 

weighing ten pounds. Those who like fat should select a fatty 
piece; those who prefer lean may take the shoulder clod, or 
upper part of the fore-leg. Take one pint of salt, one teacup 
of molasses or brown sugar, one tablespoonful of ground cloves, 
allspice and pepper, and two tablespoonfuls of pulverized salt- 
petre. Place the beef in a deep pan; rub with this mixture; 
turn and rub each side twice a day for a. week; then wash 
off the spices; put in a pot of boiling water, and, as often as it 
boils hard, turn in a teacupful of cold water. It must simmer 
for five hours, oh the back part of the stove. Press under a 
heavy weight until it is cold, and you will never desire to try 
corned-beef of the butcher again. Your pickle will do for 
another ten pounds of beef, first rubbing into it a handful of 
salt. It can be renewed and a piece kept in preparation every 
day. This is good to pickle tongues also. 

Beef. — To pickle for drying or boiling, thoroughly rub 
salt into it, and let it remain twenty-four hours to draw off the 
blood; after which drain and pack as desired; have ready a 
pickle prepared as follows: For every one hundred pounds of 
beef, seven pounds of salt, one ounce of saltpetre, one quart 
of molasses, eight gallons of soft water; boil and skim well; 
when cold pour it over the beef. Pieces designed for drying 
should be taken out in two weeks, and soaked over night, to 
take the salt from the outside. 

Remains of Roast Beef. — Take off with a sharp knife all 
the meat from the bones, chop it fine, take cold giavy without 
the fat, put it in the spider to heat; if you have not this, some 
of the water in which the bones were boiled; when it boils up, 
sprinkle in salt and put in the minced meat; cover it and let it 
stand upon the fire long enough to heat it thoroughly, then stir 
in a small piece of butter, toast bread, and lay in a dish; put 
the meat over it; serve hot. 

Boiling Meat. — There is all the difference in the world 
between boiling meat which is to be eaten, and meat whose 
juices are to be extracted in the form of soup. If the meat is 
required as nourishment, of course you want the juices kept 
in. To do this, it is necessary to plunge it into boiling water, 
which will cause the albumen in the meat to coagulate suddenly 



818 HOUSEHOLD. 

and act as a plug or stopper to all the tubes^of the meat, so 
that the nourishment will be tightly kept in. The temperature 
of the water should be kept at boiling point for five minutes, 
and then as much cold water must be added as will reduce the 
temperature to one hundred and sixty-five degrees. Now if 
the hot water, in which the meat is being cooked, is kept at 
this temperature for some hours, we have all the conditions 
united, which give to the flesh the quality best adapted for its 
use as food. The juices are kept in the meat, and, instead of 
being called upon to consume an insipid mass of indigestible 
fibres, we have a tender piece of meat, from which, when cut, 
the imprisoned juice runs freely. If the meat be allowed to 
remain in the boiling water, without the addition of any cold 
water to it, it becomes in a short time altogether cooked, but 
it will also be almost indigestible, and therefore unpalatable. 

To Bake a Ham. — Most persons boil a ham, but a first- 
rate Virginia housewife tells us it is much better if baked prop- 
erly. Soak it for an hour or more and wipe dry. Next spread 
it all over with a batter made of flour and water; put it into a 
deep pan with muffin rings or bits of oak wood under it to 
keep it out of the gravy. When fully done — it will take from 
five to seven hours — take off the skin and batter crusted upon 
the flesh side and set it away to cool, or glaze it by the follow- 
ing recipe: 

Glazed Ham. — Beat the yolks of two eggs very light. 
Spread them all over your ham; then sift over fine cracker 
crumbs, and set in the oven to brown. Currant jelly may be 
used instead of yolks of eggs, and is very nice. 

Poultry u,nd Game. — To Clean Poultry. — First be very 
careful to singe off all down by holding over a blazing paper, 
or a little alcohol burning in a saucer. Cut off the feet and 
the ends of the wings, and the neck as far as it is dark. If the 
fowl is killed at home, be sure that the head is chopped off, 
and never allow the neck to be wrung, as is often done. It is 
not only an unmerciful vvay of killing, but the blood has thus 
no escape, and settles about all the vital organs. The head 
should be cut off, and the body hang and bleed thoroughly be- 
fore using. 

Pick out all the pin-feathers with the blade of a small knife. 



HOUSEHOLD. 619 

Turn back the skin of the neck, loosening- it with the finger 
and thumb, and draw out the windpipe and crop, which can 
be done without making any cut. Now cut a slit in the lower 
part of the fowl, the best place being close to the thigh. By 
working the fingers in slowly, keeping them close to the body, 
the whole intestines can be removed in a mass. Be especially 
careful not to break the gall-bag, which is near the upper part 
of the breastbone, and attached to the liver. If this operation 
is carefully performed, it will be by no means so disagreeable 
as it seems. A French cook simply wipes out the inside, con- 
sidering that much flavor is lost by washing. We prefer to 
wash in one water, and dry quickly, though in the case of an 
old fowl, which often has a strong smell, it is better to dis- 
solve a teaspoonful of soda in the first water, which should be 
warm, and wash again in cold, then wiping dry as possible. 
Slit and wash the gizzard, reserving it for gravy. 

Dressing for Poultry. — One pint of bread or cracker 
crumbs, into which mix dry one teaspoonful of pepper, one of 
thyme or summer savory, one even tablespoonful of salt, and, 
if in season, a little chopped parsley. Melt a piece of butter 
the size of an egg in one cup of boiling water, and mix with 
the crumbs, adding one or two well-beaten eggs. A slice of 
salt pork chopped fine is often substituted for the butter. 

For ducks two onions are chopped fine, and added to the 
above; or a potato dressing is made, as for geese, using six 
large boiled potatoes, mashed hot, and seasoned with an even 
tablespoonful of salt, a teaspoonful each of sage and pepper, 
and two chopped onions. 

Game is usually roasted unstuffed, but grouse and prairie- 
chickens may have the same dressing as chickens and turkeys, 
this being used also for boiled fowls. 

Roast Turkey. — Prepare by cleaning, as in general direc- 
tions above, and, when dry, rub the inside with a teaspoonful 
of salt. Put the gizzard, heart, and liver on the fire in a small 
saucepan, with one quart of boiling water and one teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and boil two hours. Put a little stuffing in the 
breast, and fold back the skin of the neck, holding it with a 
stitch or with a small skewer. Put the remainder in the body, 
and sew it up with darning cotton. Cross and tie the legs 

M 



620 HOUSEHOLD. 

down tight, and run a skewer through the wings to fasten them 
to the body. Lay it in the roasting-pan, and for an eight- 
pound turkey allow not less than three hours' time, a ten or 
twelve pound one needing four. Put a pint of boiling water 
with one teaspoonful of salt in the pan, and add to it as it 
dries away. Melt a heaping tablespoonful of butter in the 
water and baste very often. The secret of a handsomely- 
browned turkey lies in this frequent basting. Dredge over the 
flour two or three times, as in general roasting directions, and 
turn the turkey so that all sides will be reached. When done, 
take up on a hot platter. Put the baking-pan on the stove, 
having before this chopped the gizzard and heart fine, and 
mashed the liver, and put them in the gravy-tureen. Stir a 
tablespoonful of brown flour into the gravy in the pan, scraping 
up all the brown, and add slowly the water in which the gib- 
lets. were boiled, which should be about a pint. Strain on to 
the chopped giblets, and taste to see if salt enough. The gravy 
for all roast poultry is made in this way. Serve with cranberry 
sauce or jelly. 

R0A.ST OR Boiled Chickens. — Stuff and truss as with tur- 
keys, and to a pair of chickens weighing two and a half pounds 
each, allow one hour to roast, basting often, and making a 
gravy as in precedent recipe. Boil as in rule for turkeys. 

Roast Duck. — After cleaning, stuff as in rule given for 
poultry dressing, and roast — if game, half an hour; if tame, 
one hour, making gravy as in directions given, and serving 
with currant jelly. 

Birds. — Small birds may simply be washed and wiped dry, 
tied firmly, and roasted twenty minutes, dredging with flour, 
basting with butter and water, and adding a little currant jelly 
or wine to the gravy. They may be served on toast. 

Boiled Turkey. — Clean, stuff, and truss the fowl selected, 
as for a roasted turkey. The body is sometimes filled with 
oysters. To truss in the tightest and most compact way, run 
a skewer under the leg-joint, between the leg and the thigh, 
then run through the body and under the opposite leg-joint in 
the same way; push the thighs up firmly close to the sides; 
wind a string about the ends of the skewer, and tie it tight. 
Treat the wings in the same way, though in boiled fowls the 



HOUSEHOLD. 621 

points are sometimes drawn under the back, and tied there. 
The turkey may be boiled with or without cloth around it. In 
either case use boiling water, salted as for stock, and allow 
twenty minutes to the pound. It is usually served with oyster 
sauce, but parsley or capers may be used instead. 

Boned Turkey. — This is a delicate dish, and is usually 
regarded as an impossibility for any ordinary house-keeper: 
and, unless one is getting up a supper or other entertainment, 
it is hardly worth while to undertake it. If the legs and wings 
are left on, the boning becomes more difficult. The best plan 
is to cut off both them and the neck, boiling all with the tur- 
key, and using the meat for croquettes or hash. 

Draw only the crop and windpipe, as the turkey is more 
easily handled before dressing. Choose a fat hen turkey of 
some six or seven pounds weight, and cut off legs up to second 
joint, with half the wings and the neck. Now, with a very 
sharp knife, make a clean cut down the entire back, and, hold- 
ing the knife close to the body, cut away the flesh, first on one 
side, and then another, making a clean cut around the pope's 
nose. Be careful, in cutting down the breastbone, not to break 
through the skin. The entire meat will now be free from the 
bones, save the pieces remaining in legs and wings. Cut out 
these, and remove all sinews. Spread the turkey skin-side 
down on the board. Cut out the breasts, and cut them up in 
long, narrow pieces, or as you like. Chop fine a pound and a 
half of veal or fresh pork, and a slice of ham also. Season 
with one teaspoonful of salt; a saltspoonful each of mace and 
pepper; half a saltspoonful of cayenne and the juice of a 
lemon. Cut half a pound of cold boiled smoked tongue into 
dice. Make layers of this force-meat, putting half of it on 
the turkey and then the dice of tongue, with strips of the 
breast between, using force-meat for the last layer. Roll up 
the turkey in a tight roll, and sew the skin together. Now roll 
it firmly in a napkin, tying at the ends and across in two 
places to preserve the shape. Cover it with boiling water, 
salted as for stock, putting in all the bones and giblets, and 
two onions stuck with two cloves each. Boil four hours. Let 
it cool in the liquor. Take up in a pan, lay a tin sheet on it, 
and press with a heavy weight. Strain the water in which it 



62$ HOUSEHOLD. 

was boiled, and put in a cold place. Next day take off the 
napkin and set the turkey in the oven a moment to melt off any 
fat. It can be sliced and eaten in this way, but makes a hand- 
somer dish served as follows: 

Remove the fat from the stock, and heat three pints of it 
to boiling-point, adding two-thirds of a package of gelatine 
which has been soaked in a little cold water. Strain a cupful 
of this into some pretty mold — an ear of corn is a good shape 
— and the remainder in two pans or deep plates, coloring each 
with caramel — a teaspoonful in one, and two in the other. 
Lay the turkey on a small platter turned face down in a larger 
one, and, when the jelly is cold and firm, put the molded 
form on top of it. Now cut part of the jelly into rounds with 
a pepper-box top, or a small star-cutter, and arrange around 
the mold, chopping the rest and piling about the edge, so 
that the inner platter or stand is completely concealed. The 
outer row of jelly can have been colored red by cutting up, 
and boiling in the stock for it, half of a red beet. Sprigs of 
parsley or delicate celery-tops may be used as garnish, and it 
is a very elegant-looking as well as savory dish. The legs and 
wings can be left on and trussed outside, if liked, making it as 
much as possible in the original shape; but it is no better, and 
much more irouble. 

JeL ,ied Chicken. — Tenderness is no object here, the most 
anci'^'nt dweller in the barnyard answering equally well, and 
/en better than " broilers." 

Draw carefully, and, if the fowl is old, wash it in water in 
which a spoonful of soda has been dissolved, rinsing in cold. 
Put on in cold water, and season with a tablespoonful of salt 
and a half teaspoonful of pepper. Boil till the meat slips 
easily from the bones, reducing the broth to about a quart. 
Strain, and, when cold, take off the fat. Where any floating 
particles remain, they can always be removed by laying a 
piece of soft paper on the broth for a moment. Cut the breast 
in long strips, and the rest of the meat in small pieces. Boil two 
or three eggs hard, and, when cold, cut in thin slices. Slice a 
lemon very thin. Dissolve half a package of gelatine in a little 
cold water; heat the broth to boiling-point, and add a salt- 
spoonful of mace, and, if liked, a glass of sherry, though it is 



HOUSEHOLD. 623 

not necessary, pouring it on the gelatine. Choose a pretty 
mold, and lay in strips of the breast; then a layer of egg slices, 
putting them close against the mold. Nearly fill with chicken, 
laid in lightly; then strain on the broth till it is nearly full, and 
set in a cold place. Dip for an instant in hot water before 
turning out. It is nice as a supper or lunch dish, and very 
pretty in effect. 

Turkey and Chicken Stuffing. — Three teacups of 
grated bread crumbs (no crust and not a drop of water), one 
cup finely chopped suet, two-thirds of a cup of chopped pars- 
ley, a tablespoonful of sweet marjoram and summer savory, 
one-half teaspoonful of pepper, one teaspoonful of salt, one or 
two eggs, beaten. 

To Boil a Chicken or Turkey. — It is not every house- 
wife who knows how best to boil a chicken. Plain, artless 
boiling is apt to produce a yellowish, slimy looking fowl. 
Before cooking, the bird should always be well washed in tepid 
water and lemon juice, and to insure whiteness, delicacy and 
succulence, should be boiled in a soup of flour and water; 
after being put in the boiling water should be allowed to sim- 
mer slowly. This method is very effectual in preserving all 
the juices of the fowl, and the result is a more toothsome and 
nourishing morsel than the luckless bird which has been " gal- 
loped to death" in plain boiling. 

Escalloped Turkey. — Take the remains of cold turkey, 
from which remove all the bones and gristle; chop the meat in 
small pieces. Place in an earthen dish a layer of powdered 
cracker, moistened with milk; then add a layer of turkey sea- 
soned with pepper and salt, then another layer of powdered 
cracker, and then one of turkey, and so on until the dish is 
filled; over that pour the gravy you may have left, or a little 
hot water and butter. Finish the top with the powdered 
cracker, moisten with a beaten egg and sweet milk, bake one 
hour. Cover the dish for the first half hour, that the top may 
not become too brown. 

Prairie Chickens, Partridges and Quail. — Clean nicely, 
using a little soda in the water in which they are washed; rinse 
them and drain, and fill with dressing, sewing them up nicely. 



634 HOUSEHOLD. 

and binding down the legs and wings with cord. Put them in 
a steamer and let them cook ten minutes. Then put them in a 
pan with a little butter, set them in the oven and baste fre- 
quently until of a nice brown. They ought to brown in about 
thirty-five minutes. Serve them in a platter with sprigs of 
parsley alternated with currant jelly. 

A Nice Way to Cook Pigeons. — Stuff the birds with a 
rich bread dressing; place compactly in an iron or earthen 
dish; season with salt, pepper, and butter (or, if you like best, 
thin slices of salt pork over the top), dredge thickly with flour 
and nearly cover them with water. Then put over a closely 
fitting plate or cover, and place the dish in a moderate oven, 
from two to four, or even five, hours, according to the age of 
the birds. If the birds are old and tough, this is the best way 
they can be cooked, and they may be made perfectly tender 
and much sweeter than by any other process. If the gravy is 
insufficient, add a little water before dishing. 

To Pot Birds. — Prepare them as for roasting. Fill each 
with a dressing made as follows: Allow for each bird of the 
size of a pigeon one-half of a hard boiled egg, chopped fine, 
atablespoonful of bread crumbs, a teaspoonful of chopped 
pork; season the bird with pepper and salt; stuff them, lay 
them in a kettle that has a tight cover. Place over the birds a 
few slices of pork, add a pint of water, dredge over them a 
little flour, cover and put them in a hot oven. Let them cook 
until tender, then add a little cream and butter. If the sauce 
is too thin, thicken with flour. One pint of water is sufficient 
for twelve birds. 

Quail on Toast. — After the birds are well cleaned, cut 
them open on the back, salt and pepper them, and dredge them 
very lightly with flour. Break them down so they will lie flat, 
and broil them on a gridiron, or place them in a pan with a 
little butter and a little water in a hot oven, covering them 
closely for awhile, until about done. Then take them up and 
place in a spider on top of the stove, and let them fry a nice 
brown. Have ready slices of baker's bread well toasted and 
slightly buttered. The toast should be broken down with a 
carving knife to make the crust tender; on this place your 
quails. Make a gravy of the drippings in the pan, thickened 



HOUSEHOLD: 635 

very lightly with browned flour, and pour over each quail. 
The quails should only be allowed to fry just long enough to 
brown nicely, and not .long enough to dry out; five minutes 
ought to be sufficient. 

Fricassee Chicken. — Cut up, wash and dry a pair of 
chickens, put into a stewpan a tablespoonful of butter; let it 
boil; lay the chickens into this and shake them about, turning 
them and giving each piece a little glazed look; then add water 
enough to cover the fowls, and let stew slowly from forty min- 
utes to an hour. Just before serving let it come to a keen boil, 
and stir in a teacupful of milk or sweet cream, in which a heap- 
ing tablespoonful of flour has been stirred. Let it cook five 
minutes and pour into a dish over which some freshly baked 
powder biscuits have been opened and spread. Season with 
salt and pepper. 

EsCALLOPED Chicken. — Cold chicken, chiefly the white 
meat, one cup of gravy, one tablespoonful of butter, and one 
egg, well beaten, one cup of fine bread crumbs, pepper and salt- 
Take from the chicken all gristle and skin, and cut, not chop, 
into pieces not less than half an inch long. Have ready the 
gravy, or some rich drawn butter in a saucepan on the fire. 
Thicken it well, and stir into it the chicken; boil up once, take 
it off and add the beaten egg; cover the bottom of a buttered 
dish with bread crumbs, pour in the mixture, and put in another 
thick layer of crumbs on top, sticking butter all over it. Bake 
to a delicate brown in a quick oven. Turkey may be used 
instead of chicken; also veal. 

Chicken Pie. — Stew until tender two chickens in just 
enough water to stew them. Make a nice crust, line a deep 
dish with it; when the chickens are done remove all the bones; 
put the chickens into the dish in which they are to be baked; 
thicken the gravy with a little flour and cream; add a can of 
oysters; season with salt, pepper and butter; cover the pie wkh 
a crust, and bake quickly. This is very nice. 

Rice and Chicken Pie. — Boil a pint or more of rice; 
stir in a teaspoonful of butter, a little milk, two eggs and a little 
salt. Fricassee two chickens; cover the bottom of a long 
^dish with rice, then a layer of chicken, and so on, until it is 



0:36 household; 

full; save out some of the gravy of the fricassee to eat on the 
rice; cover the whole with the yolk of an egg and brown it. 
Curry may be put into the chicken if liked. One chicken 
makes a good sized dish. 

Chicken Telly. — Boil the chicken until tender; cut with a 
knife fine, put it in a dish or mold; season with salt, pepper, a 
little summer savory and a teaspoonful of vinegar; boil the 
bones in the broth awhile and pour over. When cold it will 
turn out. 

To Choose a Goose. — Be careful in choosing a goose that 
it is young; an old goose is very poor fare. If the skin and 
joints are tender and easily broken with the finger, it is young; 
a fat goose is best. The feet and bill of a young goose are 
yellow; in an old one they are red. When fresh killed, the feet 
are pliable; if stale, they will be dry and stiff. The loose fat 
from the inside of a goose should be taken out, and the fat 
from the lower part of the back. Goose grease may be used 
medically, but not for eating. Some persons use it for making 
pie crust and for common molasses cake instead of other short- 
ening. 

To Roast a Goose. — Pick it perfectly clean, cut off the 
legs at the joints, and singe it nicely; cut off the vent, cut a 
slit from the breast bone to it, or across, below the breast bone; 
draw out the entrails, take off that leading to the vent; take out 
all the loose fat; save the heart and liver; cut a slit at the back 
of the neck, and draw out the crop; cut off a part of the neck, 
leave enough of the skin to fasten over against the back; wash 
the inside of the body with cold water, wipe it dry, and rub it 
well with a mixture of salt and pepper; prepare the stuffing. 

Cut a sixpenny loaf of wheat bread in slices; pour hot water 
over to wet them; then add a teaspoonful of salt and the same 
of ground pepper, and quarter of a pound of sweet butter, with 
a tablespoonful of finely powdered sage or thyme, if liked. Fill 
the body, then sew up the slit, tie the ends of the legs together, 
or cut a place and put them in the body; pass a skewer through 
the hips; put the heart and liver between the wings and the 
body, and fasten close to it with a skewer; spit it; put a pint of 
water in the pan to baste with; have a bright, steady and clear 
fipe^ with a bed of coals at the bottom^ and set the goos^ at a 



HOUSEHOLD. 627 

little distance at first, until it is heated through; put ateaspoon- 
ful of salt to the water in the pan, and baste freely with it after 
it has begun to roast; put one side to the fire first, then the 
other; after that the back, and lastly the breast, that it may be 
evenly done; gradually draw it nearer the fire; when nearly 
done, stir up the fire, put quarter of a pound of butter in the 
pan and baste with it; dredge a little flour over it; turn it that 
every part may be browned; allow fifteen minutes for each 
pound of meat. It must be well done, which will depend on 
the state and management of the fire. 

If the gravy is very fat, take some of it off; put the pan over 
the fire, let it become hot, then stir into it a thin batter made 
of a tablespoonful of wheatflour and cold water; stir it until it 
is brown and smooth; if it is thicker than is liked, add a little 
boiling water; stir it in and pour it through a gravy-strainer 
into a tureen. 

A goose may be equally well dressed in a hot oven or stove 
Prepare it as directed for roasting; set a trivet or muffin rings 
in a dripping-pan, and place the goose with its back upon the 
trivet or rings; put a pint of hot water in the pan; put bits oi 
butter the size of a large hickory nut over the body; dredge 
wheat flour over, and set in a thoroughly heated brick or stove 
oven; baste it freely and often; when done, take it from the pan; 
cover it, and set it before the fire to keep hot; put the pan over 
the fire; take out the rings or trivet; add a bit of butter the size 
of an egg, and when it is hot stir it into a thin batter made of a 
tablespoonful of wheat flour and cold water; if too thick, add 
hot water to thin it; stir it smooth, and pour through a gravy- 
strainer into a tureen. A lemon sliced thin and fried in the 
gravy before putting in the batter and served over the goose, 
or put in the tureen with the gravy, is liked by some persons. 

The stuffing may be made of boiled potatoes, chopped or 
mashed, instead of bread, and moistened with milk. An onion 
or leek, finely minced, may be added to the gravy, if liked. 
Half a pound of fat corned pork chopped ^mall may be put 
with the stuffing instead of butter for ordinary occasion^ U 
preferred. 

A young goose may be cut up and made in a pie or potpie. 

An old goose may be rendered eatable thus: Empty it and 



638 HOUSEHOLD. 

put it in hot water to cover it, and let it boil until tender, then 
roast it or make a fricassee. 

The vegetables to be served with roast goose are as follows: 
Plain boiled or mashed potatoes, mashed yellow turnips or winter 
squash, apples stewed with sugar, or cranberry jam, boiled 
onions, pickles and dressed celery. 

Dessert — Apple, pumpkin, custard or mince pies. 

To Choose Ducks. — Ducks must be fat and plump and 
thick on the breast. If a duck is young, the skin can be easily 
broken with the finger, and the feet are pliable. Tame ducks 
are prepared for the table the same as young geese. For roast- 
ing, have a hot fire, and baste freely and often; half an hour 
will be sufiicient for the smallest, the larger in proportion. 
Wild ducks should be fat, the claws small, reddish and supple; 
if they are not fresh, on opening the beak there will be a dis- 
agreeable smell. The flesh of the hen is the most delicate. 
Pick them clean without scalding; cut the wings close to the 
body and empty it; cut off a part of the neck, and singe them 
nicely. 

Having drawn wild ducks, wipe them well inside with a 
cloth, rub each outside and in with a mixture of pepper and 
salt, cut a slice of white bread, dip it in hot water, spread it 
thick with butter, sprii.kle pepper over and put it in the body, 
sew it up, truss the legs close to the body and fasten them with 
skewers; then split them or lay them on a trivet in a dripping- 
pan; have a bright, clear fire that they may roast quickly; put 
half a pint of water in the pan, put to it a teaspoonful of salt 
and an onion sliced thin, baste with this ten or twelve minutes 
(to take off the fishy taste peculiar to wild ducks) throw it away, 
put half a pint of hot water in its place, put in a little pepper, 
baste the ducks with butter, dredge a little flour over and 
baste with the water in the pan; turn them that every part may 
be done. Half an hour, with a hot fire and frequent basting, 
will roast them nicely. Serve the ducks as hot as possible. 

Whilst the ducks are roasting, boil the giblets tender in a 
little water, chop or mince them fine, add to the mince pepper 
and salt, a small bit of butter and a tablespoonful of browned 
flour, when the ducks are done put it in the pan with the gravy, 
set it over the fire, stir it for a few minutes, then serve in a 



HOUSEHOLD. 629 

,ureen. Make a glass of wine hot, put to it a tablespoonful of 
currant jelly and white sugar each, and serve with ducks, or 
put a wineglass of port in the pan; a few minutes before taking 
them up baste the ducks once or twice with it; add a table- 
spoonful of jelly and the gravy. 

Or half roast wild ducks without seasoning. When they are 
brought to the table slice the breast, strew over pepper and 
salt, pour a little port wine over, or squeeze the juice of an 
orange or lemon over; add a bit of butter the size of an egg, 
sprinkle over a teaspoonf ul of fine white sugar, cut up the bird 
and set it over a chafing dish, turn it that it may be nicely 
done; or prepare it in this manner and set it on coals before a 
hot fire. 

Canvas Back Ducks. — Canvas back ducks are served in 
the same manner as wild ducks, without the onion in the bast- 
ing; as there is no disagreeable taste to destroy, that is not 
necessary. Canvas back ducks may be served the same as 
goose or tame duck. Roast them according to their size. 

Venison. — The choice of venison is regulated by the fat, 
which when young is thick, clear and close. As it always be- 
gins to taint first towards the haunches, run a knife into that 
part; if it is tainted you will perceive a rank smell, and it will 
have a greenish appearance. 

Venison Steak Fried. — Cut venison steaks from the leg 
or loin, half an inch thick, dip them in rolled crackers or wheat 
flour; make of lard and sweet butter equal parts, or beef drip- 
pings, half the size of an egg, hot in a frying pan, rub the steaks 
over with a mixture of pepper and salt, cover the pan and let 
them fry quickly, until one side is a fine brown, then turn the 
other, and finish frying without the cover; take care that they 
are not over done, then add to the gravy a glass of red wine, or 
a wineglass of hot water, with a tablespoonful of currant jelly, 
stir it over the fire for a few minutes, then put it in the dish 
with the meat, and serve as hot as possible. Steak dishes of 
block tin, with heaters, are used for beef or venison. Lean 
steaks of fat beet cooked in this way are equal to venison, for 
which the beef should be kept till ready to taint, then rinse 
them in cold water, wipe them dry, and finish as directed; the 
steaks should be cut small like venison. 



630 HOUSEHOLD. 

Pork. — Spare-Rib. — Broil the blade-bone and spare-rib 
nicely over a bright clear fire of coals; let it be well done. It is 
best to cover it whilst on the gridiron, as by so doing it is 
sooner done and the sweetness is kept in. Put the inside to 
the fire first, and let it be done nearly through before turning 
it; when done, take it on a hot dish, butter it well, season with 
pepper and salt, and serve hot. 

Sausage Meat. — Take of pork three-quarters, and one of 
beef, chop it fine, put four ounces of fine salt, and one of pep- 
per to every ten pounds of meat; mix the seasoning well into 
the meat; then put it in small muslin bags, tie them close, and 
hang them in a dry, cool cellar. When wanted for use, cut it 
in slices, or form it in small cakes, flour the outside of each, 
and fry in hot lard. Let them be nicely browned. Serve 
with boiled vegetables. Fine hominy may be boiled and served 
with them for breakfast. 

Pork Sausages. — Take such a proportion of fat and lean 
pork as you like, chop it quite fine, and for every ten pounds 
of meat take four ounces of fine salt, and one of fine pepper; 
dried sage or lemon thyme, finely powdered, may be added, if 
liked; a teaspoonful of sage, and the same of ground allspice 
and cloves, to each ten pounds of meat. Mix the seasoning 
through the meat, pack it down in stone pots, or put it in mus- 
lin bags. Or fill the hog's or ox's guts, having first made them 
perfectly clean, thus: empty them, cut them in lengths, and lay 
them three or four days in salt and water, or weak lime water; 
turn them inside out once or twice; scrape >them; then rinse 
them and fill with the meat. 

To Roast a Pig. — Thoroughly clean the pig; then rinse it 
in cold water, wipe it dry; then rub the inside with a mixture 
of salt and pepper, and, if liked, a little pounded and sifted 
sage; make a stuffing thus: cut some wheat bread in slices half 
an inch thick, spread butter on to half its thickness, sprinkled 
with pepper and salt, and, if liked, a little pounded sage and 
minced onion; pour enough hot water over the bread to make 
it moist or soft, then fill the body with it and sew it together, 
or tie a cord around it to keep the dressing in, then spit; put 
a pint of water in the dripping-pan, put into it a tablespoonful 
of salt, and a teaspoonful of pepper, let the fire be hotter at 



HOUSEHOLD. 631 

each end than in the middle, put the pig down at a little dis- 
tance from the fire, baste it as it begins to roast, and gradually 
draw it nearer; continue to baste occasionally, turn it that it may 
be evenly cooked; when the eyes drop out it is done; or a bet- 
ter rule is to judge by the weight, fifteen minutes for each 
pound of meat, if the fire is right. 

Have a bright, clear fire with a bed of coals at the bottom;, 
first put the roast at a little distance, and gradually draw il 
nearer; when the pig is done stir up the fire, take a coarse cloth 
with a good bit of butter in it, and wet the pig all over with it, 
and when the cracking is crisp take it up; dredge a little floui 
into the gravy, let it boil up once, and having boiled the heart, 
liver, etc., tender, and chopped it fine, add to it the gravy, 
give it one boil, then serve. 

To Bake a Pig. — Prepare a pig as for roasting, and lay il 
on a trivet or on mufiin rings in a dripping-pan, stick bits of 
butter all over it, sprinkle pepper and salt over, and dredge 
some flour over; put in a pint or more of water in the pan, then 
set it in a quick or hot oven, baste frequently, when nearly 
done, baste with a spoonful of butter, and close the oven to 
finish; then take it up, dredge a tablespoonful of flour to the 
gravy, set it over the fire to brown, stir it smooth, and if nec- 
essary add a little hot water, let it boil up once, then strain il 
and serve with the pig. Pig to roast or bake may be stuffed 
with boiled potatoes, seasoned with butter, pepper and salt, 
and made soft with a cup of milk. 

Sauces to Serve with Roast Pig or Pork. — Mashed 
potatoes, boiled onions, turnips mashed, pickled beets, man- 
goes of cucumbers, or dressed celery and cranberry sauce, 
stewed apples or currant jelly. 

To Roast a Loin. — Take a sharp penknife and cut the 
skin across, then cut over it in the opposite direction so as to 
form small squares or diamonds; rub every part of it with a 
mixture of salt and pepper, put bits of butter the size of a 
hickory nut over the skin side, and roast or bake it; serve with 
the gravy, boiled potatoes mashed, turnips mashed, and dressed 
celery or pickles, and tart apples stewed without sugar. 

Pork Tender Loin, — This part of pork is the most deli- 



638 HOUSEHOLD, 

cate; it maybe got where pork is cut up for packing or salting. 
It may be fried or broiled; if it is too thick, split it in two. 
Steaks cut from the tender-loin are nice, but not equal to the 
tender-loin which is cut with the grain; steaks are cut across it. 
The chine of pork may be roasted. 

Pig's Feet Soused, — Scald and scrape clean the feet; if the 
covering of the toes will not come off without, singe them in 
hot embers until they are loose, then take them off. Many 
persons lay them in a weak lime-water to whiten them. Having 
scraped them clean and white, wash them and put them in a 
pot of hot (not boiling) water, with a little salt, and let them 
boil gently, until, by turning a fork in the flesh, it will easily 
break, and the bones are loosened. Take off the scum as it 
rises. When done, take them from the hot water into cold 
vinegar, enough to cover them; add to it one-third as much of 
the water in which they were boiled; add whole pepper and 
allspice, with cloves and mace, if liked; put a cloth and tight- 
fitting cover over the pot or jar. Boil until the bones are loose. 
Soused feet may be eaten cold from the vinegar, split in two 
from top to toe; or, having split them, dip them in wheat flour 
and fry in hot lard, or broil and butter them. In either case, 
let them be nicely browned. 

To Boil Ham. — Wash the ham in cold water two or three 
times, and put it into a kettle of hot (not boiling) water to 
cover it; let it boil gently according to its weight (fifteen 
minutes to each pound); it must be kept slowly boiling all the 
time; keep the pot covered, except to take off the scum as it 
rises; if it is likely to boil over, take the lid partly off. 

Putting meat down to boil in cold water draws out its juices. 
Hard or fast boiling makes it tough and hard. Ham which 
has been smoked a long time, should be soaked over night. 
When it is done, take off the skin, trim off the under side 
neatly, and put spots of pepper, and stick cloves at regular 
intervals, over the whole upper surface; or dredge it well 
with wheat flour or roiled crackers, and brown it in a hot 
oven, or before a hot fire. Serve hot with the gravy from it 
and boiled vegetables; or it may be served cold. Trim the 
bone with parsley, or the delicate leaves of celery, and put 
sprigs of the same around it on the dish; lemon sliced and 



HOUSEHOLD. 633 

dipped in flour or batter and fried, may be laid over the ham 
and on the dish. Mashed potatoes, stewed apple, or cranberry, 
celery, or boiled spinach, or cauliflower and mashed turnips are 
served with hot ham. 

With cold ham serve pickles or dressed celery, or both, and 
bread and butter sandwich. 

To Boil a Leg of Pork. — Take a leg of pork which has 
been in pickle for three or four days, soak it for half an hour 
in cold water to make it look white; then tie it in a nicely 
floured cloth, and put it in hot water to cover it. Boil the same 
as ham. When done, take a small sharp knife, and cut through 
the skin in a straight line about a quarter of an inch apart; put 
spots of piepper over and serve with the same vegetables as for 
ham; or with mashed potatoes, turnips mashed, and pickles or 
tart apples stewed without sugar. Currant jelly or cranberries 
may be served with ham or leg of pork. 

Pig's Cheek — Is smoked and boiled like ham with vegeta- 
bles; boiled cabbage or fried parsnips may be served with it. 

Pork Chops, Steaks and Cutlets. — Fry or stew pork 
chops, after taking off the rind or skin, the same as for veal. 
Cutlets and steaks are also fried, broiled, or stewed, the same 
as veal. 

To Fry or Broil Salt Pork and Bacon. — Cut some 
slices from corned pork, or streaked bacon (fat and lean), put 
them in a pan, pour boiling water over, set it over the fire, and 
let it boil up once; then pour the water off, and fry them in 
their own fat, sprinkle with pepper, and, if liked, a little dried 
sage, or thyme, pounded fine; when both sides are nicely 
browned, take them up, put a little hot water or some vinegar 
in the pan, let it boil up once, and put it in the dish with the 
meat. Or, having fried the meat, dredge a teaspoonful of 
flour into the gravy; while it is hot, stir it about; then add 
a little hot water, stir it smooth, and pour into the dish with 
the meat. 

To Broil. — After having parboiled the slices with plenty 
of water in the pan, lay them on a gridiron, over a bright fire 
of coals; sprinkle a little pepper over; when both sides are 
done, put them on a hot dish, put a little butter over and 



634 HOUSEHOLD. 

serve. Or, whilst broiling, dip the slices several times into a 
dish of hot water. 

Salt pork is very nice fried thus: Cut it in thin slices, put 
them in the frying-pan with hot water to cover them; set it 
over the fire, let it boil up once, then pour off the water, shake 
a little pepper over the meat, and fry it nicely in its own fat, 
both sides; then take it up, add to the gravy a large teaspoon- 
ful of flour, stir it smooth; then put to it a cup of milk, 
stir over the fire for a few minutes, shake pepper over, and put 
it in the dish with the meat. 

Cold boiled potatoes, sliced thin, may be fried in the pan, 
after pork or bacon, and served with it; parsnips boiled, cut 
in thin slices and fried, may also be served with fried salt meat. 
Or, having boiled some cabbage or spinach, and pressed all the 
water from it, cut it small, put it on a steak dish, lay the fried 
meat on it, and pour the gravy over. Vinegar is generally 
eaten with the vegetables. 

To Fry Ham. — Cut some large slices from the large end 
of the ham, take off the skin, put them in a frying-pan, and 
pour hot water over; set if over the fire and let it boil up once, 
then pour the water off, take the slices up, put a spoonful of 
lard in the frying-pan and let it become hot; dip the slices in 
rolled cracker or wheat flour, and fry them a nice brown; when 
one side is done, turn the other; then take them on a dish, put 
a very little water in the pan, let it boil up once, put it over 
the meat. Or, if a flour gravy is wanted, make a thin batter 
with a teaspoonful of flour and cold water, and stir it into 
the gravy in the pan, let it brown, and, if too thick, put a little 
hot water to it, stir it smooth, and serve with the meat. 

To Broil Ham, — Cut some slices of ham, quarter of an 
inch thick, lay them in hot water for half an hour, or give 
them a scalding in a pan over the fire, then take them up and 
lay them on a gridiron over bright coals; then take the slices 
on a hot dish, butter them freely, sprinkle pepper over and 
serve. Or, after scaldmg them, wipe them dry, dip each slice 
in beaten egg, and then into rolled crackers and fry or broil. 

Ham Gravy. — When a ham is almost done with, cut 
off what meat remains on the bone, break or saw the bones 
small, and put it into a saucepan with hot water to cover it; 



HOUSEHOLD. 635 

set th^ stewpan over the fire and let it simmer gently; then 
strain it, add a little pepper and fine sage, if liked, dredge in a 
tablespoonful of browned flour, and add a bit of butter; stir it 
over the fire for a few minutes; then, having toasted som$. 
slices of bread a nice brown, lay them in a dish and serve the 
gravy over. Or, serve ham gravy with boiled vegetables. 

Ham and Eggs Fried. — Cut some nice slices of ham, put 
them in a frying-pan, cover them with hot water, and set the 
pan over the fire, let it boil up once or twice, then take out the 
slices and throw out the water; put a bit of lard in the pan, dip 
the slices in wheat flour or rolled crackers, and, when the fat is 
hot, put them in the pan, sprinkle a little pepper over; when 
both sides are a fine brown, take them on a steak dish, put a 
little boiling water into the pan, and put it in the dish with the 
mea*. 

Now put a bit of lard the size of a large egg into the pan, 
add a saltspoonful to it, let it become hot; break six or eight 
eggs carefully into a bowl, then slip them into the hot lard, set 
the pan ever a gentle fire; when the white begins to set, pass a 
knife blade so as to divide an equal quantity of white to each 
yolk, cut it entirely through to the pan that they may cook the 
more quickly; when done, take each one up with a skimmer 
spoon, and lay them in a chain around the meat on the dish. 
Fried eggs should not be turned in the pan. 

Poached Eggs with Fried Ham, — Fry the ham as above 
directed, take a clean frying or omelet pan, nearly fill it with 
boiling water, set it over a gentle fire, break the eggs singly 
into a cup and slip each one into the boiling water, cover the 
pan for four or five minutes; when done, take them up with a 
skimmer on to a dish, sprinkle a little pepper and salt over, 
add a small bit of butter, and serve in a dish or over the ham. 

Pork and Beans. — Take two quarts of dried white beans 
(the small ones are best), pick out any imperfections, and put 
them to soak in hot water, more than to cover them, let them 
remain one night; the next day, about two hours before dinner 
time, throw ofl" the water, have a pound of nicely corned pork; 
a rib piece is best; put the beans in an iron dinner-pot, score 
the rind or skin of the pork in squares or diamonds, and lay it 
on the beans, put in hot (not boiling) water to cover them, add 
9? 



636 HOUSEHOLD. 

a small dried red-pepper, or a saltspoonful of cayenne, cover 
the pot close, and set it over a gentle fire tor one hour; then 
take a tin basin or earthen pudding-pan, rub the inside over 
with a bit of butter, and nearly fill it with the boiled beans, 
lay the pork in the centre, pressing it down a little, put small 
bits of butter over the beans, dredge a little flour over them 
and the pork, and set it in a moderately hot oven for nearly 
one hour. 

Serve in the dish in which it was baked, thus: Lay a nicely 
fringed small napkin on a dinner plate, set the basin or pan on 
that, turn the corners of the napkin up against it, and keep it 
in place by sprigs of green parsley or celery leaves on the plate 
under it, and so continue a wreath around the dish, -concealing 
the pan entirely. Serve pickles and mashed potatoes with it. 

Succotash. — Take of dried sweet corn and white beans, 
one quart of dried sweet corn to one or two of beans. Put the 
beans to soak in a basin with water to cover them; rinse the 
corn in cold water, and put them in a basin with water to cover 
it, let them remain until the next day; within two hours of din- 
ner time, pour the water from the beans, pick out any imper- 
fections, and put them with the corn, with the water in which 
it is soaked, into a dinner-pot; cut a pound of nicely corned 
pork in thin slices, put it to the corn and beans, and put over 
them hot water, rather more than to cover them, add a very 
small red pepper, or a saltspoonful or cayenne, and cover the 
pot close; set it where it will boil very gently, for an hour 
and a half, then put it in a deep dish, add a bit of butter to it 
and serve. The pork may be scored, and not cut up, if pre- 
ferred, and served in a separate dish. 

To Boil Salted or Corned Beef. — ^Wash the brine from 
a piece of corned beef and put it in a pot of hot (not boiling) 
water, take off the scum as it rises, then try if it is tender; let 
it boil gently. When it is done, take it up and press it between 
two plates. 

Cabbage, or spinach, or some other greens, are generally 
boiled with salt beef; put down the beef in time that it may be 
done before it is time to boil the vegetables, and set it to press 
■vvhile the vegetables are boiling. 



HOUSEHOLD. 637 

To Prepare the Cabbage. — Take off the discolored out- 
side leaves, and cut each head in four; look well between the 
leaves to see that no insects are secreted; wash the quarters, 
and put them in the water in which the meat was boiled; set it 
over the fire and let it boil fast for three quarters of an hour; 
if you wish tne potatoes boiled with it, choose large, equal 
sized ones, and put them in with the cabbage; when they are 
done take the potatoes into a covered dish, put the cabbage 
into a cullender, press out all the water. If you wish to have 
the meat hot, after pressing it, put it into the pot ten minutes 
before taking up the vegetables. Serve the cabbage and pota- 
toes in covered dishes, and the meat on an oval dish. 

Parsnip Stew. — Cut half a pound of fat salt pork or bacon 
in slices, and a pound of beef or veal in bits, put them in a 
dinner-pot with very little water. Scrape some parsnips, and 
cut them in slices an inch thick, wash and put them to the 
meat; pare and cut six small sized potatoes in halves. Cover 
the pot close and set it over a bright fire for half an hour; 
then dredge in a tablespoonful of wheat flour, add a small bit 
of butter, and a small teaspoonful of pepper, stir it in, and set 
it over the fire to brown for fifteen minutes. Take the stew 
into a dish and serve. 

Lamb. — To Choose Lamb. — The vein in the neck of a fore- 
quarter of a lamb will be a fine blue, if it is fresh; if it is of a 
green or yellowish color it is stale. 

The hind-quarter first becomes tainted under the kidney. 

A fore-quarter includes the shoulder, neck and breast. 

The pluck is sold with the head, liver, heart and lights. 
The melt is not used with us. 

The fry contains the sweet-breads, skirts, and some of the 
liver. 

Lamb may be hashed, stewed, roasted, fried, broiled, or 
made in a pie, the same as veal. 

To Broil a Breast of Lamb. — Have a clear, bright fire 
of coals; when the gridiron is hot rub it over with a bit of suet, 
then lay on the meat, the inside to the fire first, let it broil 
gently , when it is nearly cooked through turn the other side; 
let it brown nicely, put a good bit of butter on a steak dish, 



638 HOUSEHOLD. 

work a large teaspoonful of salt and a small one of pepper into 
it, lay the meat upon it, turn it once or twice, and serve hot. 
The shoulder may be broiled in the same manner. 

Lamb Stewed with Peas. — Cut the scrag or breast of 
lamb in pieces, and put it in a stewpan with water enough to 
cover it. Cover the stewpan close, and let it simmer or stew 
for fifteen to twenty minutes; take off the scum, then add a 
tablespoonful of salt and a quart of shelled peas; cover the 
stewpan and let them stew for half an hour; work a small 
tablespoonful of wheat flour with a quarter of a pound of but- 
ter, and stir it into the stew; add a small teaspoonful of 
pepper; let it simmer together for ten minutes. Serve with 
new potatoes, boiled. A blade of mace may be added if 
liked. 

Quarter of Lamb Roasted. — Wash a quarter of lamb 
with cold water, mix a large tablespoonful of salt, and a heaping 
teaspoonful of pepper, and rub it well over every part of the 
riieat; then split it, or lay it on muffin rings or a trivet in a 
dripping-pan; put a pint of water in the pan to baste with, set 
it before the fire in a Dutch oven or reflector, or in a hot stove 
oven, baste very often after it begins to roast; lay it so that the 
thickest part may be nearest the fire; allow fifteen minutes for 
each pound of meat; baste with the water in the pan until 
nearly done; add more to it as it wastes, then put to it a quar- 
ter of a pound of butter, baste the meat with it, dredge it white 
with flour, stir up the fire to brown it. 

To Prepare a Quarter of Lamb For Broiling. — Wash 
a quarter of lamb in cold water, then rub it all over with a 
mixture of salt and pepper, dredge well with wheat flour, and 
put in a pot of hot (not boiling) water; cover the pot and let 
it boil gently, allowing fifteen minutes for each pound of meat; 
take off the scum as it rises. Served with boiled potatoes and 
parsley, or drawn butter sauce, and mint sauce, and lettuce 
dressed. Break the leaves from some white heart lettuce and 
rinse each one in cold water, then cut them small, put a tea- 
spoonful of made mustard with a teaspoonfnl of sugar, and 
the same of oil, beat them together in a cup; then add enough 
vinegar to fill a cup, and pour it ov^r the lettuce. 



HOUSEHOLD. 639 

Mutton. — Observations on Mutton. — The pipe which 
runs along the bone inside of a chine or saddle of mutton, 
must be taken out. If it is to be kept any length of time, wipe 
the meat perfectly dry, and rub pepper over it in every part. 
Whenever you find any moisture, wipe it dry, rub it with pep- 
per, and dredge flour over. The kernels should be taken out 
by the butcher. 

Mutton for roasting or steaks should hang as long as it will 
keep without tainting. Let it hang in the air in a cool, dry 
place. Pepper will keep flies from it. The chine or rib bones 
should be wiped every day. The bloody part of the neck 
should be cut off. In the breast the brisket changes first. In 
the hind quarter, the part under and about the kidneys is first 
to taint. Mutton for stewing or broiling should not be so long 
kept. It will not be so fine a color if it is. The lean of mutton 
should be a clear red, fine, close grain, and tender to the 
touch. The fat should be firm and white. Skewer a piece 
of letter paper over the fat of mutton whilst roasting. When 
nearly done, take it off. 

Haunch of Mutton. — Keep the haunch as long as you 
can, and have it sweet, wash it in vinegar and water before 
dressing it. Before putting the meat to the fire, rub it all over 
with a mixture of pepper and salt; make a stiff paste of wheat 
flour and water, roll it thin, and put it over the meat; have a 
large, bright fire, and set the meat at a little distance from it 
(allow fifteen minutes to each pound of meat); when half done, 
take off the paste, draw it nearer the fire, and baste freely 
with water from the pan; turn it so that every part may be 
done; half an hour before taking it up, stir up the fire, put 
quarter of a pound of butter in the pan, baste with it, dredge 
the meat white with flour, baste again, turn the meat over, 
baste freely, and dredge more flour over, and baste again; the 
fire must be bright for finishing. When done, take it up, put 
the dripping-pan over the fire, cut a lemon in thin slices into 
it, dredge in a large tablespoonful of browned flour, stir i* 
smooth for ten minutes, then strain into a gravy tureen, and 
serve with the slices of lemon. Or, instead of a lemon, put a 
wineglass of port wine to the gravy. 

Boiled potatoes, asparagus; or spinach, dressed celery, and 
currant jelly» is served with roast mutton. 



640 HOUSEHOLD. 

Putting the paste over the meat keeps in its juices, and 
therefore makes it sweeter, A gravy may be made of a pound 
of loin of mutton, cut small and simmered in a pint of water 
till reduced to half; salt it a little, stir in a teaspoonful of 
browned flour and a little pepper; let it boil up once, then 
strain it, and serve with the meat and currant jelly. 

A Shoulder of Mutton. — Broil a shoulder of mutton 
over a clear, bright fire of coals, let it broil gently, putting the 
inside to the fire first, cover it with a tin; when nearly done 
through, turn it; let it brown nicely; when it is done, take it 
on to a hot steak dish, sprinkle a small tablespoonful of salt 
and a teaspoonful of pepper over; butter it freely, turn it once 
or twict in the seasoning, turn the inside down, cover it with a 
tin cover, and serve hot, with boiled hominy, or potatoes, for 
breakfast. The shoulder may be boned, before broiling. 

To Broil a Breast of Mutton. — Parboil a breast of 
mutton, then wipe it dry, and broil it as directed for shoulder. 

Mutton Chop Fried. — Cut some fine mutton chops with- 
out much fat; rub over both sides with a mixture of salt and 
pepper, dip them in wheat flour or rolled crackers, and fry in 
hot lard or beef drippings; when both sides are a fine brown, 
take them on a hot dish, put a wineglass of hot water in the 
pan, let it become hot, stir in a teaspoonful of browned flour, 
let it boil up once, and serve in the pan with the meat. A 
tablespoonful of currant jelly may be stirred into the gravy, or 
a wineglass of port wine instead of water. Or, cut a lemon in 
thin slices, take out the pits, and fry them brown with a bit of 
butter in the pan, dredge in a teaspoonful of browned flour, 
add a wineglass of hot water, stir it for a few minutes over 
the fire, then serve in the dish with the meat. 

Leg of Mutton Boiled. — Wash a leg of mutton, dredge 
it well with flour, and wrap it in a cloth, then put it in a pot of 
hot water, and boil according to its weight. Serve with drawn 
butter or parsley sauce, with boiled vegetables and pickles. 

Eggs. — To Choose Eggs. — Fresh eggs, when held to the 
light, the white will look clear, and the yellow distinct; if not 
good, they will have a clouded appearance. 

When eggs are stale, the white will be thin and watery, and 



HOUSEHOLD. 641 

the yolk will not be a uniform color, when broken; if there is 
no mustiness, or disagreeable smell, eggs in this state are not 
unfit for making cakes, puddings, etc. 

Eggs for boiling should be as fresh as possible; a new laid 
egg will generally recommend itself, by the delicate transpa- 
rency of its shell. 

To Boil Eggs. — Wash the shells clean in cold water be- 
fore boiling; have a stewpan of boiling water, into which put 
the eggs; keep it boiling — four minutes for very soft — five, 
that the yolk only may be soft — six minutes will boil the yolk 
hard, for eating. Eight minutes are required to boil eggs for 
salad or garnish. When done, take them from the boiling 
water, into a basin of cold water, which will prevent the yolk 
turning dark or black. 

Egg Omelet. — Five well-beaten eggs, one and a half cups 
of milk, three tablespoonfuls of flour; mix the flour in a little 
milk, and rub smooth, then add milk and flour to eggs, and 
beat well together; grease well with lard a frying-pan 5 put in 
when not very hot, a large teaspoonful, it will cover about half; 
turn with knife when light brown, and roll up as it browns. 

Ham Omelet, — One-half pint of milk, two teaspoonfuls 
of flour, three teaspoonfuls of cracker crumbs, six eggs. Put 
thinly and evenly over the griddle; then immediately scatter 
over it finely minced ham. Double it, then fold again in a 
quarter circle. 

Omelet. — Set a smooth frying-pan on the fire to heat; 
break five eggs into a bowl; put butter the size of an egg into 
a heated pan, give twelve strong beats to your eggs, and, when 
the butter begins to boil, pour in the eggs. Draw up the eggs 
from the bottom of the pan, but do not stir, simply shake the 
pan. When the bottom is well done, and the top a little soft, 
fold over and put on a platter. Serve immediately. This may 
be varied by the addition of three tablespoonfuls of milk. 

Baked Eggs. — Six eggs, four tablespoonfuls of good gravy, 
veal, beef or poultry; the latter is particularly nice; one hand- 
ful of bread crumbs, six rounds of buttered toast or fried 
bread. Put the gravy into a shallow baking dish, break the 
eggs into this, pepper and salt them, and strew the bread 



643 HOUSEHOLD. 

crumbs over them. Bake for five minutes in a quick oven. 
Take up the eggs carefully, one by one, and lay upon the toast, 
which must be arranged on a hot, flat dish. Add a little 
cream, and, if you like, some very finely chopped parsley and 
onion to the gravy left in the baking dish, and turn it into a 
saucepan. Boil up once quickly, aud pour over the eggs. 

Eggs Sur le Prat, — Six eggs, one tablespoonful of but- 
ter, or nice dripping, pepper and salt to taste. Melt the butter 
on a stone china or tin plate, or shallow baking dish. Break 
the eggs carefully into this, dust lightly with pepper and salt, 
and put into a moderate oven until the whites are well set. 
Serve in the dish in which they were baked. 

Eggs Poached in Balls. — Put three pints of boiling 
water into a stewpan; set it on a hot stove or coals; stir the 
water with a stick until it runs rapidly around, then having 
broken an egg into a cup — taking care not to break the yolk — 
drop it into the whirling water, continue to stir it until the egg 
is cooked; then take into a dish with a skimmer and set it over 
a pot of boiling water; boil one at a time, until you have 
enough. These will remain soft for a long time. Or, put 
some hot water in a frying pan; break in the eggs; let it set 
over the fire, without boiling, until they are done; then serve 
on toast. 

Sweet-Breads. — Veal Sweet-Breads — Spoil very soon; 
the moment they come from the butcher's they should be put 
in cold water to soak for about an hour; lard them or draw a 
lardoon of pork through the centre of each one; put into salt 
boiling water or stock and let boil for fifteen or twenty min- 
utes; throw them into cold water for only a few moments, they 
will now be firm and white; remove carefully the skinny portion 
and pipes. 

Sweet-Breads Stewed. — ^Wash carefully, remove all bits 
of skin and fatty matter, cover with cold water and heat to a 
boil; pour off the hot water and cover with cold until the 
sweet-breads are firm. If liked, add butter as for frying before 
you put in the second water; stir in a very little water the 
second time. When they are tender, add for each sweet-bread 
a heaping teaspoonful of butter, a little chopped parsley, pep- 



HOUSEHOLD. 643 

per, salt, and a little cream. Let them simmer in this gravy 
for five minutes. Send to table in a covered dish with the 
gravy poured over them. 

Sweet-Breads Roasted. — Parboil and put into cold 
water for fifteen minutes; change to more cold water for five 
minutes longer; wipe perfectly dry, lay them in a dripping-pan 
and roast, basting with butter and water until they begin to 
brown; then withdraw them for an instant, roll in beaten egg, 
then in cracker crumbs, and return to the fire for ten minutes 
longer, basting meanwhile twice with melted butter. Keep hot 
in a dish while you add to the dripping half a cup of hot water, 
some chopped parsley, a teaspoonful of browned flour and the 
juice of half a lemon. Pour over the sweet-breads and serve 
at once. 

Broiled Sweet-Breads. — Parboil and blanch by putting 
them first in hot water and keeping it at a fast boil for five 
minutes. Then plunging it into ice cold water, a little salted. 
When the sweet-breads have lain in this ten minutes, wipe 
them very dry, and with a sharp knife split them each in half 
lengthw^ise. Broil on a clear, hot fire, turning every minute as 
they begin to drip. Have ready on a deep plate some melted 
butter, well salted and peppered, mixed with catsup or pungent 
sauce. When the sweet-breads are done to a fine brown, lay 
them in this, turning them over several times, and set covered 
in a warm oven. Lay toast upon a plate or chafing-dish and a 
sweet-bread on each, and pour the hot butter, in which they 
have been lying, over them, and send to the table. 

Vegetables. — Potatoes. — To be able to boil a potato per- 
fectly is one of the tests of a good cook, there being nothing 
in the whole range of vegetables which is apparently so difficult 
to accomplish. Like the making of good bread, nothing is 
simpler when once learned. A good, boiled potato should be 
white, mealy, and served very hot. If the potatoes are old, 
peel thinly with a sharp knife; cut out all spots, and let them 
lie in cold water some hours before using. It is more econom- 
ical to boil before peeling, as the best part of the potato lies 
next the skin; but most prefer them peeled. Put on in boiling 
water, allowing a teaspoonful of salt to every quart of water. 



644 HOUSEHOLD. 

Medium sized potatoes will boil in half an hour. Let them be 
as nearly of a size as possible, and, if small and large are 
cooked at the same time, put on the large ones ten or fifteen 
minutes before the small. When done, pour off every drop 
of water; cover with a clean towel, and set on the back of the 
range to dry for a few minutes before serving. The poorest 
potato can be made tolerable by this treatment. Never let 
them wait for other things, but time the preparation of dinner 
so that they will be ready at the moment needed. New pota- 
toes require no peeling, but should merely be well washed and 
rubbed. 

Potato Snow. — Mash fine, and rub through a colan- 
der into a very hot dish, being careful not to press it down in 
any way, and serve hot as possible. 

Browned Potato. — Mash well boiled potatoes finely; mix 
with them, as you do so, a palatable allowance of butter and 
salt; nice beef dripping will do instead of butter; put into tin 
baking plates, and set in a hot oven till well browned. Give 
them twenty minutes' time. 

Cream Potato. — Mash finely; salt well; stir in a cupful 
of scalded cream to a dishful made with ten large sized pota- 
toes; add a little butter, by taste. Do all this in the hot pan 
they were steamed off in. Keep hot over the fire, where it can- 
not burn. Serve as soon as possible. 

Rice. — Wash and rinse repeatedly in cold water, till very 
white. Pick out all discolored grains, and other refuse articles. 
The best rice ought not to need much picking over. Let it 
soak in the last water an hour or more. Drain off all the 
water, and dry the rice on a large towel. Prepare it long 
enough beforehand to allow of its remaining awhile spread out 
on the cloth to dry more perfectly. It must not dry hard; 
simply let all the actual water be absorbed from it, leaving the 
kernels separate, and with a beginning of swelling and soft- 
ning from the moisture. Have a kettle with a good deal of 
boiling water in it. The rice must have room to scatter in it 
as it boils. See that it does scatter, by frequently stirring it up 
from the bottom with a fork. Never stir rice with a spoon. 
Let it boil fifteen minutes; then try a grain or two by tasting; 



HOUSEHOLD. 645 

the moment you find it tender enough to bite through without 
any feeling of hardness or rawness, take the kettle off, and 
pour the water away through a fine colander or vegetable 
strainer. Set the strainer, with the rice in it, on the back of the 
«tove for about ten minutes, to let the grains dry perfectly. 

All depends upon the plenty of water, and the instant 
Watching of the rice to detect the exact point of its sufficient 
Boftening. It must not boil a minute after you can bite it as 
before said. 

Macaroni. — Wash and soak like rice, having broken it up 
into lengths of six or eight inches. Wipe dry and put into a 
plenty of boiling water. Boil half an hour, in salted water. 
Meanwhile, for an average dishful, cream two tables poonfuls of 
butter, scald a teacupful of cream, or rich milk, stir the hot 
cream gradually to the butter, adding a heaping saltspoonful of 
salt. Do not mix these till the macaroni is ready to be taken 
up. Turn off all the water carefully from the macaroni, pour 
the butter and cream upon it in the kettle, and set it back on 
the fire to turn it over in the dressing. Then dish for the 
table. 

Tomatoes. — Stewed: Pour boiling water over them, to 
take the skins off. Peel them nicely and cut them up. Put 
them into a saucepan with a little butter, allow a round table- 
spoonful to half a dozen tomatoes; salt, half a teaspoonful to 
as many; and a sprinkle of pepper. Stew three quarters of an 
hour. As they boil, after cooking about half an hour, dredge 
over, and stir in, two or three sprinkles of flour. Or, if you 
prefer, scatter and stir in fine cracker crumbs, until thickened 
a little. 

Fried: Mix together in a dish a little flour, pepper, and 
salt. A pinch of pepper and a large saltspoonful of salt to 
three tablespoonfuls of flour. Slice the tomatoes without skin- 
ning; lay each slice in the flour, turning it over to flour it well; 
or put your flour, pepper, and salt into a little sifter or sprink- 
ler, and dredge each tomato slice on both sides. 

Put enough butter into a frying-pan to cover the bottom 
when melted, let it heat till it sizzles, and then lay in the slices 
of tomato. Fry brown. 



646 HOUSEHOLD. 

Broiled: Slice the tomatoes without peeling. See that 
your fire is clear and hot. Put the slices in a wire toaster, and 
toast, carefully, like bread, or like broiling steak; turning often, 
to keep the juice in. Bring them to a nice, decided brown on 
both sides. Lay the slices in a dish, dropping on the middle 
of each one a bit of butter, and giving it a dust of salt and pep- 
per. Send to the table as hot as possible. 

Baked: Scald, peel, and slice. Butter a baking dish. Have 
ready a cupful of fine cracker crumbs. Put a layer of toma- 
toes in the dish, sprinkle them with pepper and salt, the former 
cautiously; drop a bit of butter on each slice, and strew cracker 
crumbs over the whole. Proceed in this way until you have 
used all your tomatoes, or filled the dish. Finish with a good 
sprinkle of crumbs, and drop bits of butter over the top. Bake 
an hour. 

Canned tomatoes: May be stewed or baked in the same 
way as fresh ones. 

Cauliflower. — Pick off the leaves; trim down the stalk; 
put the cauliflower in cold water. An hour before dinner, put 
it into a large porcelain kettle, or nice tin boiler, with a great 
deal of boiling water, salted. Let it boil steadily, but not in a 
furious manner, to toss and bruise it, for one hour. Prepare 
for it a cream butter sauce, without the spicing of mace. Take 
up the cauliflower carefully, with a large vegetable skimmer or 
wire ladle. Put it in the dish for table, and pour over it the 
cream sauce. 

Cabbage. — Wash it, examining it carefully, and stripping 
off the old outside leaves. Let it lie for an hour or two, as 
convenient, in cold water. Put it into a large potful of boiling 
water. Have a plenty more of boiling water, to renew with, 
as below. When it has boiled half long enough — see "Time- 
Table," for old and young cabbages — turn away all the water, 
and fill the pot with more; throwing in two or three spoonfuls 
of salt. Let it boil the remainder of the time, then take it out 
carefully upon a drainer, let the water run from it, and serve. 
A drawn butter sauce is nice, poured over it. Or, when well 
boiled, chop it fine, put it in a saucepan, stir butter with it, 
and sprinkle in a little pepper, put it on the fire, and stir it till 
boiling hot again. Or, chop and dress like cauliflower. 



HOUSEHOLD. 647 

Fried Potatoes. — Pare and slice the potatoes thin — if 
sliced in small flakes they look more inviting than when cut in 
larger pieces — -keep in ice water two or three hours; then drain 
them dry, or dry them on a crash towel, and drop them into 
boiling lard; when nearly done take them out with a skimmer 
and drain them. Let them get cold, and then drop them 
again into boiling lard, and fry until well done. This last 
operation causes them to swell up and puff out; sprinkle with 
salt, and serve hot — our recipe says; but many like them cold 
as a relish for tea or with cold meats. 

Saratoga Potatoes. — Peel good sized potatoes and cut 
as thin as your cabbage cutter will slice them, and throw into 
cold water. After soaking an hour wipe them dry, and drop 
into boiling lard until a light brown. Skim them out into a 
colander and sprinkle with salt while hot. A wire basket is 
better to boil in, if you have it. 

Potato Puff. — Stir two cupfuls of mashed potatoes, two 
tablespoonfuls of melted butter and some salt to a light, fine and 
creamy condition; then add two eggs, well beaten (separately) 
and six tablespoonfuls of cream; beat it all widl and lightly 
together; pile it in a rocky form on a dish; bake it in a quick 
oven until nicely colored; it will puff up quite light. 

Creaming Potatoes. — Slice cold boiled potatoes very 
thin, have ready a saucepan of boiling milk, in which place the 
potatoes, with salt, a good sized piece of butter, and while boil- 
ing, thicken with flour, mixed with water, stirring until delicate 
and creamy; when ready dish for the table. The goodness of 
this dish depends much upon catering, just when ready; ten 
minutes being sufficient to prepare it. 

Oyster Plant. — Scrape the root, dropping each into cold 
water as soon as cleaned. Exposure to the air blackens them. 
Cut in pieces an inch long, put into a saucepan with hot water 
to cover them, and stew until tender. Turn off the water and 
add soup stock enough to cover them. Stew ten minutes 
after this begins to boil; put in a great lump of butter cut into 
bits and rolled in flour. Boil up once, and serve. 

Fried Salsify or Mock Oysters. — Scrape the roots 
thoroughly and lay in gold water ten or fifteen minutes. Boil 



648 HOUSEHOLD. 

whole until tender, and, when cold, mash with a wooden spoon 
to a smooth paste, picking out all the fibers. Moisten with a 
little milk, add a tablespoonful of butter, and an egg and a half 
for every cupful of salsify. Beat the egg light. Make into 
round cakes, dredge with flour and fry brown. 

Cooking Carrots. — Cut the carrots in small pieces and 
stew in a little water until tender; pour off what water is left; 
put in milk enough to make a sauce, and a good lump of 
butter rolled in flour; boil up again altogether, having added 
salt and pepper to taste. Celery is excellent prepared in the 
same way. 

Potato Fritters. — Mash and rub through a colander six 
good boiled potatoes; add a little salt, two tablespoonfuls of 
flour, one egg and the yolks of two others; beat the reserved 
whites to a stiff froth and stir it into the other ingredients, 
after they are well mixed; have ready a spider of hot lard, 
and drop by the spoonful, and boil as other fritters. This is a 
delicious breakfast dish. 

Mashed Potatoes. — Potatoes are not good for mashing 
until they are full grown; peel them and lay them in water for 
an hour or more before boiling, for mashing. 

Old potatoes, when unfit for plain boiling, may be served 
mashed; cut out all imperfections, take off all the skin and lay 
them in cold water for one hour or more; then put them into a 
dinner pot or stewpan, with a teaspoonful of salt, cover the 
stewpan and let them boil for half an hour unless they are 
large, when three-quarters of an hour will be required; when 
they are done, take them up with a skimmer into a wooden bowl 
or tray, and mash them fine with a potato-beetle; melt a piece 
of butter the size of a large egg into half a pint of hot milk, 
mix it with the mashed potatoes until it is thoroughly incorpor- 
ated, and a smooth mass; then put it in a deep dish, smooth 
the top over, and mark it neatly with a knife; put pepper ovei 
and serve. The quantity of milk used must be in proportion 
to the quantity of potatoes. 

Mashed potatoes may be heaped on a flat dish; make it in a 
crown or pineapple; stick a sprig of green celery or parsley in 
the top; or, first brown it before the fire or in an oven. 
Mashed potatoes may be made a highly ornamental dish; after 



HOUSEHOLD. t4» 

shaping it as taste may direct, trim the edge of the plate with 
a wreath of green celery leaves or parsley; or first brown the 
outside before the fire or in an oven. 

Hashed Potatoes. — Peel and chop some cold boiled 
potatoes, put them into a stewpan with a very little milk or 
water to moisten them, put to them a small bit of butter and 
pepper and salt to taste, cover the stewpan close, and set it 
over a gentle fire for ten or fifteen minutes; stir them once or 
twice whilst cooking. Serve hot for breakfast. 

Sweet, or Carolina Potatoes. — The best sweet potatoes 
are from the Southern States; those raised in New Jersey are 
not nearly as sweet as those from the South. 

The best manner of serving sweet potatoes is roasted or 
baked. 

To Bake Sweet Potatoes. — Wash them perfectly clean, 
wipe them dry, and bake in a quick oven, according to their 
size — half an hour for quite small-sized, three-quarters for 
larger, and a full hour for the largest. Let the oven have a 
good heat, and do not open it unless it is necessary to turn 
them, until they are done. 

Roasted Sweet Potatoes. — Having washed them clean 
and wiped them dry, roast them on a hot hearth as directed for 
common potatoes, or put them in a Dutch oven, or tin reflector. 
Roasted or baked potatoes should not be cut, but broken open 
and eaten from the skin, as from a shell. 

To Boil Sweet Potatoes. — Wash them perfectly clean, 
put them into a pot or stewpan, and pour boiling water over 
to cover them; cover the pot close, and boil for half an hour, 
or more if the potatoes are large; try them with a fork; when 
done, strain off the water, take off the skins, and serve. 

Cold sweet potatoes may be cut in slices across or length- 
wise, and fried or broiled as common potatoes; or they may be 
cut in half and served cold. Sweet potatoes are made pie of, 
the same as pumpkin pie. 

Young Turnips. — Cut off the green leaves of new turnips, 
leaving an inch or more of the stalk; pare them, and trim them 
neatly, put them into a pot of boiling water, with a teaspoonful 
of salt; cQver the pot, and let them boil fast for half an hour, 



660 HOUSEHOLD. 

or untH perfectly tender; put butter and pepper over, and serve 
hot. Or serve with drawn butter over. 

RuTA Baga — Or large winter turnip, may be cut in quar- 
ters or slices, and boiled with meat, and served with a little 
butter and pepper over; or boil in water with a little salt; take 
off the thick outside rind, and cut them in quarters and slices, 
and boil them for half an hour or more, until they are soft; 
then drain off the water and mash them fine, add a bit of but- 
ter and pepper to taste, work them smooth, then put them into 
a covered dish, smooth the upper surface over, and mark it 
with a knife-blade in flutes, meeting in the centre, or make it 
in a pyramid or pineapple, and serve. 

Summer Squash. — Young green squashes must be fresh to 
be fit for eating; if they are so, the outside will be crisp when 
cut with the nail. Cut them in quarters, and if not very tender, 
pare off the outside skin; take the seed and strings from the 
inside, and cut the squashes small; then put them into a stew- 
pan, with a teaspoonful of salt to a common-sized squash; 
pour boiling water on nearly to cover them, cover the stewpan, 
and let them boil fast, until they are tender; half an hour is 
generally enough; take them from the water into a colander 
with a skimmer, press the water from them, then take them on 
to a dish, mash them smooth, add a bit of butter and pepper to 
taste, put them into a dish and serve. 

Winter Squash. — Cut the large yellow or winter squash 
small, take off the outside skin and the inside strings and seeds; 
then put it into a stewpan, with hot water to cover it; cover 
the stewpan for half an hour or longer until they are tender; 
take them into a colander with a skimmer, press out the water; 
then take them into a dish and mash them perfectly smooth; 
add a good bit of butter, and pepper and salt to taste; make it 
in a neat form, the same as mashed turnips or potatoes, but do 
not brown it; put pepper over in spots, and garnish with sprigs 
of parsley, or celery leaves, if you wish it ornamental. 

Sprouts and Greens. — Cabbage sprouts, young beet tops, 
and the green leaves of young turnips, or boiled with salt meats, 
or in clear water, with a little salt. 

Beets. — Winter beets should be put in cold water ovfr 



HOUSEHOLD. 651 

night to take off the earthy taste which they are apt to have; 
before boiling wash them clean, put them into a pot of boiling 
water, and boil fast; if not very large, one hour will be sufficient 
for them; should they be very large, one hour and a half or two 
hours will be required; when done, take them into a pan of cold 
water, rub the skins off with the hands, and cut them in thin 
slices; put them into a deep dish, strew a little salt and pepper 
over, and pour on cold vinegar nearly to cover them; prepare 
them an hour before serving, with roasted or fried meat; if to 
be served with cold or boiled meat, make a cup of vinegar hot, 
put a large tablespoon! ul of butter to it; add pepper and salt to 
taste, and serve hot. Winter beets may be cut in halves or 
quarters, and pickled by covering them with cold vinegar. 

Beets must be washed, but never cut before boiling, else 
they will lose their fine color. 

Spinach. — Take off every discolored leaf from the bunches; 
put them into a large pan or pail of water, and wash each clus- 
ter of leaves separately, shaking it well in the water, otherwise 
it will be gritty and sandy; washing it in this way through two 
waters, will generally be enough; have a large kettle of water 
boiling fast, put in the spinach; cover the pot and let it boil 
fast for fifteen minutes, it will sink when done; then take it into 
a colander with a skimmer, press the water from it, cut it 
small with a knife, press it again, put a good bit of butter and 
a little pepper to suit; put it into a deep dish, smooth the sur- 
face over, let it rise high in the center, cut a cold boiled egg in 
slices and lay them over, serve hot with a cover; or it may be 
served on a flat dish; put it neatly on, lay hard boiled and 
sliced egg over. Spinach is boiled with salt beef, pork or ham. 
After the meat is done, take it up and press it between two 
plates that it may be cut nicely; meanwhile put the spinach 
into the pot, let it boil fast for fifteen mmutes, then take it into 
a colander, press all the water from it, cut it small and serve 
with the meat. To be served with fried meat and gravy; boil 
it in water yvith a teaspoonful of salt, press the water from it 
and serve. 

Green Peas. — Shell green peas until you have a quart; 
half a peck in the shells will generally produce a quart of 
shelled peas. Put boiling water to cover them, add a teaspoon- 

40 



8M HOUSEHOLD. 

ful of salt, cover the stewpan, and boil fast for half an hour; 
then take one between your fingers, if it will mash easily they 
are done; drain off the water, take them into a deep dish, put 
to them a teacupful or less of sweet butter, and a little pepper; 
a small teaspoonful of white sugar is a great improvement; serve 
hot. Small young potatoes, nicely scraped, may be boiled and 
served with them, or in a separate dish with a little butter over. 

Lamb and peas are a favorite dish in the spring of the year; 
they are nice with poultry, veal and mutton, A bit of saleratus 
or carbonate of soda, the size of a pea, put with green vegeta- 
bles, improves the color and renders them more healthful; fast 
boiling keeps the color good. 

Asparagus. — Choose green stalks of asparagus, the largest 
are best; cut off the white, tough part, wash the green in cold 
water, and tie it in small bundles that they may be taken up 
without danger of breaking, put them in hot water with a tea- 
spoonful of salt, and let them boil for half an hour; toast some 
thin slices of bread a delicate brown, cut off the extreme out- 
side crust, butter each slice frequently; and then lay them on 
small oval dishes; untie the asparagus and lay it on the toast, 
butter it a little, sprinkle pepper over and serve. Or it may be 
served without the toast; the toast may be moistened by put- 
ting a little of the water in which the asparagus, was boiled, 
over it. 

Vinegar is eaten with asparagus; it is generally added at 
table by such as like it. Asparagus may be laid on plain toast, 
and a little drawn butter poured over both. 

Green Beans. — Cut the bud and stem end off, and take 
the strings from the sides of stringed beans, cut them in inch 
lengths, wash them in cold water, then put them into a stew- 
pan of hot water, add a teaspoonful of salt, cover the stewpan 
and let them boil fast for half or three-quarters of an hour; 
take one up, if it will mash easily when pressed between the 
thumb and finger, they are done. Drain off the water, add 
sweet butter and pepper to taste, cut some nicely toasted bread 
in squares or diamonds, lay them on a dish, and serve the beans 
over. Green beans, when good, will be a bright color, and 
crisp, when broken. They should be fresh picked. 

BEAiis AUD Corn, Called Succotash. — Take the husks 



HOUSEHOLD. 653 

and sQk fitOEi adoieneais of sweet com, and with a shaip knife 
cat the fconeis from die cob^ scr^)e goidy wiiat lemains oa die 
cob with the knife blade^ stnng a quart or more cf green beans 
and cot diem in indi lengths or shorter; wash thcan and pot 
them to the com; pat theoa with the com into a stewpan, add 
half a pint of boiling milk or water, cover it close and I^ them 
boil iath» gendj for three-qoarters of an hoar, then add a tea> 
copfiil of batttf, a teaqpooofol of salt, and a saltspoonfol of 
pei^>er; stir diem wdl togethei^ cover it for toi minates, take 
the beans and com into a dish, with m<»e or less o£ die fiqoids 
as ma J be liked. 

This maj be made withoat butter by substituting half a 
pound of nicely corned fat pork, washed in cold watn^, and cut 
in slices as thin as a knife blade. Xo odier salt is required. 
Lima beans and sweet com make the finest soccotash. 

Lola Beavsl. — Lay a quart ot sh^ed Lima beans in cold 
water for one hour, dioi put them into a stewpan and pour 
water over to cover theoo, cover the stewpan and let it boil 
fast for half an hour; then take one b^weai your finger and 
diumb; if it wiD mash easily, it is done; drain <^ nearly all the 
watex^ add a small teacopful of butter, a teaqiooDfnl of salt, 
and a htde pepper; cover them fora few minutes over the fire, 
then serve hoL 

Old or Wixtes. Casjiots — Must be scraped and washed 
dean, then Ixnl them tender, slice them, and serve with butter, 
p^qier and salt over. Carrots may be sliced before bcHlin^ 
and served in the same manner. Carrots are mosdy used for 
soups. 

Gr££X Corx. — Cut the center of kernels throu^ kngdi^ 
wise with a sharp knife; scr^ie the inside out widi die back oi 
the knife; put over and IxhI with a vexy little water. After 
cooking ten minutes, add milk, sah^ a very little sugar, and 
j^enty of butt^, and let boil gently for five or ten minutes 
more. 

Corx Oysters. — One dozen grated ears of sweet com, 
three table^KXHifuls of cream, two do. of flour, one do. of 
mdted butter, one egg wdl beaten; mix and bake in small 
cakes on a griddle. These axe very nice for tea wboi made 
from cold boiled ears of com left over bom dinner. 



654 HOUSEHOLD. 

Egg Plant. — Slice the egg plant about half an inch thick, 
parboil in salt and water for about a quarter of an hour; then 
take out and fry in part butter and part lard. These are nice 
also when each plant is dipped in beaten egg and bread crumbs, 
and then fried. 

Boiled Cauliflower. — To each half a gallon of water 
allow one heaped teaspoonful of salt. Choose caulilfiowers 
that are close and white. Trim off the decayed outside leaves, 
cut the stalks off flat at the bottom. Open the flowers a little 
to remove the insects, and let lie in salt and water, with the 
head down, for an hour before cooking; then put them into 
fast boiling water, with the addition of salt as above. Skim 
well and boil till tender. Serve with melted butter or delicate 
drawn butter poured over. 

Cabbage Jelly. — Boil a cabbage in the usual way, and 
squeeze in a colander till perfectly dry, then chop fine; add a 
little butter, pepper and salt; press the whole very closely into 
an earthenware mold, and bake one hour, either in an oven or 
in front of the fire. 

Cold Slaw. — Sprinkle a quart of finely chopped cabbage 
with salt, and let it stand an hour; drain off the brine into a 
saucepan; pour half a pint of strong vinegar, a piece of butter 
(size of a hickory nut), a teaspoonful of strong mustard (after 
it has been stirred with water), and half the same of pepper; 
when it boils stir in two well-beaten eggs, and three table- 
spoonfuls of sweet cream; pour hot on the cabbage, and have 
it cold when it is to be served. A very delicious relish with 
meats. 

Onions. — If milk is plenty, use equal quantities of skim- 
milk and water, allowing a quart of each for a dozen or so 
large onions. If water alone is used, change it after the first 
half -hour, as this prevents their turning dark; salting as for all 
vegetables, and boiling young onions one hour; old ones, two. 
Either chop fine, and add a spoonful of butter, half a teaspoon- 
ful of salt, and a little pepper, or serve them whole in a dressing 
made by heating one cupful of milk with the same butter and 
other seasoning as when chopped. Put the onions in a hot 
dish, pour this over them, and serve. They may also be half- 



HOUSEHOLD. 665 

tolled; then put in a buttered dish, covered with this sauce 
and a layer or bread crumbs, and baked for an hour. 

String Beans. — String, cut in bits, and boil an hour if 
very young. If old, an hour and r. half, or even two, may be 
needed. Drain off the water a:.d season like '^i-een peas. 

Shelled Beans. — Any green bean may be usee', in this way, 
Lima and butter [beans being the nicest. Put oil i'"". boiling, 
salted water, and boil not less than one hour. Season like 
string beans. 

Green Corn. — Husk, and pick off the silk. Boil in well- 
salted water, and serve on the cob, wrapped in a napkin, or 
cut off and seasoned like beans. Cuttin^ down through each 
row gives, when scraped off, the kernel without the hull. 

Green Corn Fritters. — One pint of green corn grated. 
This will require about six ears» Mix with this half a cupful 
of milk, two well-beaten eggs, half a cupful of flour, one tea- 
spoonful of salt, half a tcaspoonful of pepper, and a table- 
spoonful of melted butter. Fry vi very small cakes in a little 
hot butter, browning well on both sides. Serve very hot. 

Corn Pudding. — One pint of cut or grated corn, one pint 
of milk, two well-beaten eggs, one teaspoonful of salt and a 
saltspoonful of pepper. Butter a pudding dish, and bake the 
mixture half an hour. Canned corn can be used in the same 
way. 

Spinach. — Not less than a peck is needed for a dinner for 
three or four. Pick over carefully, wach, and let it lie in cold 
water an hour or two. Put on in boiling, salted water, and 
boil an hour, until tender. Take up in :. colander, that it may 
drain perfectly. Havo in „ hot dish :- piece butter the size 
of an egg, half a teaspoonful of vinegar. Chop the spinach 
fine, and put in the dish, stirring in '-.Ixlr, circcsing thoroughly. 
A teacupful of cream is often added. Au" tender greens, beet 
or turnip tops, kale, etc., are treated in this way; kale, however, 
requiring two hours boiling. 

Artichokes. — Cut off the outside leaves; trim the bottom; 
throw into boiling, salted water, with a teaspoonful of vinegar 
in it, and boil an hour. Season, and serve like turnips, or with 
drawn butter poured over them. 



656 HOUSEHOLD. 

Tomatoes Stewed. — Pour on boiling water, to take off tlie 
skins; cut in pieces, and stew slowly for half and hour; adding 
for a dozen tomatoes a tablespoonful of butter, a teaspoonful 
of salt, a saltspoonful of pepper, and a teaspoonful of sugar. 
Where they are preferred sweet, two tablespoonfuls of sugar 
will be necessary. They may be thickened with a tablespoon- 
ful of flour or corn-starch dissolved in a little cold water," or 
with half a cupful of rolled cracker or bread crumbs. Canned 
tomatoes are stewed in the same way. 

Bread-Making and Flour. — Much of the health, and conse- 
quently much of the happiness, of the family depends upon 
good bread; therefore, no pains should be spared in learn- 
ing the best method of making, which will prove easiest in the 
end. 

Yeast, flour, kneading, and baking must each be perfect, 
and nothing in the whole range of cooking is of such prime 
importance. 

Once master the problem of yeast, and the first form of 
wheat bread, and endless varieties of both bread and breakfast 
cakes can be made. 

The old and the new process flour — the former being 
known as the St. Louis, and the latter as Haxall flour — are now 
to be had at all good grocers; and from either good bread may 
be made, though that from the latter keeps moist longer. 
Potapsco flour is of the same quality as the St. Louis. It con- 
tains more starch than the St. Louis, and for this reason 
requires, even more than that, the use in the family of coarser, 
or graham flour, at the same time; white bread alone not being 
as nutritious or strengthening. 

Flour made by the new process swells more than that by 
the old, and a little less quantity — about an eighth less — is 
therefore required in mixing and kneading. As definite rules 
as possible are given for the whole operation; but experience 
alone can insure perfect bread, changes of temperature affect- 
ing it once, and baking being also a critical point. 

Pans made of thick tin, or, better still, of Russia iron, ten 
inches long, four or five wide, and four deep, make the best 
shaped loaf, and one requiring a reasonably short time to bake. 

Yeast. — Ingredients: One teacupful of lightly broken 



HOUSEHOLD. 657 

hops; one pint of sifted flour; one cupful of sugar; one table- 
spoonful of salt; four large or medium-sized potatoes; and two 
quarts of boiling water. 

Boil the potatoes and mash them fine. At the same time, 
having tied the hops in a little bag, boil them for half an hour 
in two quarts of water, but in another saucepan. Mix the 
flour, sugar, and salt well together in a large mixing-bowl, and 
pour on the boiling hop-water, stirring constantly. Now add 
enough of this to the mashed potato to thin it till it can be 
poured, and mix all together, straining it through a sieve to 
avoid any possible lumps. Add to this, when cool, either a 
cupful of yeast left from the last, or of baker's yeast, or a Twin 
Brothers' yeast cake, dissolved in a little warm water. Let it 
stand till partly light, and then stir down two or three times in 
the course of five or six hours, as this makes it stronger. At 
the end of that time it will be light. Keep in a covered stone 
jar, or in glass cans. By stirring in corn meal till a dough is 
made, and then forming it in small cakes and drying in the sun, 
dry yeast is made, which keeps better than the liquid in hot 
weather. Crumb, and soak in warm water half an hour before 
using. 

Potato yeast is made by omitting hops and flour, but mash- 
ing the potatoes fine with the same proportion of other ingre- 
dients, and adding the old yeast, when cool, as before. It is 
very nice, but must be made fresh every week; while the other, 
kept in a cool place, will be good a month. 

Bread. — For four loaves of bread of the pan-size given 
above, allow as follows: Four quarts of flour; one large cupful 
of yeast; one tablespoonful of salt, one of sugar, and one of 
butter or lard; one pint of milk mixed with one of warm water, 
or one quart of water alone for the "wetting." 

Sift the flour into a large pan or bowl. Put the sugar, salt, 
and butter in the bottom of the bread pan or bowl, and pour 
on a spoonful or two of boiling water, enough to dissolve all. 
Add the quart of wetting and the yeast. Now stir in slowly two 
quarts of the flour; cover with a cloth, and set in a tempera- 
ture of about 75 degrees to rise until morning. Bread mixed 
at nine in the evening will be ready to mold into loaves or 
rolls by six the next morning. In summer it would be neces- 



65B HOUSEHOLD. 

sary to find a cool place; in winter a warm one — the chief 
point being to keep the temperature even. If mixed em.tly in 
the morning, it is ready to mold and bake in the afternoon, 
from seven to eight hours being all that it should stand. 

The first mixture is called a sponge; and, if only a loaf of 
graham or rye bread is wanted, one quart of it can be meas- 
ured and thickened with other flour, as in the rules given here' 
after. 

To finish as wheat bread, stir in enough flour from the two 
quarts remaining to make a dough. Flour the moulding-board 
very thickly, and turnout. Now begin kneading, flouring the 
hands, but after the dough is gathered into a smooth lump, 
using as little flour as may be. Knead with the palm of the 
hand as much as possible. The dough quickly becomes a flat 
cake. Fold it over, and keep on kneading not less than twenty 
minutes; half an hour being better. 

Make into loaves; put into the pans; set them in a warm 
place, and let them rise from thirty to forty-five minutes, or 
till they have become nearly double in size. Bake in an oven 
hot enough to brown a teaspoonful of flour in one minute; 
spreading the flour on a bit of broken plate, that it may have 
an even heat. Loaves of this size will bake in from forty-five 
to sixty minutes. Then take them from the pans; wrap in 
thick cloths kept for the purpose, and stand them tilted up 
against the pans till cold. Never lay hot bread on a pine table, 
as it will sweat, and absorb the pitchy odor and taste; but tilt 
so that air may pass around it freely. Keep well covered in a 
tin box, or large stone pot, which should be wiped out every day 
or two, and scalded and dried thoroughly now and then. Pans 
for wheat bread should be greased very lightly; for graham or 
rye, much more, as the dough sticks and clings. 

Instead of mixing a sponge, all the flour may be molded 
in and kneaded at once, and the dough set to rise in the same 
way. When light, turn out. Use as little flour as possible, 
and knead for fifteen minutes; less time being required, as 
part of the kneading has already been done. 

Graham Bread. — One quart of wheat sponge; one even 
quart of graham flour; half a teacupful of brown sugar or mo- 
lases; half a teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a little hot water; 
and half a teaspoonful of salt 



HOUSEHOLD. 659 

Pour the sponge in a deep bowl; stir in the molasses, etc.; 
and lastly the flour, which must never be sifted. The mixture 
should be so stiff that the spoon moves with difficulty. Bake 
in two loaves for an hour or an hour and a quarter, graham 
requiring longer baking than wheat. 

If no sponge can be spared, make as follows: One pint of 
milk or water; half a cupful of sugar or molasses; half a cupful 
of yeast; one teaspoonful of salt; one cupful of wheat flour; two 
cupfuls of graham. Warm the milk or water; add the yeast and 
other ingredients, and then the flour; and set in a cool place — 
about 60 degrees Fahrenheit — over night, graham bread sour- 
ing more easily than wheat. Early in the morning stir well; 
put into two deep, well-greased pans; let it rise an hour in a 
warm place and bake one hour. 

Old School Presbyterian Yeast. — Boil two good hawd- 
fuls of good hops in three quarts of water. Strain. When cool 
stir in one quart of flour, one cupful of sugar, and a handful of 
salt. Cover this in a stone jar, and let it stand three days in 
a warm place, stirring it occasionally. On the fourth day add 
one quart of nicely mashed potatoes. Let it stand until the 
day following, when it will be ready for use. A small teacup- 
ful is sufficient for five loaves of bread. 

This yeast, which has proved most reliable, needs nothing 
to start it, as it is self-raising, and, if kept in a cool place, will 
keep six weeks in the summer, and three months in cold 
weather. 

It does not foam as do other kinds of yeast, so that one 
who had not used it would think it worthless, but if once used 
its excellency will not be doubted. 

In making bread, a tablespoonful of white sugar to a quart 
of flour is a great improvement to all kinds of bread. 

Hop Yeast. — Of pressed hops, break up fine about enough 
to make a teacupful; boil them in one quart of water for half 
an hour. At the same time boil in another kettle ten or twelve 
potatoes (peeled) in a quart of water; when thoroughly done 
mash the potatoes and pour the water back over them. If the 
Water is boiled away, restore the quantity. Have ready two 
quarts of sifted flour; strain the hop water on tc it, and add the 
potato gruel; when lukewarm put in a teacupful of good yeast, 



660 HOUSEHOLD. 

or a yeast cake, and a little salt. After it is thoroughly light 
it should be kept in a stone jug or jar in a cool place. 

Brown Bread. — One quart of corn meal, one pint of rye 
or graham flour, one quart of sour milk, one teacupful of mo- 
lasses, and one teaspoonful of soda. Steam four hours, or bake 
one hour. This quantity will make two loaves. 

Corn Bread.— ^One quart of Indian meal, two ounces of 
butter, as much warm milk as will make a stiff batter, four 
eggs, a little salt. Beat the whole well together, and bake in 
shallow tins in a moderate oven. 

To Make Twist Bread. — Let the bread be made as di- 
rected for baker's or for wheat bread, then take three pieces as 
large as a pint bowl each; strew a little flour over the paste- 
board or table, roll each piece under your hands, to twelve 
inches length, making it smaller in circumference at the ends 
than in the middle; having rolled the three in this way, take a 
baking tin, lay one part on it, join one end of each of the other 
two to it, and braid them together the length of the rolls, and 
join the ends by pressing them together; dip a brush in milk, 
and pass over the top of loaf; after ten minutes or so, set it in 
a quick oven, and bake for nearly an hour. 

Wheat and Indian Bread. — Put three pints of water over 
the fire; when it is boiling hot, add a large tablespoonful of 
salt, stir into it sweet white corn meal, until it is a thick batter; 
continue to stir it for ten minutes, that it may not burn, then 
turn it into a dish, stir into it a quart of cold water; when it is 
cool enough to bear your hand in it, pour it into a bowl, in 
which is seven pounds of wheat flour, heaped around the sides 
so as to leave a hollow in the centre; add to it a gill of baker's 
yeast, and half a teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a little 
hot water, then work the whole into a smooth dough, work it, or 
knead, for nearly an hour, then strew a little flour over it, lay 
a thickly folded cloth over, and set it in a warm place for five 
or six hours in summer, or mix at night in winter; when light, 
work it down, set it to rise again for one hour, then heat the 
oven, work the bread down, and divide it in loaves, and bake, 
according to their size, in a quick oven; when taken from the 
oven^ turn them over in the pans, and set them to become cold; 



HOUSEHOLD. OGl 

if the crust is hard, wrap them in a towel as soon as taken 
from the oven. 

Rye Bread. — Make the same as wheat and Indian bread, 
substituting rye flour for wheat. Or, thus: To a quart of 
warm water stir as much wheat flour as will make a smooth 
batter, stir into it half a gill of baker's yeast, and set it in a 
warm place to rise; this is called setting a sponge; let it be 
mixed in some vessel which will contain twice the quantity; in 
the morning put three pounds and a half of rye flour into a 
bowl or tray; make a hollow in the centre, pour in the sponge, 
add a dessert spoonful of salt, and half a small teaspoonful of 
saleratus, dissolved in a little water; make the whole into a 
smooth dough with as much warm water as may be necessary; 
knead it well, cover it, and let it set in a warm place for three 
hours, then knead it again, and make it in two or three loaves; 
bake in a quick oven one hour, if made in two loaves, and less 
if the loaves are smaller. 

Bread-Cake or Biscuit. — Take from risen bread dough, 
the size of a small loaf, work into it one egg and a large table- 
spoonful of lard when it is thoroughly amalgamated, flour the 
hands and make it in balls the size and shape of a hen's egg; 
rub a tin pan over with a bit of sponge dipped in butter, lay 
them in so as to touch each other until the pan is full, wet the 
tops over with milk, then set them into a quick oven for twenty 
minutes; serve hot for breakfast or tea. When eaten, break 
them open — to cut them would make them heavy. 

These cakes are very nice, when cold, for breakfast or tea. 

Indian Griddle Cakes. — Beat two eggs light, stir them 
into a quart of sweet milk with a teaspoonful of salt and 
enough corn meal to make a good batter; bake as soon as mixed, 
on a hot griddle rubbed over with a bit of suet or fat pork; a 
tablespoonful of butter for each cake. 

Johnny Cake. — Put a quart of fresh corn meal into a basin, 
add a heaping teaspoonful of salt, stir into it boiling water 
until it is all moistened, then with your hands make it in cakes 
half an inch thick, and bake them on a hot griddle rubbed 
over with a bit of pork fat or beef suet; let them do slowly; 
when one side is done turn the other; they may be baked in an 



002 HOUSEHOLD. 

oven for twenty minutes; or, put the cake on a flat board or 
iron plate, and slant it in front of the fire; when one side is 
done, turn the other; serve hot, split them open and butter 
freely; they are eaten with fried pork. 

Indian Meal Muffins. — Pour boiling water into a quart 
of yellow corn meal, stirring it all the time until it is a thick 
batter; let it cool; when only warm, add a small teacupful of 
butter, a teaspoonful of salt, and a tablespoonful of yeast, with 
two well-beaten eggs; set it in a warm place for two hours, then 
stir it smooth, and bake in small cakes on a hot griddle; when 
one side is a rich brown, turn the other, lay them singly on a 
hot dish, and serve. These may be made without the yeast, 
and baked as soon as mixed. 

Buckwheat Griddle Cakes. — Put three pints of warm 
water into a stone pot or jar, add a gill of baker's "^yeast, or an 
inch square of turnpike cake dissolved in a little warm water; 
add a heaping teaspoonful of salt, and half a small teaspoonful 
of saleratus, have a pudding stick, or spatula, and gradually 
stir in enough buckwheat flour to make a nice batter, beat it 
perfectly smooth, then cover it and set it in a moderately warm 
place until morning; a large handful of corn meal may be put 
with the flour, and it is by many persons considered an 
improvement. 

To Bake Buckwheat Cakes. — Set a griddle over a gentle, 
steady fire; when it is hot, rub it over with a bit of suet or fat 
fresh pork on a fork; the griddle must be hot but not scorch- 
ing; put the batter on in small cakes; when one side is nicely 
browned and about half cooked through, turn them. 

These cakes, to be in perfection, must be not much thicker 
than a dollar piece, and both sides a delicate brown. Should 
the batter prove too thick, it may be made thinner with sweet 
milk; this will also make them bake a finer color. The best 
of sweet butter and syrup to be served with buckwheat cakes 
hot from the griddle. Should the cakes be preferred thicker 
than mentioned in this recipe, it is an easy matter to make 
them so; take care that they are baked through. 

Buckwheat may be mixed the same as wheat muffin*, and 
baked on a griddle. 



HOUSEHOLD. 663 

Muffins. — Mix with a pint of warm milk two well beaten 
eggs, half a teaspoonful of melted butter, and half a gill of 
baker's yeast, with a teaspoonful of salt and a bit of saleratus 
the size of a large pea (dissolved in hot water); stir in enough 
sifted wheat flour to make a thick batter, set it in a warm place 
to rise, for three hours in warm weather, or longer in winter; it 
may be mixed at night for breakfast next morning; put a grid- 
dle over the fire; when it is hot, rub it over with some fat, 
grease the inside of the rings, set them on and half fill them 
with the batter, or they may be done without rings; when one 
side is done, turn the other; bake a light color; as they are 
done break each one open, put a bit of butter in each, and set 
them in front of the fire until served; muffins should never be 
cut open. Cold muffins may be toasted and served hot. 

Tea Rusk. — To a pint of warm milk put half a gill of 
baker's yeast, a teaspoonful of salt, and half a small teaspoon- 
ful of saleratus, dissolved in a little hot water; put to it enough 
wheat flour to make a soft dough; mix well and smooth; cover 
it, and set it in a warm place for two hours, to rise; when light, 
add half a teacupful of sugar, and a cupful of melted butter; 
work them well into the dough, flour your hands well, and 
make it in small cakes (the size of a large egg, or a trifle 
larger), lay them close together in a buttered pan; dip your 
hand in a little sweetened milk, and pass it lightly over the 
tops of the rusks, set them in a quick oven for half an hour; 
serve hot. 

Common Buns. — Rub four ounces of butter into two pounds 
of flour, with four ounces of fine sugar and a teaspoonful of 
carraway seeds, and the same of^ salt; add half a gill of yeast, 
and as much warm milk as will make a soft dough; set it in a 
warm place to rise (it will be light after about three hours); 
strew a paste-slab and rolling pin with flour, and roll out the 
dough to half an inch thickness, and cut them in large, round 
cakes; lay them on baking tins, wet the tops over with milk, 
strew sugar over each, and put them on tins in a quick oven 
for fifteen minutes. 

Milk Biscuits. — ^Warm two ounces of sweet butter in a 
gill of sweet milk, and with it wet a pound of flour into a very 



664 HOUSEHOLD. 

stiff paste; beat it with a rolling-pin, and work it very smooth; 
roll it a quarter of an inch thick; cut it in small, round cakes; 
stick each with a fork, and bake ten minutes in a quick oven. 

To Fry Doughnuts a.nd Crullers. — Have a small iron 
or porcelain kettle; put into it a pound of lard, set it over a 
gentle fire; when it is boiling hot, drop a bit of dough in to try- 
it; if the fat is not hot enough, the cakes will absorb it, and 
thereby be rendered unfit for eating; if too .hot, it will make 
them a dark brown outside before the inside is cooked; boil- 
ing hot is about the heat the fat should be; if it is at a right 
heat, the doughnuts will in about ten minutes be of a delicate 
brown outside, and nicely cooked inside; five or six minutes 
will cook a cruller; try the fat, by dropping a bit of the dough 
in; if it is right, the fat will boil up when it is put in; keep the 
kettle in motion all the time the cakes are in, that they may 
boil evenly; when the cakes are a fine color take them out with 
a skimmer on to an inverted sieve. 

Doughnuts. — Take a pound of flour, a quarter of a pound 
of butter, three-quarters of a pound of clean brown sugar 
rolled fine, one nutmeg, grated, and a tablespoonful of ground 
cinnamon; mix these well together; then add a tablespoonful 
of baker's yeast, with as much warm milk, with saleratus the 
size of a pea dissolved in it, as will make a smooth dough; 
knead it for a few minutes, cover it, and set it in a warm place 
to rise for three hours or more, until it is light; then roll it out 
to a quarter of an inch in thickness; cut it in small squares or 
diamonds, and fry as directed. 

Indian Muffins. — One quart of milk, eight eggs, one and a 
half cupfuls of butter, one cupful of flour, two cupfuls of Indian 
meal, one teaspoonfiil of soda, two teaspoonfuls of cream of 
tartar, and a little salt; two teaspoonfuls of sugar. Beat well 
together and bake in muffin rings. 

(This recipe is from a reliable source, but we can only 
recommend it to those who have eggs and butter in abun- 
dance.) 

Rice Muffins. — Two cups of milk, four tablespoonfuls of 
yeast, one tablespoonful of white sugar, two tablespoonfuls of 
melted butter, nearly a cupful of well boiled rice, four cup- 



HOUSEHOLD. 665 

fuls of flour, or enough to make a good batter; salt to the taste; 
one-quarter teaspoonful of soda, dissolved in hot water, added 
just before baking. Beat the ingredients well together, set to 
rise for six hours, or until very light; put into muffin rings, let 
it stand fifteen minutes, and bake quickly; eat hot. 

Flannel Cakes. — One cupful of sweet milk, one-half cup- 
ful of yeast, whites of two eggs, two-thirds of a cupful of but- 
ter, flour, enough to make a thick batter; set to rise over night 
and in the morning add whites and butter. Bake in cups. 

Pancakes. — Add enough flour to one quart of sour milk 
to make a rather thick batter. Let it stand over night and in 
the morning add two well beaten eggs, salt, and half a teaspoon- 
ful of soda dissolved in one tablespoonful of warm water. 
Bake immediately. 

Rice Pancakes. — One and a half pints of boiled rice, the 
same of flour, one-half teacupful of sour milk, one teacupful of 
sweet milk, one teaspoonful of soda, salt, three eggs, and butter 
the size of a walnut. 

Salads. — Chicken Salad. — Mix the celery and chicken 
together, and then stir well into them a mixture in the propor- 
tion of three tablespoonfuls of vinegar to one of oil and one 
(level) of salt, a pinch — the smallest pinch — of cayenne, about 
what would lie on the point of a penknife, and a teaspoonful 
of mustard. Let the chicken stand in this mixture an hour or 
two; drain off" what may be in the bottom of the bowl; ten or 
twenty minutes before serving pour over a mild mayonnaise. 
Little strips of anchovy rolled up are used with pickles, hard 
boiled eggs, and lettuce heads, or tender yellow celery tops to 
garnish. 

As minute directions as possible are given for the various 
methods and tastes in mixing the dressing. 

An eight-pound turkey, rubbed with a f^esh lemon, and 
boiled in well salted water (having two tablespoonfuls of raw 
rice in it), is used and preferred by many to a pair of chick- 
ens. The flavor is radically different, but quite delightful. 
Every one of the recipes given will make a nice salad, unless 
our scholars fall into the error of a well-meaning lady, who set 
her dish of salad into the hot oven for half an hour. The 



6G6 HOUSEHOLD. 

colder your hjad is the crisper and fresher it will taste, and the 
thicker and better will be your dressing. 

Chicken Salad. — One chicken, three bunches of celery, 
four eggs (whites and yolks teaten seperately), one or two 
tablespoonfuls of mixed mustard, two teaspoonfuls of salt, one 
level teaspoonf ul of pepper, one tablespoonful of butter (hard), • 
six or eight tablespoonfuls of vinegar. Set the dish with these 
ingredients into a pan of boiling water on the stove, and stir 
until it thickens like custard; then set off to cool. Cut the 
chicken that has been carefully boiled into little pieces, and 
the celery also, and pour over them the dressing, adding, if you 
please, a little olive oil and sweet cream. 

Dressing for Salad. — Four eggs beat light, yolks and 
whites together; two tablespoonfuls of mixed mustard, one 
teaspoonful of salt, one teaspoonful of black pepper, or one- 
third of a teaspoonful of red pepper, one tablespoonful of but- 
ter, and nearly one teacupful of sharp vinegar. Float the pan 
containing the ingredients in a pan of boiling water on the 
stove and stir until thick like custard. When cold pour over 
the salad, adding cold vinegar if needed. 

Pies. — Pastry. — One pound and a quarter of flour, one 
pound of shortening and a little salt, all put together, sufficient 
cold water to mix with; no more flour. Put upon the mold- 
ing-board, roll out and cut in strips, put one upon another, then 
cut off in squares, roll out, and put upon plates. 

Plain Pie-Crust. — One pound of flour, half a pound of 
butter; mix thoroughly with a knife or a spoon. Pour in very 
cold water, just enough to form a dough for rolling out; flour 
the board and rolling-pin, using a knife to handle the dough 
(the warmth of the hand makes it heavy); roll out the size of 
one plate at a time, so as to work it as little as possible. Bake 
in a quick oven. 

Tart Crust. — The white of one egg beaten to a stiff 
froth, one tablespoonful of white sugar, one cupful of lard, a 
little salt, five tablespoonfuls of water, three cupfuls of sifted 
flour; roll quite thin for tarts; cut out with a. cooky cutter — a 
scalloped one will look best; take an open-top thimble, make 
five holes in one, lay on a whole one, which makes one tart; pro- 



HOUSEHOLD. 667 

ceed with all the dough in the same way; bake lightly; when 
done split open the tart and lay a slice of nice jelly between the 
layers; squeeze up the jelly through the holes; place them on 
the table on a plate, and you have a splendid looking dish for 
the tea table, and something that will keep two months. Do 
not put your jelly in till you wish them for the table. 

Rich Mince Pie. — Three pounds of beef, one beef's 
tongue, four (or six) pounds of suet, three and a half pounds 
of raisins, three pounds of currants, three-quarters of a pound 
of citron, eight pounds of chopped apples, four and a half 
pounds of sugar, three pints of molasses, three ounces of cin- 
namon, two ounces of cloves, a nutmeg, one teacupful of the 
Mace Compound, one and a fourth ounces of salt, half an 
ounce of pepper, one gallon and a half of sweet cider. When 
mixed, put into a kettle and scald, stirring it all the time. Put 
it hot into Hero or Mason jars— and the longer you keep it the 
nicer it will be. 

Grandmother's Apple Pie. — Line a deep pie-plate with 
plain paste. Pare sour apples — greenings are best; quarter, 
and cut in thin slices. Allow one cup of sugar, and quarter 
of a grated nutmeg mixed with it; fill the pie-plate heaping 
full of the sliced apple, sprinkling the sugar between the lay- 
ers. It will require not less than six good sized apples. Wet 
the edges of the pie with cold water; lay on the cover, and 
press down securely, that no juice may escape. Bake three- 
quarters of an hour, or a little less, if the apples are very ten- 
der. No pie in which the apples are stewed beforehand can 
compare with this in flavor. If they are used, stew till tender, 
and strain; sweeten and flavor to taste; fill the pies, and 
bake half an hour. 

Dried-Apple Pies. — ^Wash one pint of dried apples, and 
put in a porcelain kettle with two quarts of warm water; let 
them stand all night. In the morning put on the fire, and stew 
slowly for an hour; then add one pint of sugar, a teaspoonful 
of dried lemon or orange rind, or half a fresh lemon sliced, 
and half a teaspoonful of cinnamon. Stew half an hour 
longer, and then use for filling the pies. The apple can be 
strained if preferred, and a teaspoonful of butter added. This 
♦1 



663 HOUSEHOLD. 

quantity will make two pies. Dried peaches are treated in the 

same way. 

Lemon Pies. — Three lemons, juice of all and the grated 
rind of two; two cupfuls of sugar, three cupfuls of boiling 
water, three tablespoonfuls of corn starch dissolved in a little 
cold water, three eggs, a piece of butter the size of an egg. 

Pour the boiling water on the dissolved corn starch, and 
boil for five minutes. Add the sugar and butter, the yolks of 
the eggs beaten to a froth, and last the lemon juice and rind. 
Line the plates with crust, putting a narrow rim of it around 
each one; pour in the filling, and bake half an hour. Beat 
the whites to a stiff broth; add half a teacupful of powdered 
sugar and ten drops of lemon extract, and, when the pie is 
baked, spread this on. The heat will cook it sufficiently, but 
it can be browned a moment in the oven. If to be kept a day, 
do not make the frosting till just before using. The whites 
will keep in a cold place. Orange pie can be made in the same 
way. 

Sweet-Potato Pie or Pudding. — One pound of hot, 
boiled sweet pototo rubbed through a sieve; one cupful of but- 
ter, one heaping cupful of sugar, half a grated nutmeg, one 
glass of brandy, a pinch of salt, and six eggs. 

Add the sugar, spice, and butter to the hot potato. Beat 
whites and yolks seperately, and add, and last the brandy. 
Line deep plates with nice paste, making a rim of puff paste. 
Fill with the mixture, and bake till the crust is done, about 
half an hour. Wickedly rich, but very delicious. Irish pota- 
toes can be treated in the same way, and are more delicate. 

Squash or Pumpkin Pie. — Prepare and steam. Strain 
through a sieve. To a quart of the strained squash add 
one quart of new milk, with a spoonful or two of cream, 
if possible; one heaping cupful of sugar, into which has 
been stirred a teaspoonful of salt, a heaping one of ginger, 
and half a one of cinnamon. Mix this with the squash, 
and add from two to four well beaten eggs. Bake in deep 
plates lined with plain pie-crust. They are done when a knife- 
blade, on being run into the middle, comes out clean. About 
forty minutes will be enough. For pumpkin pie half a cupful 
of molasses may be added, and the eggs can be omitted, sub- 



HOUSEHOLD. 6G9 

stituting half a cupful of flour mixed with the sugar and spice 
before stirring in. A teaspoonful of butter can always be 
added. 

Cherry and Berry Pies. — Have a very deep plate, and 
either no crust under, save a rim, or a very thin one. Allow a 
cupful of sugar to a quart of fruit, but no spices. Stone cher- 
ries. Prick the upper crust half a dozen times with a fork, to 
let out the steam. 

For rhubarb or pie-plant pies, peel the stalks; cut them in 
little bits, and fill the pie. Bake with an upper crust. 

Custard Pie. — Line and rim deep plates with pastry, a 
thin custard pie being very poor. Beat together a teacupful 
of sugar, four eggs, and a pinch of salt, and mix slowly with 
one quart of milk. Fill the plate up to the pastry rim after it 
is in the oven, and bake till the custard is firm, trying, as for 
squash pies, with a knife blade. 

CocoANUT Pie. — One teacupful of sugar, one-half cupful 
of butter, three eggs, one grated cocoanut, one pint of scalded 
milk poured on the cocoanut, underlined with pastry. 

Orange Pie. — Rub the yellow of two oranges with lumps 
of sugar, add juice of three, and one cupful of white sugar, one 
finely rolled cracker, a small piece of butter, four eggs, one 
cupful of sweet milk. Line pudding dish with paste, and bake 
until firm; nice either hot or cold. With or without a mer- 
ingue. 

Pie-Plant Pie. — Peel a bunch of pie-plant, put it into 
your chopping-bowl and chop into pieces the size of your little 
finger nail; grate the rind and squeeze the juice of a lemon 
over this; add sugar. 

Strawberry Pie. — Make a nice puff paste, with which line 
a baking plate; half bake in a quick oven. Have ready 
sugared strawberries to fill the plate, and the white of an egg 
beaten and sweetened as a meringue with which to cover the 
berries. Return to the oven long enough to brown slightly. 

Pumpkin Pie. — One pint of well stewed and strained 
pumpkin, one good quart of scalding hot, rich milk, and one and 
one-half cupfuls of sugar, four eggs, one-half teaspoonful of salt, 



870 HOUSEHOLDl 

one tablespoonful of ginger, and one of ground cinnamon. 
Bake in pie-plates lined with good paste; do not let the mix- 
ture stand after it is put together, but bake at once. 

Puddings.— For boiled puddings a regular pudding-boiler, 
holding from three pints to two quarts, is best, a tin pail with a 
very tight-fitting cover answering instead, though not as good. 
For large dumplings a thick pudding-cloth — the best being of 
Canton flannel, used with the nap-side out — should be dipped 
in hot water, and wrung out, dredged evenly and thickly with 
flour, and laid over a large bowl. From half to three-quarters 
of a yard square is a good size. In filling this, pile the fruit 
or berries on the rolled-out crust which has been laid in the 
middle of the cloth, and gather the edges of the paste evenly 
over it. Then gather the cloth up, leaving room for the dump- 
ling to swell, and tying very tightly. In turning out, lift to a 
dish; press all the water from the ends of the cloth; untie and 
turn away from the pudding, and lay a hot dish upon it, turn- 
ing over the pudding into it, and serving at once, as it darkens 
or falls by standing. 

In using a boiler, butter well, and fill only two-thirds full 
that the mixture may have room to swell. Set it in boiling 
water, and see that it is kept at the same height, about an inch 
from the top. Cover the outer kettle, that the steam may be 
kept in. Small dumplings, with a single apple or peach in 
each, can be cooked in a steamer. Puddings are not only 
much more wholesome, but less expensive than pies. 

Apple Dumplings. — Make a crust, as for biscuit, or a po- 
tato-crust, as follows: Three large potatoes, boiled and 
mashed while hot. Add to them two cupfuls of sifted flour and 
one teaspoonful of salt, and mix thoroughly. Now chop or cut 
into it one small cupful of butter, and mix into a paste with about 
a teacupful of cold water. Dredge the board thick with flour, 
and roll out, thick in the middle, and thin at the edges. Fill, 
as directed, with apples pared and quartered, eight or ten good- 
sized ones being enough for this amount of crust. Boil for 
three hours. Turn out as directed, and eat with butter and 
syrup or with made sauce. Peaches pared and halved, or 
canned ones drained from the syrup, can b^ used. In thi? 



HOUSEHOLD. 671 

case, prepare the syrup for sauce. Blueberries are excellent 
in the same way. 

English Plum Pudding. — One pound of raisins stoned 
and cut in two; one pound of currants washed and dried; one 
pound of beef-suet chopped very fine; one pound of bread- 
crumbs; one pound of flour; half a pound of brown sugar; 
eight eggs; one pint of sweet milk; one teaspoonful of salt; 
a tablespoonful of cinnamon; two grated nutmegs; a glass each 
of wine and brandy. 

Prepare the fruit and dredge thickly with flour. Soak the 
bread in the milk; beat the eggs and add. Stir in the rest of 
the flour, the suet, and last the fruit. Boil six hours either in 
cloth or large mold. Half the amounts given make a good- 
sized pudding; but, as it will keep three months, it might be 
boiled in two molds. Serve with a rich sauce. 

Any-Day Plum Pudding. — One cup of sweet milk; one 
cup of molasses; one cup each of raisins and currants; one 
teaspoonful of salt, and one of soda, sifted with three cups of 
flour; one teaspoonful each of cinnamon and allspice. 

Mix milk, molasses, suet, and spice; add flour and then the 
fruit. Put in a buttered mold and boil three hours. Eat with 
hard or liquid sauce. A cupful each of prunes and dates or 
figs can be substituted for the fruit, and is very nice; and the 
same amount of dried apples, measured after soaking and 
chopping, is also good. Or the fruit can be omitted altogether, 
in which case it becomes "Troy Pudding." 

Batter Pudding, Boiled or Baked. — Two cups of flour 
in which is sifted a heaping teaspoonful of baking powder, two 
cups of sweet milk, four eggs, one teaspoonful of salt. Stir 
the flour gradually into the milk, and beat hard for five min- 
utes. Beat yolks and whites separately, and add to batter. 
Have the pudding-boiler buttered. Pour in the batter, and 
boil steadily for two hours. It may also be baked an hour in 
a buttered pudding-dish. Serve at once, when done, with a 
liquid sauce. 

Tapioca Pudding. — Put into one quart of milk two-thirds 
of a cupful of tapioca that has soaked over night, one saltspoon- 
ful of salt; set it en the back part of the stove and heat gently 



673 HOUSEHOLD. 

until the tapioca becomes clear; then beat the yolks of fouj 
eggs with one cupful of sugar and the rind and juice of one 
lemon; stir this into the boiling milk and tapioca; of the whites 
of the eggs make a frosting with one cupful of pulverized sugar. 
Add the juice of a lemon, or other flavoring, spread over the 
top of the pudding in a baking dish, and let it just brown to a 
cream tint in the oven. It is best eaten cold. 

Cheap Apple Pudding. — In the first place select two deep 
earthen dishes, of the same size and shape, that will hold two 
or three quarts, according to the family. Then fill one with 
nice apples, peeled and sliced thin. Add a teacupful of cold 
water. Cover the apples with a tender crust, then turn the 
empty dish, after it has been well buttered, over the one in 
which you have the pudding, and place them both in a hot 
oven. It will require about half an hour to bake. Let the 
pudding be just ready for the dessert, and do not remove the 
upper dish until the minute the pudding is to be eaten. 

It is nice with sugar and butter, but with rich cream, sweet- 
ened, it is a very delicious dessert. 

Rice Pudding. — Half a teacupful of rice in three pints of 
milk; set it in a tin pail in a kettle of boiling water; let it sim- 
mer till the rice is cooked soft; while hot, stir in two table- 
spoonfuls of butter; set it by to cool; beat five eggs, leaving 
out two whites, and a teacupful of sugar; stir into the rice and 
milk when cold, and set in the oven to bake; take out as soon 
as it forms a custard; do not wait for the custard to set or it 
will whey; one-quarter of a pound of stoned raisins added to 
this is very nice. Make a meringue of the two whites of eggs 
and six tablespoonfuls of pulverized sugar beaten to a stiff 
froth; pile up on the top and set in the oven just two minutes. 

Ginger Pudding. — Five eggs, two teacupfuls sugar, one 
and one-half teacupfuls butter, four teacupfuls of flour, after 
being sifted, one of molasses, one of sour milk, with a teaspoon- 
ful of soda dissolved in it, two teaspoonfuls ground ginger, a 
little cinnamon, a pinch of salt, unless the butter is salt enough; 
beat the eggs and sugar together, set the molasses and butter 
over the fire to melt the latter; mix alternately the eggs and 
flour; lastly, milk, soda and spice; bake slowly. Eat with the 
following sauce: One-half pint of molasses, one pint of sugar, 



HOUSEHOLD. 673 

lump of butter, size of an egg, a teaspoonful of ginger, a little 
water. Let all boil and serve hot. 

Cottage Pudding. — One egg, one pint of flour, one cup- 
ful of milk, one cupful of sugar, three tablespoonfuls of 
melted butter, one teaspoonful of soda, two teaspoonfuls of 
cream of tartar. Mix the cream of tartar in the flour, and the 
soda in the milk. Can be made in twenty minutes. Bake 
quickly, and eat with sauce. Square, shallow pans are better 
to bake in. Two teaspoonfuls of baking powder can be used. 

Marrow Pudding, — Grate a large loaf of baker's bread 
and pour on the crumbs a pint of rich milk boiling hot; when 
cold, add four eggs and three-quarters of a pound of beef's 
marrow sliced thin, four tablespoonfuls of lemon juice, in 
which one teaspoonful (level) of mace has been soaked and 
stirred, one teaspoonful of extract of nectarine, and one table- 
spoonful of rose water. Add two cups of raisins and one of 
blanched almonds, if you wish; boil three hours; or omit the 
fruit and use a pound of marrow instead of three-quarters, and 
bake it. 

Steamed Graham Bread. — One cupful of milk, three- 
quarters of a cupful of molasses, one cupful of water, two 
cupfuls of graham flour, three teaspoonfuls of baking powder, 
one half teaspoonful of soda dissolved in a little hot water, a 
little salt; steam three hours. Nice hot for a dessert with Vir- 
ginia molasses sauce. 

Carrot Pudding. — One pound of grated carrots, three- 
quarters of a pound of chopped suet; one-half pound of raisins 
and currants, four tablespoonfuls of sugar, eight tablespoon- 
fuls of flour, spices to suit the taste; boil four hours and 
bake twenty minutes. This is the recipe, but we question 
whether we would bake it the twenty minutes if it were nice 
without. 

Whortleberry Pudding. — One quart of flour, one heap- 
ing tablespoonful of baking powder, a little salt, and mix with 
cold water, having the dough softer than for soda biscuit; roll 
out the paste and pour upon it one quart of whortleberries, 
then cover the berries by securely lapping the paste as for 
dumplings. The water must be boiling, the pot ample and 



G74 HOUSEHOLD. 

well filled with the boiling water. Dip the ^cddi^.g <*loth in 
hot water, then flour it well; tie the pudding very closely in 
the cloth and let it boil steadily one hour. 

Cakes. — Spice Cakes. — Two pounds of sifted flour, three- 
quarters of a pound of sugar, three-quarters of a pound of but- 
ter, one tablespoonful of ground spices, one teaspoonful of salt, 
and two tablespoonf uls of yeast; mix it to a nice dough with 
warm milk, cover it, and set in a warm place for three hours; 
then roll it thin; cut it in small cakes, and bake ten or twelve 
minutes in a quick oven. These may be fried as doughnuts. 

Wine Cakes, — Mix eight ounces of flour with half a pound 
of finely powdered sugar, beat four ounces of butter with two 
tablespoonfuls of wine; then make the flour and sugar into a 
paste with it, and four eggs, beaten light; add caraway seeds, 
and roll the paste as thin as paper; cut the cakes with the top 
of a tumbler, brush the tops over with the beaten white of an 
egg, grate sugar over, and bake ten or twelve minutes in a 
quick oven; take them from the tins when cold. 

Soft Gingerbread {Molasses). — Take half a pint of sour 
milk, half a pint of molasses, one teacupful of butter, or salted 
lard, or beef fat, one large teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved 
in a little hot water, two well beaten eggs, half a nutmeg, 
grated, a teaspoonful of ground cinnamon, and a large spoon- 
ful of ground ginger; mix in sifted wheat flour until it is a 
thick batter which you can stir easily with a spoon; beat it 
well together for some time, then pour it in an inch deep in 
square tin pans, buttered; bake half an hour in a quick 
oven; to ascertain whether it is done, try as directed in intro- 
ductory remarks. 

Soft Gingerbread {without eggs). — Make as directed for 
soft gingerbread, omitting the eggs, and using two teaspoonfuls 
of saleratus instead of one; dissolve it in a teacupful of warm 
water. 

Molasses Cup Cakes. — Two cups of molasses, one cupful 
butter, one cupful of milk, one teaspoonful of powdered saleratus 
dissolved in a little hot water, one teaspoonful of lemon extract, 
half a nutmeg, grated, and two well beaten eggs; stir in, by 
degrees, enough flour to make it as stiff as you can stir easily 



HOUSEHOLD. 675 

with a spoon, beat it well until it is very light, rub a two-quart 
tin basin over with a bit of butter, line it with white paper, and 
put the cake in it; bake forty minutes in a quick oven; try i'' 
it is done, by running a broom splint in it at the thickest part; 
if it comes out clean it is done. This is a delicious cake. 

Common Cup Cake. — One teacupful of butter, two of 
sugar, four of flour, four well beaten eggs, one cupful of sour 
milk, one teaspoonful of saleratus, dissolved in a little water 
one teaspoonful of lemon extract, or a wineglass of brandy, and 
half a nutmeg, grated; beat up the mixture well, butter two 
two-quart basins, line them with white paper, and divide the 
mixture between them; bake in a quick oven three-quarters of 
an hour. 

Pound Cakes. — One pound and a half of flour, one pound 
of butter, one pound of fine white sugar, ten eggs, one gill of 
brandy, half a nutmeg grated, and a teaspoonful of vanilla or 
lemon extract, or orange flour water. 

Beat the butter and sugar to a cream, beat the eggs to a 
high froth, then put all together, beat it until it is light and 
creamy, put it in basins lined with buttered paper, let the mix- 
ture be an inch and a half deep, and bake in a moderate oven 
for one hour, then try it; when done, turn it gently out, reverse 
the pan, and set the cake on the bottom until cold; let the 
paper remain until the cake is to be cut. 

Sponge Cake. — One pound of sugar finely ground, half 
a pound of sifted flour, eight eggs, one teaspoonful of salt, 
one tablespoonful of rose brandy, or a teaspoonful of lemoiA 
extract. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs, flour and sugar together, until it 
is smooth and light, beat the whites of the eggs to a high froth, 
then beat all together until well mixed; one teaspoonful of 
cream of tartar, and half a teaspoonful of soda sifted dry into 
the flour. 

Butter a square tin pan, line it with paper, and put in the 
mixture more than an inch deep; bake in a moderate oven. 

Loaf Cake. — One pound of butter beaten to a cream, two 
pounds of sugar rolled fine, three pounds of sifted wheat flour, 
six well beaten eggs, three teaspoonfuls of powdered saleratus 



676 HOUSEHOLD. 

dissolved in a little hot water, one tablespoonful of ground 
cinnamon, and half a nutmeg grated; add one pound of cur- 
rants, well washed and dried, one pound of raisins stoned 
and cut in two; work the whole together, divide it in three 
loaves, put them in buttered basins, and bake one hour in a 
moderate oven. 

French Tea Cake. — Beat ten eggs to a high froth, dis- 
solve half a teaspoonful of volatile salts in a little hot water, 
let it stand to cool, then put it to the eggs and beat for ten 
minutes; add four ounces of powdered loaf sugar, and the 
same of sifted flour; beat them well together, line square tin 
pans with buttered paper, put in the cake mixture nearly an 
inch deep, and bake in a quick oven. When served, cut it in 
squares. 

Drop Cakes. — Beat eight eggs very light with one pound 
of powdered sugar and twelve ounces of flour; flavor with 
lemon or rose, and half a nutmeg, grated; if the mixture is not 
beat enough the cakes will run into each other; make them in 
small, oblong cakes, on sheets of paper; grate sugar over each, 
bake in a moderate oven; when done, take them from the paper 
with a knife. 

Wedding Cake. — One pound of flour, nine eggs, the whites 
and yolks beaten separately, one pound of butter beaten to a 
cream, one pound of sugar, one teacupful of molasses, nutmegs 
grated, or ground mace, one ounce, one teaspoonful of ground 
allspice, one teaspoonful of cinnamon and a gill of brandy; beat 
this mixture well. 

Having picked, washed and dried three pounds of currants, 
and stoned, and cut in two, three pounds of raisins, strew half a 
pound of flour over them, mix it well through and stir them 
with a pound of citron cut in strips into the cake. 

Line round tin pans with buttered paper, put the mixture 
in an inch and a half or two inches deep, and bake in a mod- 
erate oven an hour and a half or two hours. See directions 
for icing a cake. 

Plum Cake. — Make a cake of two cupfuls of butter, two 
cupfuls of molasses, one cupful of sweet milk, two eggs well 
beaten, one teaspoonful of powdered saleratus, dissolved with a 



HOUSEHOLD. 677 

little hot water, one teaspoonful of ground mace or nutmeg, 
one teaspoonful of ground allspice, a tablespoonful of cinna- 
mon and a gill of brandy; stir in flour to make a batter as stiff as 
may be stirred easily with a spoon, beat it well until it is light, 
then add two pounds of raisins stoned, and cut in two, two 
pounds of currants, picked, washed and dried, and half a pound 
of citron, cut in slips. Bake in a quick oven. 

This is fine, rich cake, easily made and not expensive. 

Rich Bride Cake. — Take four pounds of sifted flour, four 
pounds of sweet fresh butter beaten to a cream, and two pounds 
of white powdered sugar; take six eggs for each pound of flour, 
an ounce of ground mace or nutmegs, and a tablespoonful of 
lemon extract or orange flower water. 

Wash through several waters and pick clean from grit, four 
pounds of currants, and spread them on a folded cloth to dry; 
stone, and cut in two, four pounds of raisins, cut two pounds 
of citrons in slips, and chop or slice one pound of blanched 
almonds. 

Beat the yolks of the eggs with the sugar to a smooth paste; 
beat the butter and flour together and add them to the yolks 
and sugar; then add the spice and half a pint of brandy, and 
the whites of the eggs beaten to a froth; stir all together for 
some time, strew half a pound of flour over the fruit; mix it 
through, then by degrees stir it into the cake. 

Butter large tin basins, line them with white paper and put 
in the mixture two inches deep, and bake in a moderate oven 
two hours. The fruit should be prepared the day before mak- 
ing the cake. 

To Make Icing for Cakes. — Beat the white of two small 
eggs to a high froth;' then add to them quarter of a pound of 
white sugar ground fine like flour; flavor with lemon extract 
or vanilla; beat it until it is light and very white, but not quite 
so stiff as kiss mixture; the longer it is beaten the more firm it 
will become. No more sugar must be added to make it so. 
Beat the frosting until it may be spread smoothly on the cake. 

This quantity will ice quite a large cake over the top and 
sides. 

To Ice or Frost Cake. — Make an icing as above directed, 
more or less, as may be required. 



678 HOUSEHOLD. 

Turn over the basin in which the cake was baked, and set 
the cake on the bottom, then spread the icing on the sides with 
a piece of card paper or Bristol board, about four inches long 
and two and a half wide, then heap what you suppose to be 
sufficient for the top in the centre of the cake, and with the 
card paper spread it evenly over, set it in a warm place to dry 
and harden, after which ornament it as you may fancy. 

If sugar ornaments are put on, it should be done whilst it 
is moist or soft. 

For small cakes, where a thin icing only is required, it must 
not be beaten as stiff. Let it be so as to flow for the last coat- 
ing of a cake that it may be smooth. 

Almond Cake. — One-half cupful of butter, two of sugar, 
two and a half of flour, three-quarters of a cupful of sweet milk, 
one-half a teaspoonful of soda, one teaspoonful of cream of 
tartar, whites of eight eggs beaten to a stiff froth, one pound 
of soft-shelled almonds blanched by steeping in boiling water 
till the skins are loose enough to remove, and then sliced or 
rolled, adding, while crushing them, the juice of an orange; 
flavor with essence of bitter almond. Bake in a pan two 
inches deep. 

Cookies. — Two cupfuls of white sugar, one cupful of but- 
ter, three eggs, two teaspoonfuls of cream of tartar in the flour, 
one teaspoonful of soda, one tablespoonful of sweet milk; to 
the whole add flour enough to make it a soft mixture; add nut- 
meg. 

Soft Cookies. — Take one cupful of butter and two oK 
sugar; rub them to a cream; mix with them three well beate/i 
eggs, one teacupful of milk or cream, six cupfuls of flour, one 
teaspoonful of saleratus, and a little nutmeg. 

Currant Short Cake. — String and sugar a quart of cur- 
rants, take a quart of flour, mix well in it a large tablespoonful 
of butter and a tablespoonful of Snowflake baking powder, and 
a little salt; add milk enough to make a soft biscuit dough, 
roll it out three-quarters of an inch thick, and put it into drip- 
ping-pans eight by twelve inches, as this is a good size to cut. 
Bake, and the moment it is done turn out on to a platter, and 
with your carving knife open right through the center; spread 



HOUSEHOLD. 679 

well with butter the top and. bottom crust, then put in your 
currants, strawberries or raspberries, sprinkle some more su^ar 
over, put on the top crust, and return to the oven for ten min- 
utes to soak. 

We consider sweet cream essential for eating with these 
!.;hort cakes, but many people do not mind its absence. 

Strawberry short cake is made as above, except that you 
mash one-half the strawberries and leave the other half whole. 

Freezing of Ice Cream and Ices.— With a patent freezer, 
ice cream and ices can be prepared with less trouble than puff 
paste. The essential points are the use of rock-salt, and 
pounding the ice into small bits. Set the freezer in the centre 
of the tub. Put a layer of ice three inches deep, then of salt, 
and so on till the tub is full, ending with ice. Put in the 
cream, and turn for ten minutes, or till you can not turn the 
beater. Then take off the cover, scrape down the sides, and 
beat like cake for at least five minutes. Pack the tub again, 
having let off all water; cover with a piece of old carpet. If 
molds are used, fill as soon as the cream is frozen; pack them 
full of it, and lay in ice and salt. When ready to turn out, dip 
in warm water a moment. Handle gently and serve at once. 

Ice Cream of Cream. — To a gallon of sweet cream add 
two and a quarter pounds of sugar, and four tablespoonfuls of 
vanilla or other extract, as freezing destroys flavor. Freeze 
as directed. 

Ice Cream with Eggs. — Boil two quarts of rich milk, and 
add to it, when boiling, four tablespoonfuls of corn starch wet 
with a cup of cold milk. Boil for ten minutes, stirring often. 
Beat twelve eggs to a crjsamy froth with a heaping quart of 
sugar, and stir in, taking it from the fire as soon as it boils. 
When cold, add three tablespoonfuls of vanilla or lemon, and 
two quarts either of cream or very rich milk, and freeze. For 
strawberry or raspberry cream, allow the juice of one quart of 
berries to a gallon of cream. For chocolate cream, grate half 
a pound of chocolate; melt it with one pint of sugar and a 
little water, and add to above rule. 

Camiillg: and Preserving.— in canning, see first that the jars 
are clean, the rubbers whole and in perfect order, and the 



680 HOUSEHOLD. 

tops clean and ready to screw on. Fill the jars with hot (not 
boiling) water half an hour before using, and have them ready- 
on a table sufficiently large to hold the preserving kettle, a dish- 
pan quarter full of hot water, and the cans. Have ready, also, 
a deep plate, large enough to hold two cans, a silver spoon, an 
earthen cup with handle, and, if possible, a can-filler — that is, 
a small tin in strainer shape, but without the bottom, and fit- 
ting about the top. The utmost speed is needed in filling and 
screwing down tops, and for this reason every thing must be 
ready beforehand. 

In filling the can let the fruit come to the top; then run 
the spoon-handle down on all sides to let out the air; pour in 
juice till it runs over freely, and screw the top at once, using a 
towel to protect the hand. Set at once in a dish-pan of water, 
as this prevents the table being stained by juice, and also its 
hardening on the hot can. Proceed in this way till all are full; 
wipe them dry; and, when cold, give the tops an additional 
screw, as the glass contracts in cooling, and loosens them. 
Label them, and keep in a dark, cool closet. When the fruit 
is used, wash the jar, and dry carefully at the back of the stove. 
Wash the rubber also, and dry on a towel, putting it in the jar 
when dry, and screwing on the top. They are then ready for 
next year's use. Mason's cans are decidedly the best for gen- 
eral use. 

General Rules for Canning. — For all small fruits allow 
one-third of a pound of sugar to a pound of fruit. Make it 
into syrup with a teacupful of water to each pound, and skim 
carefully. Throw in the fruit, and boil ten minutes, canning 
as directed. Raspberries and blackberries are best; huckle- 
berries are excellent for pies, and easily canned. Pie-plant 
can be stewed till tender. It requires half a pound of sugar to 
a pound of fruit. 

For peaches, gages, etc, allow the same amount of sugar as 
for raspberries. Pare peaches, and can whole, or in halves, as 
preferred. Prick plums and gages with a large darning-needle 
to prevent their bursting. In canning pears, pare and drop at 
once into cold water, as this prevents their turning dark. 

Always use a porcelain-lined kettle, and stir either with a 
silver or a wooden spoon — never an iron one. Currants are 



HOUSEHOLD. 681 

nice mixed with an equal weight of raspberries, and all fruit is 
more wholesome canned than in preserves. 

MISCELLANEOUS RECIPES AND DIRECTIONS. 

To Test the Purity of the Atmosphere.— Fill a glass tumbler 
with lime water, and place it in any convenient position. The 
rapidity with which a pellicle forms on its surface corresponds 
to the amount of carbonic acid, or foul air, present in the 
atmosphere that surrounds it. 

To Clean Wall Papers.— Let the servant or man employed 
get on high steps, and first brush the wall all over with a per- 
fectly clean brush. Then divide a stale loaf in large pieces 
and rub the paper downwards with it in firm, clear strokes; 
he must not go back over it with the same piece of bread, nor 
rub it up and down, only downwards. The bread will remove 
all the dirt and leave the paper like new; but it must not be 
used dirty, a fresh piece must be taken when the last uscid is 
soiled, otherwise dust will be carried from one breadth of the 
paper to the next. 

To Remove Grease Spots. — If there are any grease spoti on 
the paper, cover them with a little moist fuller's earth, and 
when it is dry brush it off. Repeat the application if required. 

To Clean Paint. — Get some of the best whiting; powder it 
and then sift it, so that it may be as fine as possible. Put it in 
a plate for use. Get some clean, warm water in a basin, and a 
piece of soft flannel, and a new soft chamois leather. 

Dip the flannel in the water and squeeze it nearly dry; then 
rub it down in the whiting, and take up as much as will adhere 
to it. Rub the paint gently with it and it will clean it per- 
fectly. Next lightly wash the part done with clean water, and 
dry with the chamois leather. The paint will look as well as 
if it were just done, and the most delicate colors will be unin- 
jured. It is a better mode than the old one of soap and water, 
and it is also quicker about. 

Window-cleaning should be done by men, if the windows 
are high up. No woman should be allowed to run the risk of 
breaking her neck from a height, nor to stand where she is 
indelicately exposed to observation, but she ought to clean the 
inside of ♦^^e windows with the footman or hired cleaner. 

Piate-glass is best cleaned with wet whiting, which is after- 
wards washed off, and the glass is rubbed with a chamois 
leather. 

If paint-splashes have been left on the panes of glass by 
the painter, it can be removed by washing the glass with sod? 
and water, which will quite clear it from them. 



683 HOUSEHOLD. 

Board Gleaning. — Boards should never be rubbed across, 
but up and down the boards. After being well scrubbed with 
soap, hot water and a brush, they should be washed over 
again with clean water and soft cloth, and then well dried by 
hard rubbing. To extract oil from boards (it is frequently 
upset on them by careless painters), make a lye of pearl-ashes 
and rain water; add to it unslacked lime as much as the water 
will absorb; stir well together; let it settle, and bottle for use. 
Dilute it with rain-water when required, and wash the greasy 
spots quickly with it. Do not let it remain wet, for fear of 
discoloring the boards. Boards may be whitened by scrub- 
bing them with soft water, sand, and slacked lime. This will 
also destroy insects. 

How to Clean Carpets. — Carpets should be swept the way 
of the pile, with wet tea-leaves, to prevent the dust from flying 
over the curtains and furniture. A short-handled soft brush 
should be used for valuable carpets, and the servant must 
sweep it with care once a week. Once a year carpets should 
be well shaken. 

Bedroom carpets shoujd be wiped over, especially under 
the bed, with a damp cloth every day, or at least three times a 
week. 

The house-wife who has her carpets wiped with a damp 
cloth daily (if mud be on them, the spots must first be brushed 
off), will find that it is only necessary to sweep them once a 
week, and that they will last for years longer than if they were 
swept daily. Of course the cloth must not be wet, only damp 
enough to pick up flue and dust. But, however it is cleaned, 
be sure that it is done often and effectually, for the sake of 

health. 

Polished floors, well varnished, with a mere strip of carpet 
by the side of the bed (in bedrooms), is better and healthier 
than our present carpeted rooms. 

For Removing Grease from Carpets. — Half a wineglassful 
of fuller's earth, half a wineglassful of magnesia. Mix the 
above in a basin with boiling water; put it hot on the grease 
spot, or spots, and leave it on till it is dry, then brush it off, 
and you will find the spots are gone. Or, if the grease is 
recent, lay a sheet of blotting-paper over it and iron over the 
spot with a hot flat-iion; it will come out in the blotting-paper, 
but you must keep moving the paper and applying fresh parts 
of it till the heat has absorbed the whole of the grease. 

To Remove Ink from Carpets. — If the ink is just spilled, 
take up as much as you can with a spoon and with blotting 
paper. When you have taken off all that is possible, wash well 
with skim milk (London milk <Joes as it is), then wash again 



HOUSEHOLD. 683 

with hot water. As soon as the accident happens, wet the 
place with juice of sorrel, or lemon, or vinegar, and the best 
hard white soap. Old ink-stains are hard to get out; but they 
can be removed by first wetting the spot and then applying 
salts of sorrel. Wash off immediately, however. 

Fuller's earth, mixed with lemon juice, will also take other 
stains out of carpets. 

Carpets should not be swept with a whisk-brush above once 
a week. It wears them out if it is used oftener. 

To Clean Floor Cloths. — Sweep them and wash them now 
and then with milk; never scour them with a brush, or use 
soap or hot water on them, as it would take off the paint. A 
soft cloth and lukewarm water are all that is required to clean 
them. 

Oil-cloths are washed, when they require it, with a soft 
flannel wetted with milk; or, with a mixture of salad-oil and 
weak table beer. Never use soda or soap to them. 

To Clean Greasy Cocoanut Matting. — Thoroughly scrub it 
all over with hot water and soap, then loosely fold it and put 
it into a large washing-tub. Pour a quantity of cold water 
over it, then hang it out on a line in the sun to dry. 

To Clean Straw Matting. — Wash as seldom as possible; but 
when it becomes imperatively necessary to do so, use salt and 
water. Salt will prevent the matting from turning yellow. 
Dry as fast as you wash, and wash only a small space at a 
time. 

Stained boards are dusted and polished as stained furni- 
ture would be. 

To Clean Glass. — Tumblers and wineglasses should be 
washed in cold water in which a little soda is dissolved, then 
turned up to drain, dried with a soft, clean, and dry cloth, and 
finally polished with a leather or an old silk handkerchief. 
Chandelier or lustre glasses are washed in the same way. De- 
canters require careful cleaning. First have ready some strong 
suds of white soap and water and a little pearlash. Mash up 
an egg-shell well, drop it into the bottle, pour in some of the 
soap-suds, and shake it well about till the bottle is clean, then 
empty it; put in fresh suds and clean inside with a small sponge 
on the end of a glass-stick; rinse out twice with clean cold 
water. Next put them into the soap-suds, and if they are cut 
wash them with a regular glass-brush; next rinse the outside. 
Dry the inside with a clean piece of linen on the end of your 
glass-stick. Wipe the outside with a dry glass-cloth, and pol- 
ish off with a leather or silk handerchief. 

To Remove Rust. — To remove rust from steel, cover with 
42 



684 HOUSEHOLD. 

sweet oil, well rubbed on it; in forty-eight hours use unslacked 
lime, powdered very fine. Rub it till the rust disappears. To 
prevent the rust, mix with fat oil varnish four-fifths of well- 
rectified spirits of turpentine. The varnish is to be applied by 
means of a sponge; and articles varnished in this manner will 
retain their brilliancy and never contract any spots of rust. It 
may be applied to copper, philosophical instruments, etc. 

To Disting-uish Iron from Steel. — Let a drop of diluted 
nitric acid fall on the metal, and, after a few minutes, wash it 
off with water. If the metal be steel, a black spot will be left 
on it; if it be iron, a whitish spot will remain. The reason is 
that the nitric acid dissolves the iron in both cases, but the 
charcoal that enters into the composition of the steel remains 
undissolved, and constitutes the blackness. 

To Glean Marble. — One ounce of potash, two ounces of 
whitening, and a square of yellow soap, cut into small pieces; 
boil altogether in a saucepan, until it begins to thicken; apply 
this with a large brush to the marble. If the marble is very 
dirty, let it remain all night; if not, one hour will be sufficient. 
Then wash it carefully off with plenty of cold water and a 
sponge. Take care the mixture is not applied too hot. Or: 

Equal quantities of soft soap and pearlash. 

Put the soap and pearlash on the chimney-piece with a soft 
flannel; let it lie on for a few minutes. Wash it off with warm 
water, not too hot; wash it over a second time with cold spring 
water. Acids act on marble. Marble is itself composed of 
carbonate of lime — that is, it is a compound of carbonic acid 
and lime. Now the carbonic acid has a comparatively weak 
affinity for lime, and most other acids will prevail over it and 
take its place when brought into contact with it; thus destroy- 
ing the texture of the stone, liberating the carbonic acid, and 
leaving some salt of lime, in the form of a white powder, in its 
place. 

When marble has had its polished surface eroded by acids 
— and even lemon juice or vinegar will do this readily — the 
only mode of reparation is to have the marble again polished 
by the use of polishing powders, such as emery. 

Neither spirits nor water produce any permanent effect on 
marble, but fixed oils and grease soak into its substance, and 
it is impossible to remove them, as any agent potent enough 
to act on the grease will also destroy the texture of the marble. 
A portion of the grease may be extracted by covering with 
fuller's earth or pipeclay. But marble should be carefully pre- 
served from contact with grease or oil. 

To Clean Brass.— Rub it with a little sal ammoniac finely 
powdered and wet. Warm the brass first; polish with wash 
leather. Or; 



HOUSEHOLD. 686 

Rub with a soft wash-leather dipped in sweet oil; then with 
finely powdered rotten-stone. Polish with wash-leather. The 
Americans use powdered rotten-stone, well mixed with a pint 
of water. Then a teaspoonful of sulphuric acid is added. 
This mixture is applied gently, then rubbed off, and the brass 
polished with powdered whiting which has been sifted through 
muslin. Use wash leather in all cases. Some persons wash 
the brass with the sulphuric acid and water, and then polish 
with rotten-stone, etc., etc. 

To Clean Real Bronze. — Wash the ornaments gently (with 
a sponge) with soap and water, then rinse them in beer. Do 
not wipe it off or rflb the ornaments at all, but place them in 
a spot at a little distance from the fire, until they are quite 
dry. Use very little soap. 

Bronzed chandeliers, lamps, etc., should be only dusted 
with a feather brush or soft cloth. Washing takes off the 
bronzing. 

To Clean Gilt Lamp and Chandeliers. — Wipe off the dust 
with a soft cloth, and wash gently with fine soap-suds and soft 
lukewarm water. Any wrought work may be carefully cleaned 
out with a very soft tooth-brush. 

To Clean Steel and Iron. — One ounce of soft soap, two 
ounces of emery, make it into a paste; then rub the article for 
cleaning with wash-leather, and it will give a brilliant polish. 

For Removing Paint from Wood.— Mix one pound of soda, 
such as is used for washing, two pounds of lime, unslacked. If 
the paint is very strong on the wood, add one-half poimd of 
potash. 

Mix these ingredients together, and dilute with water until 
the mixture becomes rather thicker than whitewash, and then 
rub it on the paint with a piece of wood folded up in rag. The 
person who uses this preparation must be careful not to touch 
it with his hand. 

To Clean Japanned Waiters, Urns, Etc—Rub on with a 
sponge a little white soap and some lukewarm water, and wash 
the water or urn quite clean. Never use hot water, as it will 
cause the japan to scale off. Having wiped it dry, sprinkle a 
little flour over it; let it rest awhile, and then rub it with a soft 
dry cloth, and finish with a silkhanderchief. If there are white 
heat marks on the waiters, they will be difficult to remove. But 
you may try rubbing them with a flannel dipped in sweet oil, 
and afterwards in spirits of wine. Waiters and other articles 
of papier viache should be washed with a sponge and cold 
water, without soap, dredged with flour while d<imp; and afte< 
a while wiped off, and then polished with a silk handkerchief 



686 HOUSEHOLD. 

Wood Furniture. — The greatest care should be taken to 
keep furniture fresh and clean. If the house-wife is neat and 
careful her property will last much longer than otherwise, and 
her dwelling will always possess a charm too often wanting _ in 
more pretentious dwellings. 

Furniture which is French polished should be carefully 
dusted every day, and polished once a week, with the furniture 
polish to be bought at any good chemist's. Generally these 
polishes are better and really cheaper than any that the house- 
keeper can make herself. The chemical and mechanical ac- 
tion of different substances on articles of furniture is very little 
understood by persons in general, and consequently the most 
absurd directions are frequently issued for the preparation of 
cleaning materials, and also for preventing injury from certain 
agents. The substances from which furniture is chiefly ex- 
posed to injury are water, oils, spirits of various kinds, such as 
brandy, eau-de-Cologne, benzine, etc., and acids. 

Varnishes, or polished surfaces of wood, are easily injured 
by volatile mineral spirits, such as those used for lamps, or by 
any alcoholic spirit, as brandy or wine. The polish is com- 
posed of gums and resins which are soluble in spirits. Many 
of these polishes or varnishes are made by dissolving the ma- 
terials in alcohol, then when they are applied the spirit evapo- 
rates and the gum or resin is left in a thin polish or varnish on 
the wood. Of course, if wine, brandy, or spirits of wine fall 
on it, a portion of it is again dissolved, and the brilliancy of 
the surface is destroyed. The only remedy for these kinds of 
stains or marks is to have the table, or whatever it may be, re- 
polished. 

Heat has the same effect on French polish. A hot plate, or 
dish, or cup, or mug, placed on it, leaves its shape as a dull 
mark on the table. Therefore dining tables are better not 
French polished, but well rubbed with oil. When furniture is 
not French polished, it is well to rub it v'-ith linseed oil, slightly 
colored with alkanet root. Every time the dinner table is 
rubbed all the leaves should be put in, so that the portions of 
the table may be of the same color, for oil darkens mahogany, 
and if the leaves are not rubbed every time there will soon be 
a great difference of shade between them and the table. 

A Capital Recipe for Polishing Tables. — Cold-drawn lin- 
seed oil, one pint; spirits of wine, one ounce; white tonic vine- 
gar, one pint; spirits of turpentine, one ounce; powdered gum 
arable, one-half once; butter of antimony, one and one-half 
ounce; spirits of salt, one ounce. 

The above ngredients to be well mixed together and shaken 
previous to being used. 

Family Recipe for Polish for Furniture not French Po> 



HOUSEHOLD. 687 

ished. — Three ounces of beeswax; three ounces of hard white 
soap; one ounce of spermeceti, cut up small and simmered in 
a pint of water, keeping it stirred all the time. Pour it into a 
jar and keep it well covered. 

French Polish. — We give the following excellent recipe, 
which proves experimentally to be good for those who may- 
wish to polish a table or box for themselves, premising that the 
surface to which it is applied must be perfectly cleaned first: 
Shellac, one ounce and a half; mastic, half an ounce; san- 
darac, half an ounce; rectified spirits of wine, two ounces. 
Pound the gums very finely in a mortar, and put them in a 
bottle which will rather more than hold the whole quantity; 
stand the bottle in a kettle of cold water, which bring slowly 
to a boil; let it boil for some time, until the contents of the bot- 
tle become like treacle (this requires great care), stirring the 
while with a wire rod. Roll several yards of flannel list into 
a flat coil, put a little sweet oil on it, and cover with a piece of 
old linen; on this apply the polish. 

Furniture Polish. — Half a pint of spirits of wine; one-half 
ounce of gum shellac; one-half once of gum benzoin; one-half 
ounce of gum sandarac. 

Put the whole into a bottle for a day or two, and shake it a 
few timeSc When the gums are dissolved it is fit for use. 
When you think the polish is laid on thick enough, take a clean 
wad and cloth, put a little clean spirits of wine on the wad, the 
same as you did the polish, and rub it up the same way, but 
rub very lightly, and rub until quite dry. You must put a lit- 
tle oil on the cloth, the same as in laying on the polish. 

For Polishing Furniture. — Half a pint of vinegar; half a 
pint of linseed oil; two pennyworth of butter of antimony. 

To Clean the Face of Soft Mahogany or other Wood.— After 

scraping and sand-papering in the usual manner, take a sponge 
and well wet the surface to raise the grain; then with a piece 
of fine pumice-stone, freefrom stony particles,rub the way of the 
fibres; rub the wood in the direction of the grain, keeping it 
moist with water; let the wood dry then; if you wet it again you 
will find the grain much smoother, and it will not rise so much; 
repeat the process, and you will find the surface perfectly 
smooth, and the texture of the wood much hardened. By this 
means common soft Honduras mahogany will have a face equal 
to Hispaniola. If this does not succeed to your satisfaction, 
you may improve the surface by using the pumice-stone with 
cold drawn linseed oil, in the same manner as you proceeded 
with water; this will be found to put a most beautiful, as well 
as durable, face to the wood, which must then be polished or 
varnished. 



688 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Clean and Lay by Curtains. — In summer it is usual to 
lay by curtains of rep, damask, or chintz, and replace them 
with lace or muslin curtains, which look much cooler, and the 
more expensive rep and chintz are preserved by it. Rep cur- 
tains should be well brushed and shaken; wrapped in linen 
cloths, and put away (protected by bags of pepper, cedar 
shavings, or camphor, from the chance of moths) in a dry 
closet or a deep drawer. Chintz should be spread on a long 
table and rubbed all over with clean bran and flannel, which 
cleans the glaze nicely. Then fold and lay them by. If chintz 
curtains have the dust blown off them once a week by a pair of 
bellows, and are taken down and well shaken once a quarter, 
they will last seven years without requiring cleaning. The 
writer speaks from experience in this matter. It is wiser to 
have lace and muslin curtains cleaned than washed, and quite 
as cheap. Chintz should also be sent to be cleaned and 
re-glazed when dirty. 

To Clean Covers which are not Silver. — Put a piece of 
mottled soap (about two ounces) and about the same quantity of 
whiting into a jug and pour boiling water on it; mix till it 
becomes a thick paste, quite smooth. Then rub it on the 
covers, let it dry, and rub off with dry whiting and a leather. 
This preserves the cover from being scratched. The insides 
and outsides of covers should be carefully wiped the moment 
they are brought from the table. 

There are also pastes sold for cleaning covers, about the 
best of which is Graham's paste; but the old fashioned mode 
of using soap and whiting for the purpose does very well, and 
preserves the covers longer. 

When they are plated, they are best cleaned like other plate, 
with gin and whiting mixed, or with rouge powder. 

To Clean Tins. — Clean tins as you would clean covers, 
with soap and whiting mixed to a cream in boiling water. Lay 
it on with a piece of leather; let it dry, and then rub it off 
with dry whiting and a clean leather. 

To Clean Copper and Brass. — Mix oil and brickdust, or 
oil and finely powdered rotten-stone (sifted through muslin) 
together; rub it on with a piece of leather; let it rest a little 
while on, and then rub off with a dry soft leather. 

Many people use oil of turpentine and rotten-stone, but the 
copper very soon tarnishes after its use; others use oxalic acid, 
but this is so dangerous a poison, and so painful if it chance to 
get into the servant's eyes, that we strongly object to its use. 

To Clean Lacquered Brass. — Wash with a stiff lather of 
soap and wa4:er; let the brass lie in it for three days, taking it 



HOUSEHOLD. 689 

out every day and brushing it with a hard brush; let it dry, 
and then rub it with a leather. 

To Clean Stair-rods.— Mix finely powdered rotten-stone 
and sweet oil to a paste, then rub it on each rod with a piece 
of flannel or woolen. Polish with the dry powder of the rotten- 
stone and a nice leather. 

The same mixture, carefully applied to inlaid brass or bra s 
handles of furniture, answers very well; but care must be 
taken not to let it lodge in any network or hollows of the brass. 

To Clean Candlesticks. — Melt all the wax or grease off 
with boiling water; but on no account melt it by putting the 
candlesticks before the fire, as it melts the solder. Tin candle- 
sticks must be cleaned as other tins are. Plated candlesticks 
should be cleaned with plate-powder. 

To Clean the Insides of Pots, Pans and Kettles.— Boil 
in the kettle or pot a little sal-ammoniac for the space of one 
hour, to remove the fur. Be sure to wash out a dirty saucepan 
with boiling water the, moment you finish using it. 

To Clean Steel or Iron. — Make a paste of two ounces of 
soft soap and four of emery-powder — that is, two ounces of 
coarse emery -powder and two of fine. Put this paste on fire- 
irons, fenders, etc., and afterwards rub off with dry wash 
leather. Some people use crocus powder moistened with sweet 
oil. This is best for polished steel. 

To Take Rust out of Steel. — The steel must be covered 
with sweet oil, and left for 48 hours, then rubbed with leather, 
and this must be repeated till the rust is removed. Or, you 
may rub it with the finest emery-paper. 

To Clean Cast Iron and Black Hearths. — Mix together 
black lead and whites of eggs to a liquid consistency; paint 
the stove, etc., all over with it, and rub bright with a hard 
brush. 

To Clean Looking-Glasses. — Wash them with spirits of 
wine; dry them; powder slightly with whiting, and rub off with 
a leather. Take care that the whiting does not get into the 
edge of the frame. 

Polish the mahogany frames with furniture paste. Beware 
of spilling scents on polished looking-glass fr'ames, as it removes 
the polish. 

To Clean Plate. — Plate should be treated with great care. 

Never put it into a basket or tray with knives, nor mix 

spoons with forks, for fear of making scratches which nothing 

will remove. Wash it directly it comes from table with warm 

42 



69d HOUSEHOLD. 

water and soap, rinse it in cold water, wipe it, rub it well with 
a leather. Never suffer mercurial preparations to be used for 
silver. It is a really saving plan to boil it for half an hour 
in soft water, with whiting and yellow soap enough to make a 
lather. Rinse it with cold water, wipe with a soft towel, and 
rub with a leather. 

Gas blackens silver sadly, and the deep stain can only be 
removed by a plate-powder. Rouge (which is made by the 
precipitation of sulphate of iron by carbonate of potash), is 
most generally used, and does very well. In our own house- 
hold the plate is cleaned by first being nicely washed in warm 
water and wiped dry. Then a mixture is made of whiting and 
gin, or spirits of wine (which is in many respects better), and it 
is rubbed wet on the silver. A sponge is used to rub this mix- 
ture on, as it is soft. It is let dry very thoroughly, so that it 
will rub off like powder with a piece of flannel; then it is 
polished with a chamois leather. Be sure that the whiting is 
reduced to the finest possible powder. It should be ground 
quite fine and even, then sifted through coarse book-muslin, as 
any rough bits will scratch. 

To Take Stains out of Silver. — Steep the plate in soap, 

let it lie for four hours, then cover it with whiting wet with 
vinegar, so that it may stick upon the silver, and dry it by the 
fire; after which rub off the whiting, rub it over with dry bran, 
and the spots will disappear, and the plate look bright. 

To Remove Ink Stains from Silver. — The tops and other 
portions of silver ink-stands frequently become deeply dis- 
colored with ink, which is difficult to remove by ordinary 
means. It may, however, be completely eradicated by making 
a little chloride of lime into a paste with water, and rubbing it 
upon the stains. 

An Old Family Recipe to Make Old Plate Look Like New. 

— Take of unslaked lime and alum a pound each; of aqua vitse 
and vinegar each a pint; and of beer grounds two quarts; 
boil the plate in these ingredients, and it will receive a beau- 
tiful polish from them. 

Plate is best polished by the naked hand, but the operation 
gives some pain to the rubber. Jewelers thus polish plate, but 
it requires the thick-skinned, yet soft palm of a practiced hand 
to do it. 

Egg-spoons get discolo red and tarnished by the sulphur in 
the egg uniting with the silver as soon as it is moistened by 
saliva. This tarnish is a sulphuret of silver, and may easily 
be removed by rubbing it with table salt or a little hartshorn. 

Let the plate in use be counted over every night— a c^d 



HOUSEHOLD. 691 

with a list being kept in the plate-basket — and the basket car- 
ried to the master's or lady's room. 

To Clean Britannia Metal. — Finely powdered whiting, two 
tablespoonfuls of sweet oil, and a little yellow soap melted to 
some thickness; mix, with a little spirits of wine. Rub this 
cream on with a sponge or soft flannel, wipe it off with a soft 
cloth, and polish with a leather. 

To Clean a Metal Teapot. — Pour into it a solution of com- 
mon soda boiling hot; let it stand twelve hours near the fire; 
then pour it away, and wipe with a clean cloth. 

To Clean Gilding.— Brush off dust with a feather brush. 
Never wipe with linen, it takes off and deadens the gilding. 

To Clean Steel Knives and Forks. — The moment used 
knives are taken into the kitchen, they should be dipped in 
warm water and wiped, taking care not to wet the handles. 

Knives are cleaned on a board covered with India-rubber, 
with brick-dust sold for the purpose. In some large families 
Kent's knife-cleaner is used. This machine saves labor, but 
requires care in putting the knives in. Printed directions and 
a powder for it are sold with the machine. 

Knives are cleaned on the board by being rubbed smartly 
on it, with brick-dust spread on the surface. Steel forks are 
washed, dried and also rubbed on the board with brick-dust. 
The intervals between the prongs are cleaned with a small bit 
of stick wrapped in leather and rubbed in brick-dust. 

Knives are often stained by fruit or vinegar. The stains 
can be removed by rubbing them with a piece of raw potato 
before they are cleaned on the board. 

To make Windows like Ground Glass. — Make a hot solu- 
tion of sal-ammoniac. Brush the solution over the pane or 
panes; the moisture will instantly evaporate and leave a beau- 
tiful radiated deposit. 

Flies. — House-flies are very destructive to furniture. They 
may be effectually destroyed by mixing half a spoonful of 
ground black pepper, a teaspoonful of brown sugar, and a tea- 
spoonful of cream. Place the mixture in a room where flies 
are troublesome. 

Or: — Put saucers of strong green tea, sweetened, about the 
room. This will poison flies. 

They also dislike elder leaves, and will keep away from 
them. 

To Kill Beetles or Crickets. — Parings of cucumber strewn 
near their holes, or strong snuff. 



093 HOUSEHOLD. 

To Get Rid of Ants. — A little green sage placed in their 
haunts will drive them away. Quick-lime scattered over their 
hills and watered will destroy them. 

How to take Ink out of Boards. — Strong muriatic acid or 
spirits of salts, applied with a piece of cloth; afterwards welt 
washed with water. 

To take out Spots of Ink. — As soon as the accident hap- 
pens, wet the place with juice of sorrel or lemon, or with 
vinegar, and then rub with best hard soap. 

Cement for Glass. — Equal parts of flour, powdered chalk, 
and finely pulverized glass; half the quantity of brick-dust, 
scraped lint, and white of egg. 

To Preserve Water Fresh. — Put into the barrel or cistern 
3 lbs. of black oxide of maganese, powdered; stir it well, and 
the water will keep good an indefinite time. 

To Wash Flannel Without Shrinking it.— Have plenty of 
hot soft water, make a suds with good soap, rub the clothes 
clean and rinse out all the soap. Do not let the clothes cool 
from the time they are wet till they are ready to put on the 
line. Put them into the next suds, or the rinsing water, as fast 
as wrung out, and let them cool in the basket before you hang 
them up. Wash them in the morning, on a sunshiny day, if 
possible, so they will have a good chance to dry. 

To Wash Colored Flannels. — Make a suds of cold water 
and ordinary bar soup; wash the garment and rinse in cold 
water. Press while it is still damp. In this way children's 
fancy sacques and bright dresses may be kept looking like 
new, neither shrinking nor changing color. Don't be afraid to 
try it. 

To Remove Grass Stains. — Pour boiling hot water on the 
stains before washing the garments. 

Nice Glossy Starch. — To three cupfuls of water take three 
rounded teaspoonfuls of starch, a pinch of salt, and one tea- 
poonful of powdered borax. Dissolve your borax in part of 
the water; then add starch and salt; dip your collars, cuffs and 
bosoms into the starch. Your irons must be good; rub them 
with bees-wax, and we promise you a stiff, glossy surface with 
never a failure. 

To Remove Iron Rust Stains. — Moisten the spot with a 
solution of Epsom salts in a few drops of hot water, and lub 
in well once or twice; then fill a tin vessel with boiling water 
and set it on the stain; rinse in cold water. 



HOUSEHOLD. 693 

To Remove Mildew. — Rub common brown soap on the 
spot, and scrape white chalk in it. Keep wet and lay in the 
sun. 

To Remove Scorches. — Scorches made by over-heated flat 
irons can be removed from linen by spreading over the 
scorched cloth a paste made of the juice pressed from two 
onions, one-half ounce of white soap, two ounces of iuUer's 
earth, and half a pint of vinegar. Mix, boil well and cool 
before using. 

To Prevent Blue Fabrics from Fading. — Dissolve two tea- 
spoonfuls of sugar of lead in one gallon of water, soak the 
stockings or cloth in this solution from half to one hour, 
according to material. Delicate fabrics need to soak only 
until saturated; rinse before washing and wash quickly. 

Blueing. — One ounce of best Prussian blue, half an ounce 
of oxolic acid, one quart of soft water. Heat enough of the 
water to dissolve the acid, then stir in the blue, add cold water 
and bottle for use; keep in the cellar. 

To Clean Silk Dresses. — Equal quantities of alcohol, molas- 
ses and soft soap; one pint of each will do two dresses; beat 
well together, and after spreading a breadth of silk on a 
clean kitchen table, scour it with an old but clean clothes 
brush; have three tubs or pails of water, take up the breadth 
of silk by the top and dip it up and down in first one pail, 
then the second, and then the third. When there is no color 
left in the water the rinsing is complete. Pin the breadths 
to the clothes-line without wringing. When a little damp press 
out with a cold iron. Before cleaning rub the grease spots 
with pure naptha or gasoline. We have used this horrid- 
looking mixture with the best success on even light silks and 
silk with white stripes. 

Paint Spots. — When neither turpentine nor benzine will 
remove paint spots from garments, try chloroform. It will 
absorb and remove paint which has been on for six months. 

A Cure for Bedbugs. — Gosoline or a strong solution of 
ammonia are both good remedies. 

The only sure remedy that, in the course of seventeen 
years, we have invariably found efficacious, is a preparation of 
copperas, one pound to one gallon of boiling water. The 
most infected house we ever saw was cleared by filling a syringe 
with this fluid and shooting it into the cracks and crevices of 
the rooms and walls. Sponging or painting the bedstead with 
this solution will keep them away for months and forever. 
The only cUawiMck to Uiis u that it leaves a staia like iron rust. 



694 HOUSEHOLD. 

Oil of cedar is an excellent and cleanly remedy. Salt and 
kerosene oil in cracks and under base boards is good. 

To Drive Away Mice. — Moisten chloride of lime, and stop 
their holes of ingress with the paste. If the holes are inacces- 
sible, set the chloride around on small plates. Mice do not 
like it. 

To Get Rid of Black Ants. — Get five cents worth of tartar 
emetic; mix in an old saucer with sugar and water, and set in 
your pantry or cupboard, where the ants trouble you. In 
twenty-four hours every ant will have left the premises. With 
me the same dish of tartar emetic answered as well the second 
year as the first; as the water dries out add more. 

Dyeing. — It may be necessary to remark, once for all, that 
every article to be dyed, as well as everything used about dye- 
ing, should be perfectly clean. 

In the next place, the article to be dyed should be well 
scoured in soap, and then the soap rinsed out. It is also an 
advantage to dip the article you wish to dye into warm water, 
just before putting it into the alum or other preparation; for 
the neglect of this precaution it is nothing uncommon to have 
the goods or yarn spotted. Soft water should always be used 
if possible, and sufficient to cover the goods handsomely. 

As soon as an article is dyed it should be aired a little, 
then well rinsed, and afterwards hung up to dry. 

When dyeing or scouring silk or merino dresses, care should 
be taken not to wring them; for this has a tendency to wrinkle 
and break the silk. 

In putting the dresses and shawls out to dry, that have 
been dyed, they should be hung up by the edge so as to dry 
evenly. 

Chrome Black. — For Woolen Goods. — For five pounds 
of goods, blue vitriol, six ounces; boil it a few minutes; then 
dip the goods three-quarters of an hour, airing often; take out 
the goods, and make a dye,with logwood, three pounds; boil one- 
half hour; dip three-quarters of an hour, and air the goods, 
and dip three-quarters of an hour more. Wash in strong suds. 
This will not impart any of its color in fulling, nor fade by 
exposure to the sun. 

Black on Wool. — For Mixtures. — For ten pounds of 
wool, bichromate of potash, four ounces; ground argal, three 
ounces; boil together, and put in wool; stir well, and let it 
remain in the dye four hours. Then take out the wool, rinse 
it slightly in clear water; then make a new dye, into which put 
logwood, three and one-half pounds. Boil one hour, and add 
chamber lye, one pint, and let the wool lie in all night. Wash 
in clean water. 



HOUSEHOLD. 695 

Snuff Brown. — Dark, for Cloth or Wool. — For five 
pounds of goods, camwood, one pound; boil it fifteen minutes, 
then dip the goods for three-quarters of an hour; take out the 
goods, and add to the dye, fustic, two and one-half pounds; 
boil ten minutes, and dip the goods three-quarters of an hour; 
then add blue vitriol, one ounce; copperas, four ounces; dip 
again one-half hour; if not dark enough, add more copperas. 
It is dark and permanent. 

Wine Color. — For five pounds of goods, camwood, two 
pounds; boil fifteen minutes; then dip the goods for one-half 
hour; boil again, and dip one-halt hour; then darken with blue 
vitriol, one and one-half ounce; if not dark enough, add cop- 
peras, one-half ounce. 

Madder Red. — To each pound of goods, alum, five ounces; 
red, or cream of tarter, one ounce; put in the goods, and bring 
your kettle to a boil for one-half an hour; then air them, and 
boil one-half hour longer; then empty your kettle, and fill 
with clean water; put in bran, one peck; make it milk warm, 
and let it stand until the bran rises; then skim off the bran, 
and put in madder, one half pound; put in your goods, and 
heat slowly until it boils and is done. Wash in strong suds. 

Green. — On Wool or Silk, with Oak Bark. — Make a 
strong yellow dye of yellow oak and hickory bark in equal 
quantities. Add the extract of indigo, or chemic, one table- 
spoonful at a time, until you get the shade or color desired. 

Blue. — Quick Process. — For two pounds of goods, alum, 
five ounces; cream of tartar, three ounces; boil the goods in 
this for one hour; then throw the goods into warm water, 
which has more or less of the extract of indigo in it, according 
to the depth desired, and boil again until it suits, adding more 
of the blue if needed. It is quick and permanent. 

Stocking Yarn, or Wool, to Color. — Between a Blue 
and Purple. — For five pounds of wool, bichromate of potash, 
one ounce; alum, two ounce; dissolve them, and bring the water 
to a boil, putting in the wool, and boiling one hour; then throw 
away the dye, and make another dye with logwood chips, one 
pound; or, extract of logwood, two and one-half ounces; and 
boil one hour. This also works very prettily on silk. 

Whenever you make a dye with logwood chips, either boil 
the chips one-half hour, and pour off the dye, or tie up the 
chips in a bag, and boil with the wool or other goods; or, take 
two and one-half ounces of the extract in place of one pound 
of the chips is less trouble and generally the better plan. In 
the above recipe, the iftore logwood that is used, the darker 
will be the shade. 



696 HOUSEHOLD. 

Scarlet, with Cochineal. — For Yarn or Cloth. — 
For one pound of goods, cream of tartar, one-half ounce; cochi- 
neal, well pulverized, one-quarter ounce; muriate of tin, two 
and one-half ounces; then boil up the dye, and enter the 
goods; work them briskly for ten or fifteen minutes, after 
which boil for one and one-half hours, stirring the goods 
slowly while boiling; wash in clear water and dry in the shade. 

Pink. — For three pounds of goods, alum, three ounces; 
boil, and dip the goods one hour; then add to the dye, cream 
of tartar, four ounces; cochineal, well pulverized, one ounce; 
boil well, and dip the goods while boiling, until the color suits. 

Orange. — For five pounds of goods, muriate of tin, six 
tablespoonfuls; argal, four ounces; boil, and dip one hour; 
then add to the dye, fustic, two and one-half pounds; boil ten 
minutes, and dip one-half hour; and add again to the dye, 
madder, one teacupful; dip again one-half hour. 

Cochineal in place of madder makes a much brighter color, 
which should be added in small quantities until pleased. 
About two ounces. 

Purple. — For five pounds goods, cream of tartar, four 
ounces; alum, six ounces; cochineal, well pulverized two 
ounces; muriate of tin, one-half teacupful. Boil the cream of 
tartar, alum, and tin fifteen minutes; then put in the cochineal 
and boil five minutes; dip the goods two hours; then make a 
new dye with alurh, four ounces; Brazil wood, six ounces; 
logwood, fourteen ounces; muriate of tin, one teacupful, with 
a little chemic; work again until pleased. 

Silver Drab. — Light. — For five pounds of goods, alum, 
one small teaspoonful, and logwood about the same amount; 
boil well together, then dip the goods one hour; if not dark 
enough, add in equal quantities alum and logwood until 
suited. 

Dark Colors. — To Extract and Insert Light. — This 
recipe is calculated for carpet-rags. In the first place let the 
rags be washed clean; the black or brown rags can be colored 
red, or purple, at the option of the dyer; to do this, take, for 
every five pounds of black or brown rags, muriate of tin, three- 
quarters of a pound, and the lac, one-half pound, mixed with 
the same as for the lac red; dip the goods in this dye two 
hours, boiling one half of the time. If not red enough add 
more tin and lac. The goods can then be made a purple by 
adding a little logwood; be careful and not get in but a small 
handful, as more can be added if not enough. White rags 
make a beautiful appearance in a carpet, by tying them in the 
gkein, and coloring them red, green, or purple; gray rags will 



HOUSEHOLD. 697 

take a very good green; the coloring will be in proportion to 
the darkness of mix. 

Black. — For five pounds of goods, sumach, wood and 
bark together, three pounds; boil one-half hour, and let the 
goods steep twelve hours; then dip in lime water one-half hour; 
then take out the goods, and let them drip an hour; now add 
to the sumach liquor, copperas, eight ounces, and dip another 
hour; then run them through the tub of lime-water again for 
fifteen minutes; now make a new dye with logwood, two and 
one-half pounds; by boiling one hour, and dip again three 
hours; now add bichromate of potash, two ounces to the log- 
wood dye, and dip one hour. Wash in clear, cold water and 
dry in the shade. You may say this is doing too much. You 
cannot get a permanent black on cotton with less labor. 

Blue on Cotton or Linen. — With Logwood.— In all 
cases, if new, they should be boiled in a strong soap-suds or 
weak lye, and rinsed clean; then for cotton, five pounds, or 
linen, three pounds, take bichromate of potash, three-quarters 
of a pound; put in the goods and dip tAvo hours; then take 
out and rinse; make a dye with logwood, four pounds; dip in 
this one hour, air, and let stand in the dye three or four hours, 
or till the dye is almost cold; wash out, and dry. 

Green. — If the cotton is new, boil in weak lye or strong 
suds; then wash and dry; give the cotton a dip in the home- 
made dye-tub, until blue enough is obtained to make the green 
as dark as required; take out, dry, and rinse the goods a little; 
then make a dye with fustic, three-quarters pound; logwood, 
three ounces to each one pound of goods, by boiling the dye 
one hour; when cooled so as to bear the hand, put in the cot- 
ton, move briskly a few minutes, and let it lie in one hour; take 
out, and let it thoroughly drain; dissolve and add to the dye, 
for each pound of cotton, blue vitriol, one-half ounce; and dip 
another hour; wring out and let dry in the shade. By adding 
or diminishing the logwood and fustic, any shade of green may 
be obtained. 

Yellow. — For five pounds of goods, sugar of lead, seven 
ounces; dip the goods two hours; make a new dye with bichro- 
mate of potash, four ounces; dip until the color suits, wring 
out, and dry; if not yellow enough, repeat the operation. 

Red. — Take muriate of tin, one-half of a teacupful; add 
sufficient water to cover the goods well, bring it to a boiling 
heat, putting in the goods one hour, stirring often; take out 
the goods and empty the kettle, and put in clean water, with 
nic-wood, one pound, steeping it for one-half hour, at hand 
heat; then put in the goods, and increase the heat for one hour, 



698 HOUSEHOLD. 

not bringing to a boil at all; stir the goods, and dip an hour as 
before; wash without soap. 

Green. — Very Handsome with Oak Bark. — For one 
pound of silk, yellow oak bark, eight ounces; boil it one-half 
hour; turn off the liquor from the bark, and add alum, six 
ounces; let it stand until cold; while this dye is being made, 
color the goods in the blue dye-tub a light blue; dry and wash; 
then dip in the alum and bark dye; if it does not take well, 
warm the dye a little. 

Yellow. — For one pound of silk, alum, three ounces; 
sugar of lead, three-quarter of an ounce; immerse the goods in 
the solution over night; take out, drain, and make a new dye 
with fustic, one pound; dip until the required color is obtained. 

N. B. — The yellow or green for wool works equally well 
on silk. 

Crimson. — For one pound of silk, alum, three ounces; dip 
at hand heat one hour; take out and drain, while making a 
new dye, by boiling ten minutes, cochineal, three ounces; 
bruised nut-galls, two ounces; and cream of tartar, one-quar- 
ter ounce, in one pail of water; when a little cool, begin to dip, 
raising the heat to a boil, continuing to dip one hour; wash 
ftnddi^. 






DOMESTIC PETS. 



This is a very comprehensive title, and might fairly be 
supposed to comprise ponies, donkeys, dogs, cats, rabbits, poul- 
try, and pigeons; but this article will be confined to animals 
kept in the house, and will especially relate to those which may 
be legitimately called pets, the care of them devolving entirely 
upon their owners. Out-of-door pets must necessarily be left, 
in a great measure, to the care of servants, and cannot be so 
essentially home friends. The following remarks are by a 
well known writer: 

Squirrels, dormice, and white mice are sometimes kept in 
captivity by those whose lives are chiefly spent in towns, and 
who have no knowledge of the wild and frolicsome creatures 
in their native haunts; but they appear to lead very unnatural 
lives in confinement, and are not very desirable pets for 
the house. It is difficult to keep their cages quite sweet and 
clean. All may be domesticated, however, and are, we believe, 
capable of attachment to their owners. We have never kept 
any ourselves, but our brothers had dormice from time to time, 
Oild several small families were born and brought up under their 
CTvie, but most of them came to an untimely end. 

iiie Squirrel.-^The squirrel seems so delightfully free and 
,hoT)py, playing about on the tops of the tallest trees in the 
,.70003, launching himself boldly into the air, and taking tre- 
mendous leaps from branch to branch, that, after seeing the 
pretty little creature at his ease, one does not feel inclined to 
deprive him of the liberty he seems so thoroughly to enjoy; 
but if he is captured, his life ought to be made as happy as 

43 



700 DOMESTIC PETS. 

possible, and he should be allowed as much exercise as he 
can have in the house. His cage should be at least three or four 
feet long and three or four feet high, and instead of the revolving 
cylinder, which is very injurious to the little prisoner, he 
should have a good-sized branch of a tree, to form perches for 
him, and be able to frisk about at pleasure in his little parlor. 
A little sleeping-box must be attached to this, with a door at 
the back, and the board forming the floor should be drawn out 
like that of a bird cage. Every part of the cage must be kept 
as clean as possible, and the moss and cotton wool, which 
must be put into the squirrel's bedroom, must be changed near- 
ly every day. The active little creature does not often live long 
in confinement; but if taken young, and very carefully man- 
aged, it may become a very tame and a very engaging pet, and 
may sometimes be trusted to frolic about out of doors when 
tame enough to return at his owner's call. His cage should, 
however, be lined with tin; for he is apt to gnaw the wood with 
his sharp little teeth when impatient of confinement. He should 
be fed on nuts, almonds, filberts, beech masts, walnuts, acorns, 
wheat in the ear, and fir cones; and he is fond of milk, cold 
tea, and bread and milk. A little bit of boiled potato, and 
even a tiny morsel of cooked meat, may be given as a treat, and 
a stale crust of bread to gnaw. All creatures require variety 
in their food, and in his wild state the squirrel gets animal food 
by robbing birds' nests of their eggs occasionally. He lays up 
a store of food for the winter in various holes and crevices, 
and is much too acute ever to put by a nut in which a maggot has 
been, or to miss the place where his treasure is concealed, even 
when several inches depth of snow covers the ground. The 
female is a very affectionate mother, and will remain with her 
young in the nest even while the tree in which it is, is cut 
down, or will carry them, one after another, in her mouth, to a 
place of safety. She generally builds on the topmost branches 
of the fir tree, and the nest is made of dry grass and sticks, 
very slightly yet firmly put together, and lined with fur, which 
she scratches off her body before the young ones are born. 
This is generally in the summer, and the young squirrels re- 
main with their parents till the following spring, when they are 
able to manage for themselves. They have a substantial win- 



DOMESTIC PETS. 701 

ter's nest, to which they appear to add every year fresh layers 
of hay and moss, to make their habitation more and more warm 
and comfortable. It is said the best time to buy a squirrel is at 
the end of September, when it is fat and vigorous and its fur is 
in good condition; but it is never safe to purchase those which 
are sold in the street as "wonderfully tame," and which will 
allow themselves to be handled by a stranger, and pulled about, 
without showing any disposition to bite. The probability is 
that the poor little creatures have been stupified by some drug, 
and that they will either recover their natural ferocity in a few 
hours, or die — poisoned by the narcotic which has been given 
them. 

The Dormouse. — The dormouse is very like the squirrel in 
many of its h?.bits; it lives upon much the same food, and is a 
hybernating animal too, laying up a store of eatables for the 
winter, and passing the greater parts of the cold months in sleep. 
In a cage it is not seen to advantage; throughout the day it is 
generally rolled up into a little soft ball of fur, fast asleep, and 
its architectural talents are quite thrown away. It is, in its 
wild state, a very clever nest-builder. A writer gives a most 
fascinating description of a dormouse's nest, which he found in 
a hedge four feet from the ground, in the forking of a hazel 
branch, the smaller twigs of which formed a palisade round it. 
The nest itself was six inches long and three wide, and construct- 
ed of grass blades and leaves of trees. The blades of the sword- 
grass were chiefly used, and these were twisted round and be- 
tween the twigs so as to form a hollow oval nest. Finer sorts 
of grass and the slender stems (not bigger than thread) of deli- 
cate climbing weeds, interwoven with the leaves of hazel and 
maple trees, were used for the bottom of the nest; the entrance 
to which was most ingeniously concealed by long blades of 
grass placed across it in such a manner as to spring back to 
their places, after having been pushed aside to admit the dor- 
mouse into the nest. This was never used as a storehouse; the 
little creature had its winter provisions carefully hidden under 
a thick branch in the neighborhood of the nest. While hyber- 
nating, the dormouse does not seem to require food; but it 
wakes up occasionally during the winter, perhaps when a warm 
sunny day calls it into Ufe for the time, and then it takes food 



702 DOMESTIC PETS. 

before it rolls itself up and sleeps again. It requires a good 
deal of warmth, and must have soft hay, moss, and wool, given 
it to form its bed, and it does its best with these, but cannot 
construct anything very beautiful out of them. 

If we had a tame dormouse, we think we should try and 
provide it with materials which it might be induced to use for 
the construction of a nest like that described. The dormice 
we once had were kept in a cage made for dormice, wired at 
one end, with a little compartment at the other boarded in, 
the door of which was pulled up and pushed down at pleasure, 
so that the little creatures could be shut into their bedroom 
when the outer room was cleaned out. Even with this precau- 
tion they were continually getting out of the cage, they were 
such nimble little animals, and the whole house was often 
searched in vain for the truants. At last, perhaps, they would 
be found in the fold of a curtain or underneath the cushion of 
a sofa. Sometimes a worse fate befell them, and they would 
creep under the cushion of an arm-chair, and get crushed to 
death, or be trodden under foot, or be squeezed under a door 
in trying to escape. They sleep during the day and come out 
in the evening, so that they must be provided with food as soon 
as it grows dusk; and, if they have a large cage with sticks 
placed across it, they will gambol about very merrily in the 
open part of it as soon as night approaches. Their food should 
be varied as much as possible; they will eat nuts and almonds, 
peas and beans, canary seed, and various other grains; and 
they are very fond of the milky juice of a dandelion or sow- 
thistle. We used always to put a little tin pan of milk into 
the cage every night, and they would often drink it all, espec- 
ially when they had young ones. It is said that rabbits will be 
hindered from devouring their young by providing them with 
water, and that they would not eat them unless maddened by 
thirst or suffering from extreme hunger. Some dormice have 
the same propensity to cannibalism; and, if this theory about 
the rabbits be correct, it may apply also to the mother dor- 
mouse which devours her young. We thought she did so when 
alarmed for their safety, not being able to conceal them else- 
where; but it would be well to provide her with a constant sup- 
ply of water or milk when nursing. The milk is useful too in 



DOMESTIC PETS. 703 

furnishing the dormouse with animal food; out of doors it eats 
insects. There are generally four or five young ones in a litter, 
born blind, but able to see in a few days, and they are soon 
capable of taking care of themselves. The cage must, of 
course, be kept perfectly clean, and the floor of the open part 
should be sanded like a bird cage. 

Mice. — White, grey-and-white, and brown-and-white mice 
are sometimes kept in cages like those of the dormouse, and 
they must be treated in the same manner. The common brown 
mouse is said to be a more tractable and intelligent pet, and 
to be easily tamed by patient kindness. We never heard a 
mouse sing, but several instances are recorded of mice who 
have learned to imitate the chirp and even the song of a 
canary kept in the room in which they were; so that 
it might be worth while to try to give such pets the bene- 
fit of a musical education for the chance of their acquiring 
so curious an accomplishment. The little harvest mouse, the 
tiniest of British quadrpueds, has sometimes been kept in a 
cage, and will grow tame enough to take its favorite food, flies 
and other insects, from the hand. It is a most beautiful little 
creature, very active and agile, climbing about by means of its 
long tail and flexible toes, and leaping like a little Jerboa. It 
should have grains of wheat and maize, and canary seed, and 
plenty of water always in the cage; and wool or flannel and 
grass for its nest, which in its wild state is the most beautiful 
and elaborate construction of leaves and grass woven together 
into a round ball and suspended from strong grass-stems, 
wheat-stalks, or thistle-heads. In the winter it takes refuge in 
corn ricks, or burrows deeply in the earth, and makes a warm 
bed of grass. Even in confinement the harvest mouse will 
show its instinctive propensity to store up food for the winter, 
and if a number of grains of wheat or seed are given to it, will 
carry them off and hide them in its nest. 

Birds. — None of these little creatures, however pretty and 
intelligent they may be, seem to us to be such desirable pets to 
be kept in the house as birds, to which the remainder of this 
article will be devoted. We can make them so happy, and they 
can tell us when anything is amiss with them so plainly — so 
thoroughly enjoying our petting, and becoming so attached 



r04 DOMESTIC PETS. 

to us^that no trouble is thrown away upon our feathered 
pets. 

On the whole, canaries flourish best in imprisonment. All 
the English finches do well in aviaries or cages; but one does 
not like to see them imprisoned while their brothers and sisters 
are flying about at large close by — one thinks they must envy 
them their liberty, and long to join them; while canaries would 
suffer extremly exposed to the cold of winter, if, indeed, they 
survived it. As regards other birds — robins, wrens, titmice, 
sparrows, &c. — it is much pleasanter to have them visiting us 
from the garden than to keep them shut up all the year round; 
and larks and nightingales are so completely out of their natu- 
ral element in cages, that one cannot feel happy in keeping 
them. Any one who will take the trouble to feed the birds 
that congregate round the house in winter, may soon have a 
family of pensioners. 

The robins will become our very familiar friends, hopping 
about at their ease on the breakfast-table, examining every arti- 
cle in the room with the utmost self-possession; will visit us 
regularly through the cold months, and, if they leave us in 
spring, will bring their young ones to make our acquaintance 
when they leave their nests. Crumbs of bread, potatoes, and 
scraps of fat will make a feast for the poor little hungry birds, 
driven by frost and snow to our doors; and the saucy tomtits 
and sparrows will afford us much amusement in return for our 
hospitality. 

We may get much insight into the special characteristics of 
the birds by watching them when they are at their ease, and a 
hard winter will sometimes make them so tame, and so accus- 
tom them to our care, that they will hover about us out of 
doors, and peck at the windows for admittance at their usual 
feeding hours. 

Although we do not advocate keeping English birds in con- 
finement as a rule, it will sometimes happen that nestlings will 
be thrown upon our compassion, which have either fallen out 
of their nest, lost their parents, or have been taken captive by 
village boys, and are likely to come to a miserable end if not 
taken care of. Under these circumstances it is as well to know 
how to bring them up by hand. We once had several nests to 



DOMESTIC PETS. 705 

take care of, and all the young birds were reared and sent out 
into the world when able to take care of themselves; all but 
two bullfinches, which were given to a neighbor, who fed them 
upon hemp-seed — the consequence of which was that nearly 
all of their feathers fell off, and they were the most miserable 
little objects that can be conceived, and their little red-hot 
bodies were quite uncomfortable to touch. A course of warm 
baths and plenty of cooling green food, however, restored them 
to health and beauty, and they were returned to their owner 
with a warning against hemp-seed. It is said that a bullfinch 
fed entirely upon this heating feed will become blind. 

Nestlings. — Nestlings should be fed upon bread soaked in 
water, squeezed nearly dry, and chopped up finely with rape- 
seed which has been scalded by pouring boiling water upon it, 
and leaving it till quite cold. Of course this food must be 
made fresh every day; if it grew sour it would kill the birds at 
once. About four quills full of it is enough for a meal for one 
young bird; but they generally clamor for food till they have 
enough, and then settle down to sleep again. They must be 
fed as soon as possible in the morning after sunrise, and will 
require food at intervals of from one hour and three-quarters 
to two hours throughout the day, the last meal being given 
about sunset, when they must be covered up for the night. 
The best plan is to keep the nest in a shallow box, over which 
a board can be laid to darken it, otherwise the birds will be 
asking for food every quarter of an hour. As soon as they 
hear a step in the room they begin to chirp; and when the box 
is uncovered they will stretch out their necks, and as they grow 
older jump out of the nest, and fly upon the hand or shoulder 
in their impatience for food. In time they will learn to feed 
themselves with the soft food, and by degrees pick up and 
shell the seed put into their cage; for, of course, they must be 
put into a cage as soon as they are fledged sufficiently to en- 
able them to fly. It is best to crush the hemp-seed for them 
at first, but they soon learn to shell the canary and rape-seed. 

The linnets and greenfinches we brought up by hand were 
very tame, and, although seed and water were always within 
their reach, we accustomed them to be fed by hand, and kept 
any food of which they were particularly fond — hemp-seed, 



700 DOMESTIC PETS. 

plantain, or chickweed, for instance, which all birds love — to 
be given them as dainties; so they always expected something 
nice, and would fly out of their cages and all round the room 
in their joy as soon as we opened the doors, returning to perch 
on the hand, shoulder or head when th^ey wanted their food. 
The greenfinches were very bold birds, and as familiar as pos- 
sible. They were great eaters, and very eager for their favor- 
ite food, so they always welcomed us very heartily; but we did 
not prize their affection so much as that of the linnets, which 
were naturally more shy and retiring, and required more court- 
ing and petting. They are very nice pets, and become very 
much attached to their owner, and their song is very sweet; 
but if kept in confinement they never acquire the red poll and 
breast which ought to distinguish the male bird in full plum- 
age. They are fond of flax or linseed, but they must not have 
much of it or they will grow very fat. Canary and rape-seed 
should be the principal food both of linnets and greenfinches. 
Goldfinch. — The goldfinch is a universal favorite, both from 
its beauty and sprightliness; it is very restless in a cage, and 
therefore, it hardly appears as contented as some less active 
birds; but it will live many years in confinement, and in an 
aviary is as happy as possible. It ought not to have a bell- 
shaped cage, as it is apt to grow giddy, twirling its beak along 
the wires. It is very easily tamed, and is capable of great at- 
tachment to its owner, and may generally be safely allowed a 
flight round the room while its cage is being cleaned. We had 
one which would fly across the room as soon as its cage door 
was opened, and perch on our shoulder for its favorite food of 
hemp-seed. It is rather fond of eating, and takes so much ex- 
ercise that it requires plenty of food. It will not sing without 
a few hemp-seeds in the day,but it must not be fed solely upon 
this heating seed. Canary, rape, and poppy-seed should be the 
ordinary food of goldfinches. Lettuce, groundsel, chickweed, 
and water-cress, they should have frequently, and plantain in 
the winter; in the wild state they feed much on thistle-seed, 
and they should often have a thistle-head given to them, to 
pick the seeds out of it for themselves. They ought not to have 
sugar or sweet cakes, but they exceedingly enjoy a treat of bis- 
cuit, and Reading cracknels are very wholesome for them, r.nd 



DOMESTIC PETS. 707 

thoroughly appreciated by goldfinches, bullfinches, and cana- 
ries. 

The goldfinch is a very tractable bird, and there are many 
accomplishments which he will learn, and seems to exhibit with 
pleasure. He may be taught to fire off a small cannon, to 
feign death, and stand unmoved while fireworks are let off 
close to him, to mount a ladder, &c.; but when these tricks are 
made use of by his master to exhibit in public for pay, he is 
often treated with cruelty to make him a proficient in them. 
Many very harmless accomplishments he will learn, however, 
merely by patience and kindness on the part of his master — to 
open a box for his seed, to ring a bell when he wants food, to 
drag a little wagon up an inclined plane into his cage, and to 
draw up water from a little well underneath it. All these are 
easily taught, and the bird really seems to find pleasure in such 
little tasks. "One of my birds who lived in a cage so con- 
structed as to have the seed always in a box of which he had 
to lift up the lid, and the water in a well to be drawn up in a 
bucket, was quite unhappy when his home was undergoing re- 
pair, and he had to live for a time in an ordinary cage, and 
sang his merriest song when he had to go to work with his 
little chain and pail again. I taught him to lift the lid of the 
box by having it open for one day, and then gradually lower- 
ing it by means of a piece of silk put round it, fastened at the 
back of the cage, till it was quite shut. He very soon found 
out that he must lift it up with his beak in order to reach the 
seed; and at last he became so crafty about it, that he would 
take out two or three seeds at once, and put a reserve by his 
side between the wires while he ate one. The cage was made 
with a wooden back, and the box was let into this above the 
door, and the lid fastened to the inside with two little hinges 
(care should be taken that the lid is not too heavy for the bird 
to lift easily, and that it should fall at once when not held up); 
a little bow window was constructed in the front of the cage, 
in the floor of which was a little hole with a wire across it, to 
which was attached a light silver chain fastened to a silver 
bucket about the size of a thimble. A small colored glass 
tumbler was fixed below the bow window, by means of four 
strong wires and a ring. This was filled with water and the 
bucket dropped into the well, and the bird hauled up the chain 



708 DOMESTIC PETS. 

with his beak, holding each fresh haul with his feet till the 
bucket came to the hole, and he could drink out of it. I taught 
him this accomplishment by filling the bucket with water, and 
putting it on the floor of the bow window to accustom him to 
look for water there; then I let it down by means of the chain 
pushed through two of the side wires by degrees, lowering it a 
little more every day. At first the bird pulled up the short 
bit of chain with his beak, and let it go before he could drink 
out of the bucket, buc he gradually found out that he must 
hold the chain when he had drawn it up, and when he had 
once succeeded in doing this his education was finished; he 
never forgot the art, and often showed his delight in his task 
by singing when he had drawn up the bucket while his chain 
was under his feet, before he quenched his thirst. Of course 
it is necessary to see that the machinery of the bucket, chain, 
and well is always in order; any hitch preventing the bucket 
from falling into the well and getting refilled with water would 
cause the poor little bird to die of thirst. The bullfinch and 
siskin will readily learn this accomplishment, and I had a mule 
bird (whose parents were a goldfinch and canary) who learned 
it very quickly; but I never succeeded in teaching a canary to 
put his foot on the chain, though he would pull it up with his 
beak readily enough — of course, always to be disappointed by 
the falling down of the bucket. A goldfinch will learn to pull 
a little wagon up an inclined plane in the same way, and 
to take his seed out of it, the chain attached to the wagon 
having to be hauled in and held in the same manner. The 
way to teach him to ring for his food, is to suspend a little bell 
in a corner of his cage, and when he has been an hour or two 
without food, to ring it by means of a string attached to it, and 
immediately to place some of his favorite seed in the glass. In 
a few days he will discover that whenever the bell rings he gets 
a meal, and will seize the string, and peal away merrily when- 
ever he is hungry." 

The goldfinch is rather subject to epileptic fits, and, when- 
ever he is seized with one, he should be plunged head down- 
wards into cold water, and one or two dips will restore him at 
once. He is a large eater, and in all probability has indulged 
his appetite too much, so that he must be kept upon a low diet 



DOMESTIC PETS. 709 

of lettuce seed and thistles, and have no hemp-seed for a few 
days after he has had one of these fits. 

He is fond of bathing, and should have a bath every day. 
The goldfinch will sometimes mate with the canary, and the 
mules are very pretty. He must, however, be taken away from 
his wife as soon as she begins to lay, as he has a mischievous 
propensity for breaking the eggs. After the young birds are 
hatched he may be put back into the cage, and will help in 
feeding them. 

Canaries. — If our readers desire to have a nursery of young 
birds, they will find canaries the best in every respect to rear. 
There is no doubt about their happiness in a cage, if proper 
attention be paid to them; and we would fain believe that no one 
who reads these pages would willingly cause them suffering from 
want of care, or would attempt to keep pets upon whom they 
are not ready to bestow all the time and trouble necessary to 
keep them in health and comfort. People are not worthy of 
their birds if they neglect them, and leave them to the care of 
servants, to whom they are either troublesome or indifferent. 
And their attention will be received with such expressive grati- 
tude and delight — their feathered pets will welcome them so 
gladly, and show so plainly howmuch their happiness depends 
upon their care — that they will be sufficiently rewarded for its 
bestowal. They should become intimately acquainted with their 
birds' dispositions, too, and learn their language thoroughly, 
and they will find a fund of amusement in their society. This 
is more easily accomplished when one or two pet birds are kept 
in a cage alone, than when there are a number of canaries 
together in a very large cage or aviary, but we always like best 
to see them under such circumstances — they seem so thor- 
oughly happy when they have room for flying and frolicing 
about; some birds, too, will sing best when they are excited by 
emulation with others, but occasionally a good songster is 
sulky when in company, and prefers being alone. One of our 
birds who had been accustomed to a small single cage, never 
seemed at ease when in a large one, and resented being jostled 
by others. He was an old bird, too, and did not like his saucy 
young companions, and showed his displeasure by total silence 
whenever he was placed with them; so we had to restore him 
to solitary grandeur. 



710 DOMESTIC PETS. 

All through the autumn and winter months, about twenty 
or thirty birds will live very happily together, in a cage from 
three to four feet long, and two feet high and wide. This 
should be made of tin wire, as brass is apt to corrode, and 
communicate its poisoned green rust to the birds, when they 
rub their beaks against it; the iron rust is very good for them. 
The wood may be either mahogany or varnished deal. The 
arrangements for seed and water should be carefully attended 
to. If the former is put into the cage, the bird-hoppers are 
best to use, because the seed is kept clean, and only falls down 
as the birds peck and scatter away the husks beneath. A good 
plan is to have the seed and water in long, covered boxes out- 
side the cage, with china or glass trays to take in and out of 
them. These can be kept perfectly sweet and clean, and the 
birds cannot make the seed or water dirty. Objections are 
made to the old-fashioned bird-glasses, because they are some- 
times carelessly put into the wires which hold them, so that 
they slip aside, and the poor little birds cannot get at the 
water; but no provision for their comfort can succeed if care- 
lessness be allowed at all. We do not advocate their use, 
however, for if they are very full the seed or water often gets 
spilt into the cage, and, if not, the birds have to stretch their 
little necks painfully to reach their food. Sometimes, too, a 
young bird will contrive in some mysterious fashion to get into 
the glass, and, having got in, cannot extricate itself. Nothing 
looks prettier at first than a fountain in the middle of the cage; 
but it becomes so dirty in a few hours that it is not well to use 
it. A bath, wired round like the cage, should be made to 
hang on the doorway, and the birds will go in and out and 
splash about in this, with the greatest delight. It must be 
taken away when they have all had a good washing, in cold 
weather especially, as some of them will go into the bath again 
and again, and get completely chilled. In winter the water 
must have the chill taken off, and whenever the sun shines they 
may have a bath safely. They must always have sand spread 
on the board at the bottom of the cage; and the coarse gravelly 
sand is best for them. It is a good plan to have a second board 
and two sets of perches for a large cage; this gives opportunity 
for washing and drying them thoroughly, and when the board 



DOMESTIC PETS. 711 

gets wetted by the splashing of the birds, it can be dried 
before it is returned to the cage. Of course the perches must 
be made to take in and out of the cage; they should be round 
and smooth like a bamboo. A swing suspended from the cen- 
tre is a source of pleasure to the birds, and if the cage has a 
domed top, looks very pretty underneath it. They much enjoy 
having a pot of mignonette or of chickweed put in; and all 
perch eagerly about it, and soon devour every] leaf and flower. 
No plant that would be injurious to them must be put either 
in or close to the cage, for they are sure to eat the leaves, and 
the beauty of the plant is destroyed in a few hours. A fir 
branch put into the cage occasionally gives them a good deal 
of amusement, and seems to do them no harm; but it is very 
soon reduced to a bare pole. Plantain is very good winter 
food for them, and they enjoy picking it from the stalk. Their 
food should have plenty of variety, to keep them in health and 
good humor. They must not have sugar or sweet cakes, but 
plain biscuits — cracknels for instance — are good for them. 
Their staple food should be canary and bird turnip (the small, 
brown summer rape) seed, a small quantity of hemp-seed each 
day, and occasionally, in cold weather, a pinch of maw, or 
poppy-seed, always to be given while the birds are moulting. 
When they are building they must have a mixture of hard- 
boiled egg and finely-crumbled stale bread, with a pinch of the 
same seed mixed with it every morning. It must always be 
made and given freshly, or it will turn sour and kill the birds. 
This food may be dispensed with while the hen is sitting; but 
as soon as she is about to hatch, it must be put in the cage for 
the young to feed upon. 

Canaries ought to have green food three or four times a 
week, chickweed, groundsel, or lettuce. It is better for them 
to have a little constantly than a great quantity now and then, 
when they are apt to eat over-eagerly of it. They should have 
some whole oatmeal or grits every day; sometimes a little 
piece of bread soaked in milk, not boiled, unless it is given as 
medicine; a little lump of basalt to peck at, or a bit of apple, 
or pear, or potato, or rice pudding. All these tit-bits are, of 
course, to be considered as delicacies, to be given by the birds' 
Qwner, and they will help very much to win their affection. 



713 DOMESTIC PETS. 

They require warmth and nourishing food during mouUing; 
if they seem weak, a rusty nail in the water gives them a little 
tonic, and a small piece of Spanish licorice is good for hoarse- 
ness. By way of physic, we have rarely found any of the 
many nostrums recommended as specifics of much use, except- 
ing boiled milk. If they have been eating too freely of green 
food, a lump of chalk may be useful. Some bird-fanciers give 
ants' eggs and a spider occasionally, and it is likely that this 
animal food would be good for them now and then. Most 
birds are, to a certain extent, insectivorous in their wild state. 
Variety in their food is necessary for all birds; and if they have 
this, and the seed is good and sound, and they are not exposed 
to draughts or sudden changes of temperature, they will rarely 
have anything amiss with them which a warm bath will not 
cure. Whenever birds look moping, or when the hen is "egg- 
bound," and cannot lay her eggs, we give them a bath at 96 ° , 
holding the bird in hand while immersing all but the head in 
the water for three or four minutes, then taking it out and 
drying the feet, put it in the sunshine, or at a little distance 
from the fire to get dry. Sometimes, if a bird is not fond of 
bathing, the feet will get clogged, especially during nesting, 
when the claws get a bit of hair or cotton twisted around them 
occasionally, and the feet should be cleansed in warm water, 
and gently freed from their troublesome encumbrance. 

An old bird's claws will sometimes grow too long, so that 
it cannot perch comfortably, and they must be very carefully 
cut, taking care not to draw blood, or to injure the bird in any 
way. Whenever possible, it is best to avoid catching the bird, 
especially if they are wild and fly about in alarm; but if taught 
to consider their owner as their friend, they will gradually sub- 
mit; without much fluttering, to be taken hold of; and illness 
generally tames them sufficiently to make them quiet when 
they require to be taken out of the cage to be put into a bath. 

Early in the spring, when the cock birds begin to fight, the 
hens should be taken away, and kept apart in another cage till 
the pairs are put together in March. Some people allow their 
birds to choose their own mates; but a great deal of quarrel- 
ling takes place before this, and two or three gentlemen will 
sometimes fix their affections on the same lady, and they will 



DOMESTIC PETS. 713 

get injured in the combats that ensue; besides which, if it be 
an object to secure good colored birds, it is necessary to put 
those together whose colors contrast well: a mealy cock with a 
jonque hen, or a green bird with a yellow partner. Handsomer 
birds are obtained by these selections than when two birds of 
the same color are paired; and two crested birds should never 
be put together, the young will probably be bald-headed. It 
is best to give an old wife to a young cock, and vice versa; and 
the birds of a family should never be mated together; the pro- 
geny will infallibly be weak and unhealthy if this is permitted. 
Two of our birds were accidentally paired, a brother and sis- 
ter, and the result was that one of their children was blind and 
another deformed. For these reasons it is best not to leave 
the birds to choose for themselves, but to separate them before 
any attachment springs up between them. Cages sold as 
"breeding cages" have a wooden compartment at the top of 
one end for nest-boxes, and a wired-off partition underneath, 
into which the young birds may be put when it is desirable to 
separate them from their parents. There are some advantages 
in these cages, and the birds which are shy and like retirement 
prefer them to the open cages; the only objection to them is 
that they are inconveniently small when a large family is 
hatched, and that the nest-boxes are necessarily so high that 
the young birds sometimes fall, when they come out of the 
nest before they are fully fledged, and are injured thus. On 
this account we put nest-baskets into our cages, at a little dis- 
tance from the floor, so that the young birds hop in and out 
easily; and if the old birds should entangle their feet in the 
nest (which they sometimes do if the claws are long and they 
fly out in a hurry), and the young birds are thrown out of it, 
they are not likely to be so much hurt as if they fell from 
the greater height. Breeding cages have compartments 
for the separate pairs, three in each, the centre space being 
kept for the young birds of each family, that they may be fed 
through the wires by the old birds, when they have left the 
nest, but cannot feed themselves. This space is necessary, too, 
to prevent quarrels, as the birds on each side of thr. wire par- 
tition will sometimes try to fight, and make furious assaults on 
ti>eir neighbors through the bars, or jealousies will arise to 



714 DOMESTIC PETS. 

break their domestic peace, if, while the hen is sitting, her hus- 
band chooses to feed his neighbor's wife through the wires. 
The pairs should be kept as retired and out of sight of each 
other as possible. The materials for the nest should be hung 
up in the cage in a little net; fine moss and cow-hair are best; 
if cotton wadding is given it is apt to get matted and clogged 
round the bird's claws. The hen will generally make the nest 
herself; but some birds are idle about it, and do not take the 
trouble to do more than to put a little moss or wool into the 
basket, and then it is as well to make a nest for her; but it 
is not at all certain that she will allow it to remain in the bas- 
ket. Some birds seem to prefer sitting on their eggs without 
a nest, or are very capricious about its formation, and will 
undo one day the work of the previous day. It is as well to 
leave them to their own devices till the young are hatched, and 
then they may have a little moss or cow-hair put in under 
them to make their bed softer. The hen generally lays four or 
five eggs, and sits thirteen or fourteen days, unless she or her 
mate have a bad habit of eating the eggs. They should be left 
in the nest, and not touched or interfered with at all, until a 
fortnight has elapsed after the laying of the last egg; then, if 
there are no signs of hatching, the eggs may be put into warm 
water; if they float the probability is that they are addled, and 
no young bird in the egg; if they sink, they may be replaced 
for a day or two, but if not hatched then, they should be taken 
away, or the hen will go on sitting uselessly (on dead birds 
probably). Sometimes a violent jar, caused by the shutting of 
a door near the cage, or the fall of the cage itself, will kill the 
birds in the eggs, or the mother bird will cause their death by 
allowing the eggs to get cold, if sitting irregularly. The egg 
food must be provided in readiness for the hatching; and it is 
necessary to watch the birds' proceedings at first, lest they 
should not feed the young ones; but very few canaries are un- 
natural enough to leave them unfed, although they do not like 
to be overlooked, and, if they are shy birds, will refuse to feed 
their little ones when they are in sight, so that one has to 
watch them without appearing to do so. If they feed them 
once they will continue to do so; if not, it will be needful to 
bring them up by hand, giving them the soft egg food with s 



DOMESTIC PETS. 7U 

quill, as with the nestlings before mentioned. A fresh nest 
must be given if the first nest becomes dirty, and the young 
birds carefully transferred to it with no more touching than is 
necessary. Some parent birds will resent any interference with 
their young, and will desert if they are meddled with; others 
will appear pleased at any notice bestowed on them, and will 
call our attention to their children with great exultation, chirp- 
ing and flying up to the nest, looking in, and then looking up 
in our faces as if to say, "Pray admire my lovely infants." 

If our birds are as familiar with us as they ought to be, 
they will exhibit their confidence in our sympathy and make 
their wants known to us in a very pleasant and expressive man- 
ner: if they want fresh food or water they will go down to the 
glasses and look into them, and then look up at us and chirp; 
or if anything is amiss with their nestlings, they will attract our 
attention to the nest by signals that cannot be mistaken. One 
bird who wanted materials for her nest went about the cage 
picking up stalks, and another pulled the hair of any human 
head that came within her reach, to show what she wanted. 

The young birds will generally be out of the nest in about 
a fortnight during the day, returning to it at night for warmth. 
The mother bird will often begin to lay again about this time, 
and must have a fresh nest given her; and the young ones 
should be put into the nursery partition, so as to be fed through 
the wires (or in a small cage tied on to the larger one). They 
are apt to tease their mother, or to break the eggs, by jump- 
ing in and out of the nest while she is sitting. We have some- 
times seen three or four little heads peeping out under her 
wings at once, and occasionally they will sit upon her, which in 
hot weather is almost too much to endure. The cock bird will 
feed them while she is sitting, and show them how to feed 
themselves. They must have a supply of egg food, crushed 
seed, and water in their compartment, and by degrees they will 
become independent of their parents. The first moulting tries 
the young birds' strength much, and till it is over they must 
have the same kind of food — egg food and crushed hemp-seed, 
in addition to their usual provisions. The hen should not be 
allowed to have more than two broods in the year, for her 
health's sake. If she goes on laying or sitting, the nest should 



716 DOMESTIC PETS. 

be taken away from her; and if that hint is not suflScient, she 
must be seperated from the cock till she begins to moult. The 
young birds should be within hearing of a good songster till 
after their moulting is over, when they will begin to warble 
feebly. If a nightingale or woodlark were to be had as music 
master, they would learn his notes; but we do not advise any 
one to keep these birds in confinement; they are not fitted for 
it by temperament or constitution, and their song is much more 
glad and sweet in their native woods. We had one canary who 
had learned several nightingale notes, and used to repeat the 
*'jug, jug," continually; he would not sing in company with 
others, but taught the young birds very well from a little dis- 
tance. They will often learn best when their singing-master is 
out of sight. 

Cross-breeding has changed the canary of the present day 
from the original wild green bird of Teneriffe and the Canary 
Isles, and the varieties of shape and plumage are endless. 
There are canary societies and bird-shows now, and prizes are 
given for birds .which excel in beauty or song. They are 
arranged in different divisions, and connoisseurs talk know- 
ingly of "jonques," "spangles," "mealy birds," "flaxen," 
" grey," " cinnamon," and " agate-colored " canaries, all of 
which have their distinguishing merits. Then there is the 
German canary, a small, compact, smooth bird, with a sweet 
but not very powerful voice; and the Belgian, its opposite in 
every respect, very long and slender, with exceedingly high 
shoulders and long legs, standing so uprightly on its perch as 
to give one the idea that it would fall backwards. The Nor- 
wich, or London fancy, prize canary, is a large square bird, 
with a massive head, deep orange in plumage all over the body, 
excepting the wings and tail, which should be black. This, at 
least, used to be the prize bird, but every season has its fashion 
in birds as well as in dress. To our mind it is the most beauti- 
ful of all the canaries when perfect, but it is very difficult to 
get one without white or green feathers, or irregularly marked; 
and a perfect bird will become imperfect after its first two 
moults. This is the case also with the lizard canary, which 
should be of a greenish bronze throughout, excepting the crown 
of the head, which is yellow in the gold-spangled, and white in 



DOMESTIC PET8. 717 

the sllver>spangled lizard. The markings or spangles on the 
bsvck are very uniform and regular, and there ought to be no 
yellow or white feathers in the wings or tail; but these gener- 
ally come when the bird is two years old. 

Virginian Nightingale.— The cardinal grosbeak, or Virginian 
nightingale, is a very beautiful red bird, with glossy black 
feathers about the head and neck. It is about eight inches 
long, of which the tail measures three. The song is varied 
and constant, and continues all through the year, except while 
\t is moulting. The hen, which is of a reddish-brown color, ia 
said to sing nearly as well as the cock; and perhaps that is the 
reason why these birds are better apart — the cock is jealous of 
his mate's rivalry of voice. Bird dealers have so often pro- 
nounced an unfavorable opinion of the cardinal grosbeak as 
regards its capabilities as a domestic pet, that we were sur- 
prised to hear of one which was so exceedingly tame that he 
would carry his favorite tit-bits to his mistress, and try to make 
her eat crushed hemp and caterpillars ! The bird is naturally 
very nervous and sensitive, so that it would fret and chafe in a 
shop surrounded by other birds, and its wild fluttering would 
give the idea that it could never be tamed; but patient kind- 
ness and gentleness will make it most attractive and pleasant 
pet. It should be fed chiefly on canary-seed, but should have 
a few hemp-seeds every day, and four or five meal-worms, or 
spiders, grubs, or caterpillars — some animal food, in short, to 
keep it well and vigorous. Spanish nuts, almonds, walnuts, and 
Indian corn, may be given as a treat; and a lump of basalt and 
a little piece of chalk should be put in the cage, and the bird 
should always be allowed a bath, and should be kept out of 
draughts. We give the directions which have been given to us 
by a lady whose Virginian nightingale has flourished under her 
judicious care many years. 

Parrots. — An article on domestic pets seems scarcely com- 
plete without some notice of parrots and parakeets; but 
there are so many varieties of this tribe of bird, and they 
come from so many parts of the world, that they require a book 
to themselves. We can only make a few suggestions for their 
treatment generally. Those which are natives of tropical cli- 
mates require warmth and abundance of farinaceous food and 



718 DOMESTIC PETS. 

fruit. Bread and milk should be the staple prison diet of par- 
rots (the bread should be soaked first in boiling water, squeezed 
as dry as possible, and then allowed to absorb as much fresh 
boiled milk as it will hold), adding Indian corn, biscuits, nuts, 
almonds (not bitter almonds), fruit (hard and soft), peach and 
plum kernels, cherries, grapes, pears, &c., grain and seeds for 
the larger birds; and the smaller kinds should have hemp, 
canary, and millet seeds, with fruit. All should have water for 
drinking and bathing within reach; and if the birds will not go 
into water, it is well to sprinkle a little warm water on them 
occasionally, and put them into the sunshine that they may 
plume themselves and clean their feathers. Great cleanliness 
is necessary to keep parrots in health, and their feet must be 
frequently washed if they get dirty and they will not bathe 
themselves. They are subject to diseased feet, and their 
perches should be covered with flannel, and the bottom of 
the cage should have a grating with a drawer underneath it 
always covered with sand. Lettuce or water-cress is given 
to these birds occasionally; and it is said that a chili-pod given 
from time to time is useful — when they are moulting they may 
have one or two cut up small once a week. If they have an 
attack of asthma they should have a few grains of cayenne 
pepper mixed with their bread and milk. Meat, sugar, and 
sweetmeats, are all unwholesome for parrots. 

Doves. — Doves are pretty, gentle, quiet birds, and easily 
tamed. The stock dove, ring dove, turtle dove, and collared 
turtle, are all kept in confinement, but they should all 
have a great deal of air. If kept in a wicker cage, it should be 
carried indoors at night (for, being natives of hot countries, 
they do not bear cold well), and taken out of doors early in the 
morning. The German peasants keep doves constantly in their 
cottages, from a fancy that they cure colds and rheumatism by 
taking the complaints themselves; and we believe it is true that 
doves are subject to the diseases which people shut up in the 
same room with them have, such as small-pox, swollen legs, 
and tumors in the feet; but this is probably due to the close, 
unwholesome condition and bad air of the room, which affects 
birds and human beings alike. They are best kept in a con- 
servatory or aviary, unless they are tame enough to fly in and 



DOMESTIC PETSw 719 

out of the house, and return to their cages at night or when they 
want food, in which case they may be allowed their liberty. 
They must have plenty of fine, dry gravel and conveniences 
for bathing, and their food should be barley, wheat, peas, 
vetches, hemp, and canary seed. They like variety in it, and 
are fond of bread dry or soaked, the seeds of pines and firs, 
and linseed and myrtle berries. They ought to have bay salt 
mixed with old mortar or gravel. The salt is good for their 
throats, which often become diseased. Doves generally have 
two broods in the year, two young ones at a time, which they 
feed from their crops. We have been told that they are often 
unnatural enough to neglect this duty; but we do not think 
this is generally the case. The young are so dependent upon 
their parents, that they could hardly be reared by hand. They 
are not very interesting birds, but have great beauty of plumage, 
and no disagreeable characteristics to detract from their merits 
as domestic peta> 



LEG^L POIN'TS. 



Articles of Agreement. — An agreement is a contract, by which a cer- 
tain person or persons, agrees or contracts to perform certain duties 
within a specified time. It is of much importance, in all matters, upon 
which may arise a difference of opinion, or misunderstanding, that con- 
tracts be reduced very explicitly to writing. Agreements should show 
that they aro made for a reasonable consideration, otherwise they are 
void in law. The contract expires at the end of a year, unless it is ex- 
pressly stipulated that the agreement is binding for a longer time. A 
signature should always be written with pen and ink, for safety, although 
a pencil signature is legal. Misrepresentation, or discovery of fraud, 
or changing of date by one party to the agreement, renders the con- 
tract void. Agreements should state explicitly, within what time its 
conditions are to be complied with. Always duplicate copies of an 
agreement, that each party may retain a copy. 

Bills of Sale. — A written agreement, by which one party transfers to 
another, for a consideration on delivery, all his right, title, and interest, 
in personal property, is a bill of sale. 

The ownership of personal property, in law, is not changed until the 
delivery, and the purchaser takes actual possession of such property, 
though in some States a bill of sale is prima facie evidence of owner- 
ship, even against creditors, unless the sale was fraudulently made, for 
the purpose of avoiding the payment of debts. 

Deeds. — A deed is an instrument in writing, by which lands and ap- 
purtenances thereon are conveyed from one person to another, signed, 
sealed, and properly subscribed. A deed may be written or printed on 
parchment or paper, and must be executed by parties competent to 
contract. 

One witness is required in New York, and two witnesses are re- 
quired in Vermont, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, Georgia and Indiana. Should the deed be proven by 
witnesses, two are also required in Tennessee, Delaware and South 
Carolina. Jxx the other States no witnesses are necessary, the deed be- 



73^ LEGAL POINTS. 

ing acknowledged by a person duly authorized by law. There must be 
a realty to grant, and a sufficient consideration, to render a deed valid. 

The following lequisites are necessary to enable a person to legally 
convey property to another: 1st, He or she must be of sane mind; 2d, 
of age; and 3d, he or she must be the rightful owner of the property. 

The grantor is the person who makes the deed, and the grantee, the 
person who receives the deed. The wife of the grantor, in the absence 
of any statue regulating the same, must acknowledge the deed, or else, 
after the death of her husband, she will be entitled to a one-third inter- 
est in the property, as dower during her life. Her acknowledgment oii 
the deed must be of her own free will and accord, and the officer, before 
whom the acknowledgment is taken, must sign his name as a witness to 
the fact that her consent was without compulsion. Special care should 
be taken to have the deed properly acknowledged and witnessed, and 
the proper seal attached. The deed takes effect upon its delivery to the 
proper authorized person. Any alterations or interlineations in the 
deed should be noted at the bottom of the instrument, and properly 
witnessed. After the acknowledgment of a deed, the parties have no 
right to make the slightest alteration. An alteration after the acknowl- 
edgmant, in favor of the grantee, vitiates the deed. 

By a general warranty deed, the grantor agrees to warrant and de- 
fend the property conveyed against all persons whatsoever, A quit 
claim deed releases what interest the grantor may have in the land, but 
does not warrant and defend against others. Deeds, upon their deliv- 
ery, should be recorded in the Recorder's office without delay. 

Chattel Mortgages. — A mortgage on personal property, given by a 
debtor to a creditor, as security for the payment of a sum that may be 
due, is a chattel mortgage. 

The property mortgaged may remain in the possession of either 
party, while the mortgage is in force. In order to hold the property 
secure against other creditors, the mortgagee, or person holding the 
mortgage, must have a true copy filed in the Clerk's or Recorder's office 
of the place where the raortgagor, or person giving the mortgage, re - 
sides, and where the property is when mortgaged. 

A justice of the peace, according to the laws of some States, in the 
voting precinct where such property mortgaged is located, must ac- 
knowledge and sign the mortgage, taking a transcript of the same upon 
his court docket, while the mortgage itself should be recorded, the same 
as real estate transfers. 

When the person giving the mortgage retains possession of the prop- 
erty, he may empower the party holding the mortgage with authority to 
take the goods and chattels mortgaged into his possession at any time 
he may deem the same insufficient security for his claims; or if he shall 
be convinced that an effort is being made to remove such property, 
whereby he would be defrauded of his claim, or for other reasons, when 
he may deem it necessary to secure his claim, he can proceed to take 



LEGAL POINTS. 723 

posseBsion of it; and said property, after having given legal notice of 
sale, according to the law of the State governing the same, he is allowed 
to sell at public sale, to the highest bidder. Out of the money obtained 
therefrom, he can retain sufficient to liquidate his demand and defray 
the necessary expenses, turning over any moneys remaining to the 
mortgagor. / 

Landlord and Tenant. — No particular form of wording a lease is nec- 
essary. It is important, however, that the lease state, in a plain, straight 
forward manner, the terms and conditions of the agreement, so that 
there may be no misunderstanding between the landlord and tenant. 

The lease must state all the conditions, as additional verbal promises 
avail nothing in law. It is held, generally, that a written instrument 
contains the details, and states the bargain entire, as the contracting 
parties intended. 

The tenant can sublet a part, or all, of his premises, unless prohibited 
by the terms of his lease. 

A lease by a married woman, even if it be upon her own property, at 
common law, is not valid; but, by recent statues, she, in many States, 
may lease her own property and have full control of the same; neither 
can the husband effect a lease that will bind her after his death. His 
control over her property continues only so long as he lives. 

Neither a guardian or minor can give a lease, extending beyond the 
ward's majority, which can be enforced by the lessee; yet the latter is 
bound unless the lease is annulled. 

If no time is specified in a lease, it is generally held that the lessee 
can retain possession of the real estate for one year. A tenancy at will, 
however, may be terminated in the Eastern States by giving three 
month's notice in writing; in the Middle and Southern States, six 
months; and in the Western States, one month; though recent statutes 
in some States have modified the above somewhat. 

The lease that specifies a term of years, without giving the definite 
number, is without effect at the expiration of two years. A lease for 
three or more years, being signed by the Commissioner of Deeds, and 
recorded in the Recorder's office, is an effectual bar to the secret or 
fraudulent conveyance of such leased property; and it further obviates 
the necessity of procuring witnesses to authenticate the validity of the 
lease. 

Duplicate copies of a lease should always be made, and each party 
retain a copy of the same. 

A new lease invalidates an old one. 

A landlord misrepresenting property that is leased, thereby subject- 
ing the tenant to inconvenience and loss, such damages can be recovered 
from the landlord by deduction from the rent. 

A lease on property that is mortgaged ceases to exist when the per- 
son holding such mortgage f orcloses the same. 

A landlord consenting to take a substitute, releases the first tenant. 



724 LEGAL POINTS. 

Where there is nothing but a verbal agreement, the tenancy is 
understood to commence at time of taking possession. Where there is 
no time specified in the lease, tenancy is regarded as commencing at 
the time of delivering the writings. If it is understood that the tenant 
is to pay the taxes on the property he occupies, such fact must be dis- 
tinctly stated in the lease, as a verbal promise is of no effect. 

Partnerships. — An agreement between two or more persons to invest 
their labor, time, and means together, sharing in the loss or profit that 
may arise from such investment, is termed a partnership. 

This partnership may consist in the contribution of skill, extra 
labor, or acknowledged reputation upon the part of one partner, while 
the other, or others, contribute money, each sharing alike equally, or in 
fixed proportion, in the profits, or an equal amount of time, labor, and 
money miiy be invested by the partners, and the profits equally divided; 
the test of partnership being the joint participation in profit, and joint 
liability to loss. 

A partnership formed without limitation is termed a general part- 
nership. An agreement entered into for the performance of only a 
particular work, is termed a special partnership; while the partner put- 
ting in a limited amount of capital, upon which he receives a corres- 
ponding amount of profit, and is held correspondingly responsible for 
the contracts of the firm, is termed a limited partnership, the condi- 
tions of which are regulated by statute in different States. 

A partner signing his individual name to negotiable paper, which is 
for the use of the partnership firm, binds all the partners thereby. 
Negotiable paper of the firm, even though given on private account by 
one of the partners, will hold all the partners of the firm when it passes 
into the hands of holders who are ignorant of the facts attending its 
creation. 

Partnership effects may be bought and sold by a partner; he may 
make contracts; may receive money; endorse, draw, and accept bills 
and notes ; and while this may be for his own private account, if it ap- 
parently be for the use of the firm, his partners will be bound by his 
action, provided the parties dealing with him were ignorant of the 
transaction being on his private account; and thus representation or 
misrepresention of a partner, having relation to business of the firm, 
will bind the members in the partnership. 

An individual lending his name to a firm, or allowing the same to be 
used after he has withdrawn from the same, is still responsible to third 
persons as a partner. 

A partnership is presumed to commence at the time articles of co- 
partnership are drawn, if no stipulation is made to the contrary, and 
the same can be discontinued at any time, unless a specified period of 
partnership is designated in the agreement; and even then he may with- 
draw by giving previous notice of such withdrawal from the same, being 
liable, however, ia damages, if such are caused by his withdrawaL 



LEGAL POINTS. 725 

Should it be desired that the executors and representatives of the 
partner continue the business in the event of his death, it should be so 
specified in the articles, otherwise the partnership ceases at death. 
Should administrators and executors continue the business under such 
circumstances, they are personally responsible for the debts contracted 
by the firm. 

If it is desired that a majority of the partners in a firm have the 
privilege of closing the affairs of the company, or in any way regulating 
the same, such fact should be designated in the agreement; otherwise 
such right will not be presumed. 

Partners may mutually agree to dissolve a partnership, or a disso- 
lution may be effected by a decree of a Court of Equity. Dissolute con- 
duct, dishonesty, habits calculated to imperil the business of a firm, in- 
capacity, or the necessity of partnership no longer continuing, shall be 
deemed sufficient causes to invoke the law in securing a dissolution of 
partnership, in case the same cannot be effected by mutual agreement. 

After dissolution of partnership, immediate notice of the same 
should be given in the most public newspapers, and a notice likewise 
should be sent to every person having special dealings with the firm. 
These precautions not being taken, each partner continues liable for the 
acts of the others to all persons who have no knowledge of the dissolu- 
tion. 

Wills. — The legal declaration of what a person determines to have 
done with his property after death, is termed a will. 

All persons of sufficient age, possessed of sound mind, excepting 
married women in certain States, are entitled to dispose of their prop- 
erty by will. Children at the age of fourteen, if males, and females at 
the age of twelve, can thus dispose of personal property. 

No exact form of words is necessary in order to make a will good at 
law; though much care should be exercised to state the provisions of 
the will so plainly that its language may not be misunderstood. The 
person making the will is termed the testator; if a female, a testatrix. 

A will is of no force until the death of the testator, and can be can- 
celled or modified at any date by the maker. The last will made annuls 
the force of all preceding wills. 

The law regards marriage and offspring resulting, as a prima facie 
evidence of revocation of a will made prior to such marriage, unless the 
wife and children are provided for by the husband in some other way, 
in which case the will remains in full force. 

To convey real estate by will, it must be done in accordance with the 
law of the State where such land is located; but personal property is 
conveyed in harmony with the law that obtains at the place of the 
testator's residence. 

There are two kinds of wills, namely, written or verbal, or noncupa- 
tive. The latter or spoken wills, depending upon proof of persons 
hsaiisg the aaoxej generally relate to personal property only, and are 



726 LEGAL POINTS. 

not recognized in all the States, nnless made 'within ten days previous to 
the death. Verbal or unwritten wills are usually unsafe, and, even when 
well authenticated, often make expensive litigation; hence the necessity 
of having the wishes of the testator fully and clearly defined in a written 
will. 

To give or make a devise of property by will, and subsequently dis- 
pose of the same, without altering the will to conform to such sale, de- 
stroys the validity of the entire will. 

A will made by an unmarried woman is legally revoked by marriage; 
but she can take such legal steps in the settlement of her property, be- 
fore marriage, as will empower her to dispose of the same as she may 
choose, after marriage. 

No husband can make a will that will deprive the wife of her right of 
dower in the property ; but tho husband can will the wife a certain amount 
in lieu of her dower, stating it to be in lieu thereof. Such bequest, how- 
ever, will not exclude her from her dower, provided she prefers it to the 
bequest made in the will. Unless the husband states distinctly that the 
bequest is in lieu of dower, she is entitled to both. 

Property bequeathed must pay debts and encumbrances upon the 
same before its distribution can be made to the legatees of the estate. 

Though property may be willed to a corporation, the corporation 
cannot accept such gift unless provision is made for so doing in its 
charter. A will may be revoked by marriage, codicil, destruction of the 
will, disposing of property devised in a will, or by the execution of 
another will. 

The person making a 'will may appoint his executors, but no person 
can serve as such executor if he or she be an alien at the time of prov- 
ing of the will; if he be under twenty-one years of age, a convict, a 
drunkard, a lunatic, or an imbecile. No person appointed as an execu- 
tor is obliged to serve, but may renounce his appointment by legal 
written notice, signed before two witnesses, which notice must be re- 
corded by the officer before whom the will is proved. 

In case a married woman possesses property, and dies without 8 
will, her husband is entitled to administer upon such property in prefer- 
ence to any one else, provided he be of sound mind. 

Any devise of pr6perty made to a subscribing witness is invalid, al- 
though the integrity of the will in other respects is not affected. 

In all wills the testator's full name should be made at the end of 
such. If he be unable to write, he may have his hand guided in making 
a mark against the same. If he possesses a sound mind, and is con- 
scious at the time of the import of this action, such mark renders the 
will valid. 

Witnesses should always write their respective places of residenca 
after their names, their signatures being written in the presence of each 
other, and in the presence of the testator. 

It should be stated also, that these names are signed at the request 



LEGAL POINTS. 727 

of, and in the presence of, the testator, and in the presence of each 
other. 

The following States require two subscribing witnesses: Missouri, 
Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, Iowa, 
Utah, Texas, California, New Jersey, Delaware, Indiana, Virginia, and 
New York. Three witnesses are required to authenticate a will in the 
following States: Florida, Mississippi, Maryland, Louisiana, Georgia, 
South Carolina, Wisconsin ,Oregon, Minnesota, Michigan, Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. 
Proof of signature of the testator, by the oath of two refutable witnesses, 
is sufficient to establish the validity of a will in the State of Pennsyl- 
vania, no subscribing witnesses being absolutely necessary. 

Witnesses are not required to know the contents of a will. They 
have simply to know that the document is a will, and witness the sign- 
ing of the same by the testator. 

Codicils. — An addition to a will, which should be in writing, is 
termed a codicil. A codicil is designed to explain, modify, or change 
former bequests made in the body of the will. It should be done with 
the same care and precision as was exercised in the making of the will 
itself. 

Exemptions from Forced Sales. — Showing property exempt from 
attachment, or levy and sale on execution, according to the laws of 
different States: 

Alabama.— Home worth $2,000, and personal property to the value of 
$1,000. 

Arkansas. — Home worth $2,600, said home being the residence of a 
householder, or head of family, and personal property to the value of 
$600. 

California. — Home worth $5,000, if declaration of homestead is 
properly filed in the Recorder's office of the county where situate, by a 
husband or wife, or other head of a family, except in the following 
cases: 1st. Where the judgment was obtained before the declaration of 
homestead. 2d. On judgments for liens of mechanics, laborers, or 
vendors of the land. 3d. On debts secured by mortgage on the land, 
executed by husband and wife, or an unmarried claimant. 4th. On 
debts secured by mortgage on the land before the declaration of the 
homestead. The other exemptions are necessary household, table and 
kitchen furniture, including one sewing machine and piano, in use, or 
belonging to a woman; provisions sufficient for one month; farming 
utensils or implements of husbandry; also, two oxen, or horses, or 
mules, with harness; one wagon and food for said cattle for one month; 
all seed, grain, or vegetables, actually prepared for planting or sowing 
within the ensuing six months, not exceeding f 100 in value; tools of a 
mechanic necessary to his trade; instruments and libraries of a profes- 
sional man necessary to his profession; the cabin or dwelling of a miner 



V28 LEGAL POINTS. 

not exceeding |600 in value, together with all his tools, implements or 
appliances necessary for mining operations, not exceeding $500 in value, 
and two horses or cattle, with food for same for one month, when 
used for mining purposes; two horses or other cattle, with harness, and 
hack, carriage or cart, with which a man earns his living; and the horse, 
vehicle and harness, of a physician or mmister of the gospel, with food 
for one month; four cows, with their sucking calves, and four hogs, with 
their sucking pigs; poultry to the value of $50; earnings of debtor for 
services rendered within thirty days before levy, necessary for the use of 
his family residing in the State, supported by his labor; shares in a 
homestead corporation not exceeding $1,000 in value, when the holder 
does not own a homestead. 

Colorado. — Home worth $2,000, and to the head of a family owning 
and occupying the same, various articles of personal property. The 
tools, working animals, books and stock in trade, not exceeding $300 in 
value, is exempted to any person not the head of a family, when used 
and kept for the purpose of carrying on a business or trade, and per- 
sonal property, $1,000. 

Connecticut. — No home exempted. The following personal property 
is exempt: Necessary apparel, bedding, and household furniture; imple- 
ments of the debtor's trade; one cow and ten sheep, value not to exceed 
$150; specified amounts of family stores, one stove, one horse, saddle 
and bridle, buggy and harness, to the value of $200, of any practicing 
physician or surgeon; one sewing machine in use, pew in church, and a 
library to the value of $500; one boat used in fishing to the value 
of 



Dakota. — Home of 160 acres with buildings, or one acre and house in 
village or city, and personal property, defined by statute, to the value 
of $1,500. 

Delaware. — No home exempted. Personal property to the value of 
$275; family library, pictures, pew in church, lot in cemetery, wearing 
apparel of debtor and family, and tools, implements and fixtures neces- 
sary to carry on business, worth not over $75. Head of family in 
addition, is allowed on other personal property, not enumerated above, 



District of Columbia. — No home exempted. Personal property of the 
following value, except for servant's or laborer's wages due, are exempted: 
Wearing apparel; household furniture to the value of $300; fuel and 
provisions for three months; mechanic's tools or implements of trade 
to value of $200, with stock to same amount; library and instruments 
of a professional man tovalue of $300; a farmer's team and other uten- 
sils to value of $100; family pictures and library to value of $400. 

Florida. — Farm, or house and lot and personal property to the value of 



LEGAL POINTS. 729 

$1,000; and additional $1,000 worth of property is exempt from all 
debts incurred prior to May 10, 1865. 

Georgia. — Home worth $1,600, and personal property to the value of 
$1,000, to be valued at the time they are set apart. 

Idaho. — Home worth $5,000 to the head of a family, and furniture, 
teams, tools, stock, and other personal property to the value of $300, is 
exempt, except upon a judgment recovered for its price, or upon a 
mortgage thereon. 

Illinois. — Home worth $1,000 to a householder, having a family. 
There is no exemption from sales for taxes, assessments, debt or liabil- 
ity incurred for the purchase or improvements of said home. No 
release or waiver of exception is valid unless in writing, and subscribed 
by said householder and wife, if he have one, and acknowledged as con- 
veyances of real estate are acknowledged. The following personal 
property is exempt from execution: Writ of attachment and distress for 
rent; necessary wearing apparel; one sewing machine; furniture, tools, 
and implements necessary to carry on his trade or business, to value of 
$100; implements or library of any professional man to value of $100; 
materials and stock designed and procured for carrying on his trade or 
business to value of $100; and also when debtor is the head of a family, 
and resides with the same, necessary beds, bedding, and household fur- 
niture to value of $100; one cow, calf, two swine, one yoke of oxen, or 
two horses, value not exceeding $200, with the harness therefor, neces- 
sary provisions and fuel for the use of family three months, and food 
for herein mentioned stock for same time; the family pictures, library, 
cemetery lots and tombs; $100 worth of other property adapted to his 
condition in life, selected by the debtor. No personal property is 
exempt from sale for the wages of laborers or servants. Wages of a 
laborer, who is the head of a family, cannot be garnisheed, except the 
sum due him be in excess of $25. 

Indiana. — Home to the amount of $300, and personal property to like 
amount. No property shall be sold by virtue of an execution for less 
than two thirds its appraised cash value, unless this provision is waived 
in contract. 

Iowa. — Farm of 40 acres, or house and lot in city, provided the same 
is used for a home, and to value of $500. All wearing apparel kept for 
actual use and suitable to the condition of the party, trunks and other re- 
ceptacles to hold the same; one musket or rifle; the proper tools, instru- 
ments, or books, of any farmer, mechanic, surveyor, clergyman, lawyer, 
physician, teacher, or professor; the horse or the team, consisting of not 
more than two horses or mules, or two yoke of cattle, and the wagon or 
other vehicle, with the proper harness or tackle, by use of which any 
physician, public officer, farmer, teamster or other laborer habitually 
earns his living; private library, pictures, and paintings. If the debtor 



730 LEGAL POINTS. 

is the head of «». ibmily, there is further exempt: One cow, one calf, horse, 
fifty sheep and the •wool therefrom, five hogs and all pigs under six 
months; the necessary food for animals exempt for sixty days; all flax 
raised by the defendant and the manufactures therefrom; bed and bed- 
ding necessary; all cloth manufactured by the defendant not exceeding 
100 yards in quantity; household and kitchen furniture to the value ot 
$200; all spinning wheels and looms, and other instruments of domestic 
labor kept for actual use; the necessary provisions and fuel for family 
use for six months. The word family does not include strangers or 
boarders; the earnings of such debtor for personal services, or those of 
his family at any time within ninety days next preceding the levy . None 
of the foregoing exemptions are for the benefit of a single man not the 
head of a family, or of a non-resident, nor of those who have started to 
leave the State, but their property is liable to execution, with the 
exemption in the two former cases of ordinary wearing apparel and 
trunks; and in the latter case of such wearing apparel and property as 
the defendant may select, not to exceed $75, to be selected by the debtor 
and appraised; but any person coming to the State with the intention 
of remaining, is a resident. 

Kansas. — Home of 160 acres of farm land, or house and one acre in 
city or town, provided it is used as a residence by the family of the 
owner, together with all the improvements. The value is not limited. 
No personal property is exempt for the wages of a servant, mechanic, 
laborer, or clerk. The following personal property is exempt to heads 
of families: Library, pictures, and musical instruments used by the 
family. All wearing apparel, beds and bedding used by the family; one 
cooking stove and appendages, and all cooking utensils, together with 
all other stoves and appendages necessary for use of family; one sewing 
machine, spinning wheel, and all other household furniture, not exceed- 
ing in value $500; two cows, ten hogs, one yoke ot oxen, and one horse 
or mule, or in lieu of one yoke of oxen and one horse or mule, a span of 
horses or mules, and twenty sheep and their wool; necessary food for 
the support of the stock for one year; one wagon, two plows, drag and 
other farming utensils, not exceeding in value $300; food for the family 
for one year; the tools and implements of any mechanic, miner, or other 
person, kept for the purpose of carrying on his business, and in addition 
thereto stock in trade not exceeding $400 in value; library, implements, 
and office furniture of any professional man. 

Kentucky. — Home not exceeding in value $1,000, and the following 
personal property: Wearing apparel and the usual household and 
kitchen furniture, to the value of $100; one work beast or yoke of oxen, 
two cows and calves, and five sheep; one sewing machine. 

Louisiana. — Home of 160 acres of land, and personal property in all 
to the value of $2,000; must be occupied as a residence, and bona fide 
owned by the debtor, having a family, a person or persons depending 
upon him for support. 



LEGAL POINTS. 731 

Maine. — Home worth $500; necessary apparel and bed and bedding 
for evevy two members of the family ; one cooking stove, all stoves used 
for warming buildings, and other necessary furniture to value of $50; 
one sewing machine; all tools necessary for the debtor's occupation; 
library not exceeding in value $150; one cow, one heifer, ten sheep and 
the wool and lambs from same, two swine, one pair of working cattle, 
or in lieu thereof one pair of mules, or two horses, not exceeding in 
value $300; all produce of farms until harvested; corn and grain for use 
of family not exceeding thirty bushels; all potatoes raised or purchased 
for family use ; one barrel of flour, and enough hay to winter all exempted 
stock; all flax raised on one half acre for use; lumber to the amount of 
$10; twelve cords of fire-wood, five tons of anthracite coal, fifty bushels 
of bituminous coal, and all charcoal for use in family; one church pew; 
one horse sled to value of $20; one harness worth $20 for each horse or 
mule; one cart or truck -wagon, one harrow, one plow, one yoke, two 
chains, and one mowing machine; for fishermen, one boat not exceeding 
two tons burden. 

Maryland. — No home exempted. The personal property exempted is 
that which is actually necessary for the sustenance of the family, the 
tools or implements that are necessary to earn a livelihood, and, wearing 
apparel, $100. 

Massachusetts. — Home worth $800, to a man having a family and 
occupying the same as a home; the necessary wearing apparel, bed and 
bedding; stove to value of $50; sewing machine in actual use, and other 
household furniture necessary for use of family to the value of $300; 
library to the value of $50; one cow, six sheep, one swine, and two tons 
of hay; implements, tools and fixtures necessary to the carrying on of 
his trade or business, to value of $100; materials and stock designed 
and procured by him, and necessary for carrying on his trade or busi- 
ness, to value of $100; necessary provisions for family to value of $50; 
the boat, fishing tackle, and nets of fishermen, actually used iu their 
business, to value of $100; uniform and arms of a soldier required 
by law. 

Mississippi. — Home of 80 acres of land to the head of a family 
being a housekeeper; or in town or city, real estate to the value of 
$2,000, when used as a homestead; personal property. 

Missouri. — Homestead to married men of 160 acres of land, to value 
of $1,500. In cities of 40,000 inhabitants and over homestead shall not 
include more than eighteen square rods of ground, nor exceed in value 
$3,000. Personal property to the value of not less than $300 to heads 
of families. 

I Michigan. — Homestead in country not exceeding 40 acres, or in city 
or town not exceeding one lot, occupied as a residence, and not exceed- 
ing in value $1,500; household furniture to value of $250; stock in 
48 



7o:l LEGAL POINTS. 

trade, a team, or other things necessary to carry on a particular business, 
to value of $250; library to value of $150; to a householder, ten sheep, 
two cows, five swine, and some minor things. 

Minnesota. — Home of 80 acres of farm land, or house and lot in city 
or town, same used as a homestead. In personal property, the pictures, 
library, and musical instruments; wearing apparel, beds and bedding 
used by family; stoves and appendages, cooking utensils and other 
household furniture used by family, and not exceeding in value $500; 
three cows, two swine, one yoke of oxen and a horse, or instead of oxen 
and a horse, a span of horses or mules, twenty sheep and the wool from 
the same, either in raw material or manufactured; the necessary food 
for exempted stock for one year; one wagon, cart or dray; one sleigh, 
two plows, one drag, and other farming utensils, including tackle for 
teams, not exceeding in value $300; necessary fuel and provisions for 
debtor and family for one year; the tools and instruments of any one, 
used and kept for the purpose of carrying on his trade, and in additiori 
thereto stock in trade not exceeding in value $400; library and imple- 
ments of any professional man; one sewing machine and earnings of 
minor children. No articles of personal property are exempt from 
execution for the purchase money thereof. All articles to be chosen by 
debtor or representative. 

Montana. — Homestead of 80 acres, or if in city or town, one-quarter 
acre, not to exceed in value $2,500. The lien of a mechanic, laborer, 
or mortgage lawfully obtained upon the same, is not affected by such 
exemption. Personal property in addition, to the value of $1,400 or 
more, according to the value of articles, enumei^ted by statute, is 
allowed to the householder, occupying the same. 

Nebraska. — Homestead of 160 acres of farm land, dwelling-house 
and appurtenances worth $500, to be selected by the owner, or at his 
option, two contiguous lots within an incorporated city or town, or 
twenty contiguous acres of land within the limits of an incorporated 
city or town, when not laid off into streets, blocks, or lots, and when 
owned and occupied by the owner, being a resident, and the head of a 
family. When not owning houses or land, the head of a family is exempt 
in personal property to the value of $500. Other personal property is 
exempt, and is enumerated by statute. 

Nevada. — Home worth $5,000 to a head of family, and a debtor has 
exempt in personal property to the value of $1,500, enumerated by 

statute. 

New Hampshire. — Homestead to the value of $500; necessary apparel 
beddiv.g, household furniture to the value of $100; library to the value 
of $200; one cow, one hog, one pig, and pork of same when slaughtered; 
tools of occupation to the value of $100; six sheep and their fleece; one 
cooking stove and its furniture; provisions and fuel to the amount of 



LEGAL POINTS. 733 

$50; one sewing machine; beasts of the plow, not exceeding one yoke 
of oxen, or a horse, and of hay, four tons. 

y New Jersey. — Home worth |1,000, when occupied by owner as a resi- 
dence, being a householder, and having a family. Personal property to 
the value of $200, owned by a resident head of family, appraised by 
three persons appointed by the sheriff. Widow or administrator may 
claim exemption of $200. 

New York. — Homestead to the value of $1,000 when owned and occu- 
pied by debtor, being a householder and having a family. In addtion 
to the household articles usually enumerated as exempt, and the tools 
of a mechanic to the value of $25, there are exempted necessary house- 
hold furniture and working tools; team, and food for same for a period 
of ninety days; professional instruments, furniture and library, owned 
by any person being a householder or having a family for which he 
provides, to the value of $250; one sewing machine. Such exemptions 
do not apply to any execution issued on a demand for purchase money of 
any article herein enumerated by law; nor to any judgment rendered for 
a claim accruing for work and labor, performed in a family as a dom estic; 
nor to any judgment obtained in any court in the city of New York, for 
work, labor, or services done or performed by any female employee, 
when such amount does not exceed the sum of $15, exclusive of costs. 

New Mexico. — Home to the value of $1,000 in farm, if head of a 
family resides on same; wearing apparel, beds and bedding necessary 
for use of family, and firewood sufficient for thirty days, when intended 
to be used as such; library, and family and religious pictures; provisions 
to the amount of $25; kitchen furniture to value of $10, both to be 
selected by debtor; tools and implements necessary to carry on his 
trade or business, whether agricultural or mechanical, to be selected by 
him, and not to exceed in value $20. Real estate when sold must first 
be appraised by two freeholders of the vicinity and must bring two- 
thirds of the appraised value. 

North Carolina. — Homestead to the value of $1,000, when used as 
such, and to be selected by the owner; or instead, one lot and houses 
thereon in a city or town, owned and occupied by any resident of the 
State. Personal property to the value of $500. 

Ohio. — Family homestead, $1,000 in value; wearing apparel, beds 
and bedding necessary for the use of family; stove, pipe, and fuel 
sufficient for sixty days. If debtor owns no homestead, he is entitled to 
exemption on personal property to value of $500, in addition to the 
*bove. 

Oregon. — Books, pictures, and musical instruments to the value of 
$75; wearing apparel to $100 in value, and if a householder, $50 worth 
of wearing apparel for each member of the family ; tools, implements, 



734 LEGAL POINTS. 

team, vehicle, harness, library, or apparatus, when necessary in his occn 
pation or profession, to the value of $400; if a householder, ten sheep, 
with one year's fleece, two cows, five swine, household goods, furniture, 
and utensils to value of $300. No article of property is exempt from 
execution issued upon judgment for purchase price. 

Pennsylvania. — Property, either real or personal, to $300 in value. 
The exemption may be waived in contract or note. 

Rhode Island. — Home not exempted. Household furniture and stores 
of a housekeeper to the value of $300; wearing apparel necessary for 
the use of family; necessary books, etc., to $200; one cow, one hog, and 
tools or implements necessary for debtor's profession to the value 
of $50. 

South Carolina. — Homestead to the value of $1,000. Household fur- 
niture, beds, bedding, family library, arms, carts, wagons, farming 
implements, tools, cattle, work animals, swine, goats and sheep, to the 
aggregate value of $500; wearing apparel necessary. 

Tennessee. — Homestead to the value of $1,000, and personal pro- 
perty. 

Texas. — Homestead to the value of $5,000, when used as such, and 
any subsequent increase in value of same, either in city or country. 
Household and kitchen furniture. To every citizen not the head of a 
family, one horse, saddle, and bridle; all wearing apparel, and tools, 
books, and apparatus of his trade or profession; also, five cows, twenty 
hogs, one year's provisions, and in case of death of husband there is set 
aside by the court, for the benefit of the widow and children, other 
money or property to the value of the foregoing exemptions, if the 
specified articles are not already exempted. 

Utah. — Home worth $1,000 to head of family, same to be selected by 
him, and personal property to the value of $700 or more, according to 
the value of articles exempt by statute; each member of the family is 
allowed $250 aside from the homestead. No property shall be exempt 
from sale on a judgment received from its price, on a mechanic's lien, 
or a mortgage thereon. 

Vermont. — Homestead to the value of $500 and products; suitable 
wearing apparel, bedding, tools, arms, and articles of furniture as may 
be necessary for upholding life; one sewing machine, one cow, the best 
swine, or the meat of one swine; ten sheep and one year's product of 
said sheep, in wool, yarn, or cloth; forage sufficient for keeping exempted 
cattle through one winter; ten cords of firewood, twenty bushels of 
potatoes; military arms required by law; all growing crops, ten bushels 
of grain, one barrel of flour, three swarms of bees, and hives, together 
with their produce in honey; two hundred pounds of sugar, and all let- 
tered gravestones; all books used in a family; one pew in church; liv© 



LEGAL POINTS. 735 

poultry to value of $10; professional books and instruments of physi- 
cians, clergymen, and attorneys at law, to value of $200; one yoke of 
oxen, or steers, or two horses, as the owner may choose, kept and used 
for team work, to the value of $300, with sufficient forage for the same 
through winter. 

Virginia. — Home and personal property, including money and debts 
due him, to the value of $2,000, to a head of family, same to be selected 
by himself. Personal property exempted is defined by statute. 

Washington Territory. — Homestead to the value of $1,000 and per- 
sonal property. 

West Virginia.— Homestead to the value of $1,000, where the property 
of that value is devised or granted by debtor, being a husband or parent, 
and resident in the State ; and when he, previou3 to contracting the 
debt or liability, has placed a declaration of his intention to keep the 
property as a homestead on the land records of the county in which the 
real estate is situate. Also personal property to value of $500, provided 
debtor is a resident and parent. 

Wisconsin. — Farm of 40 acres, used for agricultural purposes, 
and the house and appurtenances, to be selected by owner, and not 
included in any village, town or city; or instead, one-fourth acre of 
land in a village, town, or city, with dwelling house thereon, when owned 
and occupied by a resident of the State. Family library and pictures; 
wearing apparel of debtor and family; all stoves, cooking utensils, and 
household furniture to value of $200; two cows, ten swine, one yoke of 
oxen and one horse, or a span of horses or mules; ten sheep and the 
wool from the same, either raw or manufactured; necessary food for 
exempted stock for one year's support; one wagon, cart or dray, one 
sleigh, one plow, one drag, and other farming utensils, including tackle 
for teams, to value of $50; provisions and fuel for one year; tools and 
implements, or stock in trade of a mechanic or miner, or other person, 
to value of $200 ; library or implements of any professional man to the 
value of $200; all moneys from insurance of exempt property; earnings 
of all persons for sixty days next preceeding the issuing of any process; 
all sewing machines kept for use; any articles presented by Congress or 
the members thereof. 

Wyoming. — Homestead to the value of $1,500 and personal property. 

Forms of Notes. 

Negotiable Without Indorsement. 

|10a Kew Yobk, Sept. 2. 1883. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay Leonard Smith, or bearer, 
One Hundred Dollars, value received. H. B. MoIntybe. 



736 LEGAL POINTS. 

Negotiable only by Indorsement. 

$100. New Yobk, Sept. 2, 1883. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay Leonard Smith, or order, 
One Hundred Dollars, value received. H. B. MoInttbe. 

Not Negotiable. 

$100. New Yobk, Sept. 2, 1883. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay Leonard Smith One Hun- 
dred Dollars, value received. H. B. MoIntxbe. 

Payable on Demand. 

$100. New Yobk, Sept. 2, 1883. 

On demand I promise to pay H. C. Spencer, or bearer. One Hundred 
Dollars, value received. John Thomas. 

Principal and Surety. 

$345.40. Flint, Mich., Dec. 4, 1883. 

Three months after date I promise to pay L. L. Walker, or order. 
Three Hundred, Forty-five and 40-100 Dollars, with interest, value 
received. Fbank Stone, Principal. 

Jay C. Woboesteb, Surety. 

Payable at Bank. 
$200. New Yobk, Oct. 8, 1883. 

Ninety days after date I promise to pay H. W. Fairbanks, or order, 
at the Park National Bank, Two Hundred Dollars, value received. 

Wheat Howabd. 

Receipts— On Account. 

|500. Chicago, April 25, 1883. 

Received of H. B. Mclntyre, Five Hundred Dollars on account. 

Field, Leiteb & Go. 

In Full •! all Demands. 
fSeO. New Yoek, April 16, 1883. 

Received of S. S. Pierce, Three Hundred Dollars in full of all 
demands to date. Chas. Fellows. 

Rfceipt for Rent. 

$300. Detboit, Aug. 8, 1883. 

Received from John D. Brown, Three Hundred Dollars, being 
amount in full for one quarter's rent of store, No. 65 Woodward ave- 
nue, for quarter ending Sept. 30. A. H. Stevens, 



LEGAL POINTS. 737 

A Short Building Contract. 

CoNTBAOTfor building made this day of one thousand 

eight hundred and by and between of in the County of 

and of in the County of builder. . 

The said covenant and agrees to and with the said 

to make, erect, build, and finish, in a good, substantial, and workman- 
like manner upon situate said to be 

built agreeable to the draught, plans, explanation, or specifications, 

furnished, or to be furnished to said by of good and 

substantial materials; and to be finished complete on or before the 

day of And said covenant and agrees to pay to 

said for the same dollars as follows : 

Security against mechanics', or other lien, is to be furnished by said 
prior to payment by said 

And for the performance of all and every the articles and agree- 
ments above mentioned, the said and do hereby bind 

themselves, their heirs, executers, and administrators, each to the other 
in the penal sum of dollars, firmly by these presents. 

In Witness Whebkof, We, the said and have hereunto 

set our hands the day and year first above written. 

{Signatures.) {Seals.) 

Executed and delivered in the presence of 

Power of Attorney in a Short Form. 

Know all Men bt these Pkesents, That I {name of principal,), have 
made, constituted, and appointed, and by these presents do make, con- 
stitute, and appoint {name of attorney), my true and lawful attorney, for 
me and in my name, place, and stead to {Jiere describe the thing to be 
done), giving and granting unto my said attorney full power and author- 
ity to do and perform all and every act and thing whatsoever requisite 
and necessary to be done in and about the premises, as fully, to all 
intents and purposes, as I might or could do if personally present, with 
full power of substitution and revocation; hereby ratifying and confirm- 
ing all that my said attorney or his substitute shall lawfully do or cause 
to be done by virtue hereof. 

In Witness Whebeof, I have here unto set my hand and seal, the 
day of in the year one thousand eight hundred and 



{Signature.) {Seal. 
Executed and delivered in the presence of 

Bill of Sale of Personal Property. 

Know all Men by these Peesents, That I {name of the seller), 

in the County of for and in consideration of the sum of 



738 LEGAL POINTS. 

to in hand •well and truly paid, at or before signing, sealing, 

and delivery of these presents by {name of the buyer) the receipt 

whereof I, the said do hereby acknowledge, have granted, bar- 
gained and sold, and by these presents do grant, bargain and sell unto 
the said {name of buyer) the following articles of personal prop- 
erty, to wit : {describe property sold). 

To Have and to Hold the said granted and bargained goods and 

chattels, unto the said heir, executors, administrators and 

assigns, to only proper use, benefit, and behoof forever, and 

the said does vouch himself to be the true and lawful 

owner of the goods and effects hereby sold, and to have in himself full 

power, good right, and lawful authority to dispose of the said 

in manner as aforesaid, and I do, for myself, my heirs, executors 
and administrators, hereby covenant and agree to warrant and defend 

the title of said goods and chattels hereby sold unto the said 

heirs, executors and administrators, and assigns against the lawful 
claims and demands of all persons whatsoever : 

In Witness Whebeof, the said have hereunto set 

hand and seal this day of in the year of our 

Lord, one thousand eight hundred and 

Executed and delivered 

in presence of (Signature.) {Seal.) 

Mortgage of Personal Property. 

I, of in consideration of. . . .dollars 

to me paid by of , convey to said 

the following personal property, to wit : {or if the goods are too numer- 
ous to be recited, say the goods and chattels mentioned in the schedtde hereto 

annexed), and now in the , in the town {city) of 

aforesaid. 

To hold the afore granted goods and chattels to the said 

.... and his assigns forever. 

And I covenant, that I am the lawful owner of said goods and chat- 
tels, and have good right to dispose of the same in the manner afore- 
said. 

Provided, nevertheless, that if the said pay to the 

said or his assigns the sum ot dollars In 

from date, with interest on said sum at the rate of per cent, per 

annum, payable , then this deed, as also a certain note 

of even date with these presents, given by said to said 

or order, to pay the said sum and interest at the times 

aforesaid, shall be void. 

In Witness Whebeof, I hereto set my hand and seal, this day of 

in the year of oar Lord one thousand eight hundred 

and 

Executed and delivered [L. S.] 

inpresenteof . [L. S.] 



LEGAL POINTS. 739 

A Chattel Mortgage, with Power of Sale. 

Kno-vc Aiiii Men by These Peesents, That I {name of mortgagor), of 

in the County of and State of 

, in consideration of dollars, to me paid by {name of 

mortgagee) of the town {or city) of in the county of. 

and State of , the receipt whereof is 

hereby acknowledged, do hereby grant, bargain, and sell unto the said 
and his assigns, forever, the following goods and chat- 
tels, to wit : 

{Here insert an accurate list and full description of the articles mort- 
gaged.) 

To Have and to Hold, all and singular, the said goods and chattels 
unto the mortgagee herein, and his assigns, to their sole use and behoof 
for ever. And the mortgagor herein, for himself and his heirs, execu- 
tors, and administrators, does hereby covenant to and with the said 
mortgagee and his assigns, that said mortgagor is lawfully possessed of 
the said goods and chattels, as of his own property; that the same are 
free from all encumbrances, and that he will warrant and defend the 
same to him the said mortgagee and his assigns, against the lawful 
claims and demands of all persons. 

Pkovided, Nevertheless, That if the said mortgagor shall pay to the 

mortgagee, on the day of in the year the 

8um of dollars, then this mortgage is to be void, otherwise 

to remain in full force and effect. 

And Provided Further, That until default be made by the said mort- 
gagor in the performance of the condition aforesaid, it shall and may 
be lawful for him to retain the possession of the said goods and chattels 
and to use and enjoy the same; but if the same or any part thereof shall 
be attached or claimed by any other person or persons at any time 
before payment, or the said mortgagor, or any other person or persons 
whatever, upon any pretense, shall attempt to carry off, conceal, make 
way with, sell, or in any manner dispose of the same or any part thereof, 
without the authority and permission of the said mortgagee or his execu- 
tors, administrators, or assigns, in writing expressed, then it shall and 
may be lawful for the said mortgagee, with or without assistance, or 
his agent or attorney, or his executors, administrators, or assigns, to 
take possession of said goods and chattels, by entering upon any prem- 
ises wherever the same may be, whether in this County or State, or else- 
where, to and for the use of said mortgagee or his assigns. And if the 
moneys hereby secured, or the matters to be done or performed, as 
above specified, are not duly paid, done or performed at the time and 
according to the conditions above set forth, then the said mortgagee, or 
his attorney or agent, or his executors, administrators, or assigns, may 
by virtue thereof, and without any suit or process, immediately enter 
and take poasession of said goods and chattels, and sell and dispose of 



740 LEGAL POINTS. 

the same at public or private sale, and after Batisfying the amount due, 
and all expenses, the surplus, if any remain, shall be paid over to said 
mortgagor or his assigns. The exhibition of this mortgage shall be 
sufficient proof that any person claiming to act for the mortgagee is 
duly made, constituted, and appointed agent and attorney to do what- 
ever is above authorized. 

In Witness Whebeof, The said mortgagor has hereunto set his hand 

and seal this day of in the year of our Lord one 

thousand eight hundred and 

Executed and delivered {Signature of Mortgagor .) [Seal.'] 

In presence of ..,, [Seal,] 

State of ) 

OODNTI. 5 ^^' 

This mortgage was acknowledged before me, by {tJie 

mortgagor), this day of A. D. 18. . . . 

Mortgage Deed, with Power of Sale, and Release of Dower and Homestead. 

This indenture made the day of , in the year one 

thousand, eight hundred and , between of , 

of the first part, and of , of the second part, 

witnesseth, that the said party of the first part, in consideration of 

dollars to him paid, the receipt whereof is hereby acknowledged, hath 
granted, bargained, sold, released, and conveyed, and by these presents 
does grant, bargain, sell, release, and convey to the said party of the 
second part, and his heirs and assigns forever, all that {/lere describe 
property), with all hereditaments and appurtenances thereto appertain- 
ing. 

To have and to bold the said premises, with the appurtenances to said 
party of the second part, his heirs and assigns, to his and their use 
and behoof forever. Provided always, and these presents are upon 
condition, that if, said party of the first part, his heirs or assigns, 
shall pay to the said party of the second part, his executors, administra- 
tors, or assigns, the sum of dollars, on or before the day 

of in the year , with interest, according to the 

condition of a bond (or note) of the said to the said 

, bearing even date herewith, then these presents shall be void. 

But upon any default in the payment of the money above mentioned, 
or of the interest thereon, said grantee, his executors, administrators or 
assigns, may sell the above granted premises with all improvements 
that may be thereon, at public auction in said , first publish- 
ing a notice of the time and place of sale once each week for three suc- 
cessive weeks, in one or more newspapers published in said ; 

and in his or their own name or names as the attorney of the said 
grantor, may convey the same by proper deed or deeds to the purchaser 
or purchasers, absolutely and in fee simple; and such sale shall forever 
bar the grantor, and all plsrsbna claiming under him, from all right and 



LEGAL POINTS. 741 

interest in the granted premises, whether at law or in equity. And out 
of the money arising from such sale, the said grantee or his represen- 
tatives shall be entitled to retain all sums then secured by this deed, 
whether then or thereafter payable, including all costs, charges, and 
expenses incurred or sustained by reason of any failure or default, on 
the part of the said grantor or his representatives, to perform and fulfill 
the condition of this deed, or any, covenants or agreements herein con- 
tained: rendering the surplus, if any, together with an account of such 
costs, charges, and expenses, to the said grantor, his heirs or assigns. 

And it is agreed, that said grantee, his administrators, executors, or 
assigns, or any person or persons in his or their behalf, may purchase 
at any sale made as aforesaid, and that no other purchaser shall be 
answerable for the purchase money ; and that, until default in the per- 
formance of the condition of this deed, the grantor and his heirs and 
assigns may hold and enjoy the granted premises and receive the rents 
and profits thereof. 

And, for the consideration aforesaid, I, M. B., wife of the said A. B., 
do hereby release unto the said grantee and his heirs and assigns, all 
right of both dower and homestead in the granted premises. 

In witness whereof, the parties to these presents have hereunto set 
their hands and seals this day and year above written. 

A. B. [l. s-l 
M. B. [l. 8.] 

Signed, sealed, and delivered 

In presence of 

[Witnessed and acknowledged like any other deed.] 

Form of a Will. 

In the name of God. Amen I, , of the town of 

in the county of , and State of , being of sound 

mind and memory (blessed be Almighty God for the same !) do make 
and publish this my last will and testament . 

I give and bequeath to my sons, > eight hundred dol- 
lars each, if they shall have attained the age of twenty-one years before 
my decease; but if they shall be under the age of twenty-one at my 
decease, then I give to them one thousand dollars each, the last men- 
tioned sum to be in place of the first mentioned. 

I give and bequeath to my beloved wife , all my house- 
hold furniture, and all the rest of my personal property, after paying 
from the same the several legacies already named, to be hers forever; 
but if there should not be at my decease sufficient personal property to 
pay the aforesaid legacies, then so much of my real estate shall be sold 
as will raise sufficient money to pay the same. 

I also give, devise and bequeath to my beloved wife, all 

the rest and residue of my real estate, as long as she shall remain 
unmarried, and my widow; but on her decease or marriage, the 



742 LEGAL POINTS. 

remainder thereof I give and devise to my said children and their heirs, 
respectively, to be divided in equal shares between them, 

I do nominate and appoint my beloved wife, , to be the 

sole executrix of this my last will and testament. 

In Testimony Whebeof, I hereunto set may hand and seal, and pub- 
lish and decree this to be my last will and testament, in presence of the 

witnesses named below, this day of , in the year 

of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred and. . , . 

[I.. 8.] 

Signed, sealed, declared and published by the said as and 

for his last will and testament, in presence of us, who, at his request 
and in his presence, and in presence of each other, have subscribed our 
names as witnesses hereto. 

residing at in county. 

residing at in county. 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Table showing the square feet and the feet square of the frac- 
tions of an acre. 



Fractions of 
an acre. 


Square feet. 


Feet square. 


Fractions of 
an acre. 


Square feet. 


Feet Square. 


1-16 


2722>/, 

5445 
10890 
14520 


52'/, 

1041/, 
120>/, 


1 
2 


21780 
43560 
87120 


147>/, 
808>i 
295Ji 



Table showing the number of hills or plants on an acre of land, 
for any distance apart, from lo inches to d feet — the later ac 
and longitudinal distances being unequal. 





10 in. 


12 in. 


15 in 


8 in 


20 in 


3 ft. 


21/2 ft 


3 ft. 


31/2 ft 


4 ft. 


4/2 ft 


5 ft. 


51/2ft 


6 ft. 


10 in. 


62626 


























12 " 


52272 


43660 


























15 " 


41817 


34848 


27878 
























18 " 


34848 


29040 


23232 


19:^60 






















20 " 


31363 


26136 


20908! 17424 


15681 




















2 feet 


26136 


21780 


lT4-i» 14-.2(i 


13068 


10890 


















2!4 " 


20908 


16424 


13939111616 


1(H,54 


8712 


6969 
















3 " 


17424 


14520 


11616 


9«iH() 


8711 


7260 


.5808 


4840 














3'/j " 


14935 


12446 


99.53 


8197 


7467 


6223 


4976 


4148 


3.565 












4 " 


13068 


10890 


8712 


7260 


6.5:^4 


.5445 


4356 


36:w 


3111 


2722 










^V^ " 


11616 


9680 


7744 


64.53 


.5808 


4840 


3872 


3226 


2767 


2420 


2151 








5 " 


10454 


8712 


6069 


.5808 


5227 


435(i 


3484 


2904 


2489 


2178 


1936 


1742 






Wt " 


9504 


7920 


6336 


,5280 


4752 


3960 


31 6i- 


264(1 


2263 


1980 


1760 


1.584 


1440 




6 " 


8712 


7260 


5808 


4840 


4356 

1 


3630 


2904 


2420 


2074 


1865 


1613 


1452 


1320 


1210 



744 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Table showing the number of plants^ hills, or trees contained in 
an acre at equal distances apart^ from 3 inches up to 66 
feet. 



Distance apart. No. of plants. 

SinchesbySincbes 696,960 

4 " by 4 " 392,040 

« « by 6 " 174,240 

9 " by 9 " 77,440 

Ifootbylfoot 43,560 

154 feetby I'/i feet i9,:i60 

2 " by 1 foot 21,780 

2 " by2feet 10,890 

24" by2i4feet 6,960 

8 " by 1 foot 14,590 

3 « by2feet 7,260 

3 " by 3 feet 4,840 

3'/i " by3»/ifeet 3,555 

4 " by 1 foot 10,890 

4 " by2feet 5,445 

4 " bySfeet 3.630 

4 " by4feet 2,722 

4^ " by4'4feet 2,151 

5 " by 1 foot 8,712 

5 " by2feet 4,356 

5 " bySfeet 2,904 

5 " by4feet 2,178 

5 " bySfeet 1,742 

W% " bySJifeet 1,417 



Distance apart. No. of plants. 

6feetby6feet 1,210 

6Yi " by64" 1,031 

7 " by7 " 881 

8 "by8 " 680 

9 »by9 » 637 

10 "bylO" 436 

11 "by 11" , 860 

12 "byl2" 302 

13 "by 13 " 257 

14 "by 14 " 222 

15 "byl5« 193 

16 "byl6 170 

161^" byl6'/2" 160 

17 "byl7" 150 

18 " byl8 " 134 

19 "byl9« 120 

20 "by20 " 108 

25 "by25" 69 

30 " by 30 " 48 

33 " by33 " 40 

40 " by40 " 27 

50 "by50" 17 

60 " by60 " 12 

66 "by66" 10 



Table showing the quantity of garden seeds required to plant a 
given space. 



Designation. 



Asparagus 

" Roots 

Eng. Dwarf Beans. 
French " 
Beans, pole, large. 
" " small. 

Beets 

Broccoli and Kale. 

Cabbage 

Cauliflower 

Carrot 

Celery 

Cucumber 

Cress 

Egg Plant 

Endive 

Leek 

Lettuce , 

Melon , 

■Nasturtium 

Onion 

Okra 

Parsley 

Parsnip 

Peppers 

Peas 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Salsify 

Spinage 

Squash , 

Tomato 

Turnip 

Water Melon... . 



Space and quantity of seeds. 

1 oz. produces 1000 plants, and requires a bed 12 feet square. 
1000 plant a bed 4 feet wide, 225 feet long. 
1 quart plants from 100 to 150 feet of row. 
1 " " 250 or 350 of row. 
1 " " 100 hills. 
1 " "300 " or 250 feet of row. 
10 lbs. to the acre* 1 oz. plants 150 feet of row. 
1 oz. plants 2500 plants, and requires 40 square feet of ground. 
Early sorts same as broccoli,ana require 60 square feet of ground. 
The same as cabbage. 
1 oz. to 150 of row. 

1 oz. gives 7000 plants, and loquires S'square feet of ground. 
1 oz. for 150 hills. 
1 oz sows a bed 16 feet square. 
1 oz. gives 2000 plants. 

1 oz. " 3000 " and requires 80 feet of ground. 
" 60 



seed bed of 120 feet. 



loz. " 2000 ' 

1 oz. " 7000 ' 

1 oz. tor 120 hills. 

I oz. sows 25 feet of row. 

1 oz. " 200 " . " 

1 oz. " 200 " « 

loz. " 200 " " 

1 oz. •' 250 " " 

1 oz. gives 2500 plants. 

1 quart sows 120 feet of row. 

loz. to 50 hills. 

loz. to lOOteet. 

loz. to 150 " of row. 

I oz. to 200 " " 

1 oz. to 75 mils. 

1 oz gives 2500 plants, requiring eeeat)ea ot 80 feat. 

I oz to 2000 feet. 

II oz. 10 50 mils. 



USEFUL TABLES. 



^45 



Table showing Ike quantity of seed required to the acre. 



Designation. Quantity of seed 

Wheat l^to2 bush. 

Barley I'/i to 254 

Oats 8 to 4 

Bye 1 to 2 

Buckwheat M to 1>5 ' 

Millet 1 Xo\% ' 

Corn >i to 1 " 

Beans 1 to S < 

Peas 8'/4to 3Vi ' 

Hemp .1 to 1'^ ' 

Flax ^to2 < 

Eice 8 to 2ii < 



Designation. Quantity of seed. 

Broom Corn 1 to 114 bush. 

Potatoes 5 to 10 " 

Timothy 12 to 24 quarts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 " 

Herd Grass 12 to 16 «« 

Flat Turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red Clover 10 to 16 «« 

WhiteClover 3 to 4 " 

BlueGrass 10 to 15 «« 

Orchard Grass ,20 to 30 " 

Carrots 4 to 5 " 

Parsnips 6 to 8 " 



Table showing the quantity per acre when planted in rows or 

drills. 



Broom Coni....«.M 1 to V/^ bush. 

Beans I'/J to2 " 

Peas c IJitoS " 



Onions 4 to 5 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2^ " 

Parsnips 4 to 5 " 

Beets 4 to 6 " 



Table showing the number of seeds in one pounds and weight per 

bushel. 



NAME. 



Wheat 

Barley 

Oats 

Eye 

Vetches 

Lentils 

Beans 

Peas 

Flax seed 

Turnip seed 

Eape seed 

Mustard (white) 

CabbaM seed 

Mangel-wurzel 

Parsnip seed. 

Carrot seed 

Lucern seed 

Clover (red) 

" (white) 

Eye-grass (perennial) 

" (Italian)... 

Sweet vern al grass ... , 



No. of 
Seeds per lb. 



10,500 

15,400 

20,000 

23,000 

8,300 

8,200 

600 to 1,300 

1,800 to 2,000 

108,000 

155,000 

118,000 

75,000 

128,000 

24,600 

97,000 

257,000 

205,000 

249,600 

686,400 

334,000 

272,000 

923,000 



No. lbs. 
per bu. 



58 to 64 
48 to 56 
to 42 
56 to 60 
60 to 63 
58 to 60 
60 to 65 
60 to 65 
50 to 60 
50 to 56 
50 to 56 
57 
52 

20 to 24 
14 
9 

58 to 60 
60 to 63 

59 to 62 
20 to 28 
13 to 18 

8 



TALUE OF FOOD FOB DOMESTIO ANIMAIiS. 

The figures below give the comparative mimber of pounds of each 
substance to equal in effect that of any standard food — as, for instance, 
that of hay. 

GoodHay, to give acertain nourishment, requires 100 pounds. 

Good Clover Hay will give same effect by the use of 95 " 

Eye Straw « « «« 355 «• 

Oat Straw " " " 220 " 

Potatoes •« " «« 196 •« 

Carrots •♦ « » jggo w 



746 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Beets will gfr^ 
Ruta Bagaa 
Wheat 


sane effect by the use of 

<( « « 

«t It «c 


346 

262 

43 

44 


pounds 




(( <( (I 


46 




Rye 
Barley 
Indian CoH, 
Oats 


(( « <c 


49 




i( «» ii 

<( « <c 
<t «t « 


51 

56 

59 




Buckwheat 


« C< <( 


64 




OU Cake 


<C (( (t 


64 





CONSUMPTION OF HAT. 

The hay kXinsumed by different animals 'does not vary greatly from 
three pounds daily for each hundred pounds weight of the animals. 
The following table is the result of various experiments by different 
persons, and will be useful for farmers who wish to determine by cal- 
culation beforehand, how their hay will hold out for the winter; 500 
cubic feet of timothy hay, in a full bay, being about one ton: 



Working Horses 3.08 pounds. 

Working Oxen. a.40 " 

Milk Cows (Boussingault'8)..2.25 " 

Milk Oows (Lincoln's) 2.40 " 

Young Growing Cattle 3.08 " 



Steers 2.84 potmds. 

DryCows 2.42 " 

Pigs (estimated) 3.00 " 

Sheep 3.00 " 



All the articles enumerated in these food tables are estimated as of 
good quality. If the fodder be of poor quality, more must be allowed. 



WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT 



of various substances, from which the bulk of a load of one ton may be 
easily calculated: 



Cast Iron 450 pounds. 

Water 62 " 

White Pine, seasoned, about.. 30 " 
White Oak, " " .. 52 " 
Loose Earth, about 95 " 



Common Soil, compact, about 124 pounds. 

Clay, about 135 " 

Clay, with stones, about 160 " 

Brick, about 125 " 

Stone, about 170 " 



BULK OF A TON OF DQTEEENT SUBSTANCBS. 

23 cubic feet of Sand make about a ton. 
18 cubic feet of Earth " " 

17 cubic feet of Clay " " 

18 cubic feet of gravel or earth, before digging, make 27 cubic feet 
when dug; or, the bulk is increased as three to two. 

TO MEASUBB OBAIN IN THE OBANABT. 

Divide the cubic feet by 66, multiply by 45, and the result ■will be 
struck measure in bushels. 



TO MEASUEE COBN IN THE CBIB. 

Multiply the length, breadth and height together, in feet, to obtain 
the cubic feet; multiply this product by 4, and strike off the right figure; 
and the result will be shelled bushels, nearly. 

UNITED STATES BUSHEL AND GALLON. 

The United States bushel, adopted now by the State of New York, is 



USEFUL TABLES. 



747 



2150.40 cubic inches. The gallon 231 cubic inches. The dry measure 
gallon, or one-eighth of the bushel, is 268.8 cubic inches. 



WEIGHT OF OBAIN. 



The laws of this State established the following weights, avoirdupois, 
to the bushel, of the articles named, in the absence of a specific con- 
tract: 



Pounds. 

Wheat 60 

Indian Corn ."VS 

Rye 56 

Buckwheat 48 

Barley 48 

Oat3 32 

Beana 62 

Peas 60 



Pounds. 

Timothy 44 

Clover Seed 60 

Flaxseed 56 

Potatoes 60 

Dried Apples 22 

Dried Peaches 32 

Salt 56 

Onions 57 



CAPACITY OF BOILS FOB WATEB. 



The following substances are saturated when they contain, of their 
own weight: 



Sand 

Calcareous Sand. 

Loamy Soil 

Clay Loam.' 

Peat 



.about 24 per cent, of water 
28 " " 

38 " «' 

47 " " 

80 " " 



Table showing the number of rails, stakes, and riders required 
for each lo rods of fence. 



Length 
of rail. 


Deflection 

from right 

lino. 


Length 
ofpanel 


No. of 
panels. 


No. of rails for each 10 rods. 


O 

"5-2 

15 


^ m IE 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


5 rails high 


6 rails high 


7 rails high. 


•^"2 9 


12 
14 
16!4 


6 

7 
8 


8 
10 
12 


20;^ 

16'/2 

1394 


103 

83 
69 


123 
99 
84 


144 
116 
95 


42 

34 


21 
17 
14 



Table showing the number of rails and posts required for 
lo rods of post and rail fence. 



Length 
of rail. 


Length 
ofpanel. 


II 




Number of rails for each 10 rods. 


Feet. 


Feet. 


5 rails high 


6 rails high 


7 rails l;i-h 


8 rails high 


10 
12 
14 

1014 


8 
10 
12 
14H 


20M 
16!/2 

11^ 


21 

17 
14 
12 


103 
83 
69 

57 


133 

99 
84 
69 


144 
116 
95 
81 


165 
133 
109 
93 



46 



748 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Table showing the number of loads of manure^ and the number 
of heaps to each load, required to each acre, the heaps at 
given distances apart. 



Distance of 


NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 


heaps apart, in 


















yards. 


1 


2 


3 
179 


4 
134 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


8 


538 


269 


108 


89% 


rr 


67 


60 


54 


3'/2 


395 


168 


132 


99 


79 


66 


56'/, 


49'/, 


44 


ZWi 


4 


2:33 


151 


101 


75^4 


6oy2 


50'/2 


4314 


3V% 


33'/, 


30>4 


4'/4 


239 


120 


79'/, 


60 


47% 


39% 


34H 


30 


26'/, 


24 


5 


194 


97 


641/2 


4«i/o 


-mi 


32V4 


2Y% 


24^4 


21'/, 


19H 


51^ 


160 


89 


531/2 


40 


32 


26% 


22% 


20 


17% 


16 


6 


131 


67 


w/^ 


asi/. 


27 


221/2 


1914 


16% 


15 


13'/, 


6^ 


115 


57 '4 


38^4 


28?i 


23 


19 


I614 


1414 


12% 


IIH 


7 


99 


mA 


33 


249^ 


19iJii 


16'/, 


14 


1214 


11 


10 


'iVi 


86 


43 


28 Ji 


21 y, 


17H 


14^4 


12?4 


10% 


9'/, 


8'/, 


8 


75'4 


3r?.( 


2514 


19 


15^ 


12'/,, 


10% 


9^ 


8'/, 


7'/, 


8'/3 


67 


33!/2 


aan 


16% 


13H 


llH 


9'/, 


W-, 


7'/, 


694 


9 


60 


30 


20 


15 


12 


10 


8'/, 


Y% 


6% 


6 


Wi 


5:i>/, 


26?i 


18 


13'/,, 


1094 


9 


7% 


6% 


6 


5H 


10 


4«>/2 


iMJi 


I614 


12 


9i!i 


8 7 


6 


5yj 


4% 



Table showing the relative values of decomposed vegetables as 
manures, frotn the ittorganc matter they contain. 

Inorganic matter. 

lbs. lbs. 

ton WTieat Straw made into man nre returns to the soil 70 to 1.36 



Oat 

« Hay " 

" Barley " 

« Pea " 

" Bean " 

" Rye " 

" Dry Potato-tops 

" Dry Turnip-tops 

" Rape Cake 

" Malt Dust 

" Dried Seaweed 



.in tj 180 

100 to 200 

..;... 100 to 120 

ICO to 110 

100 to 130 

50 to 100 

400 

370 

120 

180 

560 

Johnston. 



Table showing the relative value of decomposed vegetables as 
manures, from the nitrogen they contain. 



100 lbs. of farm-yard manure is equal to 



130 lbs. Wheat Straw Manure. 1 


150 " Oat " 




180 " Barley " 




85 " B'wheat " 




45 " Pea " 




50 " Wheat Chaff 




80 " Green Grass 


cc 


75 " Potato Tops 


(« 



lbs. Fresh Seaweed 



Manure. 



20 " 


Dried " " 


26 " 


Bran of Wheat or Corn •• 


13 " 


Malt Dust " 


8 " 


Rape Cake ♦' 


250 «' 


Pine Sawdust " 


180 " 


Oak 


25 «» 


Coal Soot " 




Bvuasingault 



USEFUL TABLES. 



749 



Tai^e showing iJie labor one liorse is able to "perform at different rates of 
speed on canals, railroads and turnpikes. Drawing force 83 1-3 lbs. 







Useful efEect for 1 dav in tons, drawn 1 mile. 


Speed per hour. 


Duration of 
day's work- 












hours. 


On canal— tons. 


On a railroad- 
tons. 


On a turnpike- 
tons. 


2'/4 


11 '/2 


520 


115 


14 


3 


8 


243 


92 


12 


3!4 


6 


154 


83 


10 


4 


4'/a 


102 


72 


9 


5 


2 9-10 


53 


57 


7.3 


6 


2 


30 


48 


6 


7 


l'/3 


19 


41 


5 


8 


I'/i 


12.8 


36 


4.5 


9 


9-10 


9. 


32 


4 


10 


% 


6.5 


28.8 


3.6 



Average composition, per cent, and j^er ton, of various kinds of agricul- 
tural produce, etc. 











(■^o 




PER 


CENT. 


LBS. PER (long) ton. 




CI tn 
ca.a 

mo 






1 


o o 








<p 


'o o 






dS 






a 


P. . 








Is 

a 








u d 
d o 




g 


"ca 








Ib 


•3 


■ns| 






d^ 




a 


^ 

5 


O-CJ^ 






a 




°'^Z 






^a . 




>; 


d 


^a ° 




ci 


>> 


d 


^dO 




a 




-d 


as- 




~^ 


§i 


^1 


a £- 


'-'O CD 


JS 


& 


c t- o 








n" 




o 






m 


Q 


<D .<*-l 




o 






C3 
O 


b 


C3 
O 


3 < 


°g-= 


o 


U 


'3 o o 




Eh 




O, 


Ph 


s 


H 


&H 


Oh " 


fc 


iS 


> 


1. Linseed cake 


88-0 


7-00 


4.93 


1.65 


4.75 


1,971 


156.8 


110.2 


37.0 


106.4 


19.73 


2. Cotton-seed 


89-0 


8-00 


7.00 


3.12 


6.50 


1 


994 


179.2 


150.8 


70.0 


145.6 


27.86 


3. Rape cake 


89.0 


8-00 


5.75 


1.76 


5.00 




994 


179.2 


128.8 


39.4 


113.0 


21.01 


4. Linseed 


90.0 


4-00 


3.:M 


1..37 


3.80 




016 


89.6 


75.7 


30.7 


85.1 


15.65 


.5. Beans 


84.0 


3 00 


2.30 


1.37 


4.00 


1 


883 


67.3 


49.3 


38.4 


89.6 


15.75 


6. Peas 


84.0 


3.40 


1.84 0.96 


3.40 




893 


53.8 


41.2 


31.5 


76.3 


13.38 


7. Tares 


84.5 


3-00 


1.63 0.66 


4.20 




893 


44.8 


36.5 


14.8 


94.1 


16.75 


8. Lentils 


88-0 
94-0 


3-00 
8 -.50 


1.89 
5.23 


0.96 
3.13 


4.30 

4.30 




971 

106 


67.2 
190.4 


42.3 
117.1 


31.5 
47.5 


96.3 
94.1 


16.51 


9. Malt dust 


18.31 


10. Locust beans 


85-0 


1-75 




....|l.35 




904 


39.2 






38.0 


4.81 


11. Indian meal 


88.0 


1-30 


1.13 


0.35 


1.80 




971 


29.1 


2.5.3 


"7.'8 


40.3 


6.65 


12. Wheat 


85.0 


1.70 


1.87 


0.50 


1.80 




904 


38.1 


43.0 


11.3 


40.3 


7.08 


13. Barley 


84.0 


3-30 


1.35 


0..55 


1.65 




883 


49.3 


30.3 


13.3 


37.0 


6.33 


14. Malt 


95.0 


3-60 


1.60 


0.65 


1.70 




128 


58.2 


35.8 


14.6 


38.1 


6.65 


15. Oats 


86.0 


3.85 


1.17 


0.50 


3.00 




926 


6;3.8 


36.3 


11.3 


44.8 


7.70 


16. Fine pollard* 


86.0 


5.60 


6.44 


1.46 


3.60 


1 


926 


125.4 


144.3 


33.7 


58.2 


13.53 


17. Coarse poUardt 


86.0 


6-20 


7.53 


1.49 


3.58 




926 


138.9 


168.4 


33.4 


57.8 


14.36 


18. Wheat bran 


86.0 


6.60 


7.95 


1.4512.55 




926 


147 8 


178.1 


33.5 


57.1 


14.. 59 


19. Clover hay 


84.0 


7 -.50 


1.25 


1.303.50 




883 


168.0 


28.0 


29.1 


56.0 


9.64 


20. Meadow hay 


84.0 


6.00 


0.88 


1.501.50 




882 


134.4 


19.7 


33.6 


3:3.6 


6.43 


21. Bean straw 


83.5 


5 -.55 


0.90 


1.11 0.90 




848 


124.3 


20.2 


34.9 


20.2 


3.87 


23. Pea straw 


82.0 


.1.95 


0.85]0.89|.... 




837 


133.3 


19.0 


19.9 


20.2 


3.74 


23. Wheat straw 


84.0 


5.00 


0.55 0.6510.60 




883 


113.0 


12.3 


14.6 


13.4 


2.68 


24. Barley straw 


85.0 


4.50 


0.37 0.63|0.50 




901 


100.8 


8.3 


14.1 


11.2 


2.25 


25. Oat straw 


8;i.0 


5.. 50 


0.4B 0.93 0.60 




859 


123.3 


10.7 


30.8 


13.4 


2.90 


26. Mangel wurzel 


13.5 


1.00 


0.09 0.35 0.35 


'280 


23.4 


2.0 


5.6 


5.6 


1.07 


27, Swedish turnips 


11.0 


0.68 


0.13 0.18 0.33 


246 


13.4 


2.9 


4.0 


4.6 


0.91 


28. Common turnips. .. 


8.0 


0.68 


0.11 0.390.18 


179 


15.3 


2.5 


6.5 


4.0 


0.86 


S9. Potatoes 


24.0 


1.00 


0.33 0.43 0.35 


537 


22.4 


7.3 


9.6 


7.8 


1 .50 


30. Carrots 


1.3.5 


0.70 


0.13 0.3:3 0.20 


302 


15.7 


2.9 


5.1 


4.5 


0.80 


31. Parsnips 


15.0 


1.00 


0.42 0.. 36 0.22 


a36 


22.4 


9.4 


8.1 


4.9 


1.14 



♦Middlings, Canielle. 



tShipstufE. 



750 



USEFUL TABLES. 



The foregoing table, showing the composition of varions foods and 
the estimated value of the manure made by animals consuming a ton of 
them, was prepared by John B. Lawes, of Rothamstead. The compo- 
sition of the foods is undoubtedly correct ; the estimated money value 
must be taken only relatively. The figures given are in gold, and are 
based on English prices of guano and other commercial manures. New 
York prices are from one-quarter to one-third higher. 

It will be seen that cotton seed cake makes the richest manure of 
any food in the list. Linseed oil-cake, peas, beans, malt dust, and bran 
are among the most valuable foods. Coarse bran is frequently sold at 
a price that would make it, after deducting the value of the manure, one 
of the most profitable foods to purchase. Clover hay stands high in the 
list. 

Table showing the proportion of solid matter and water in 100 parts each 
of the following articles of diet. 



DesiKnation. 



Wheat 

Peas 

Rice 

Beaas ... 

Rye 

Corn 

Oatmeal 

Wheat bread 

Mutton 

Chicken.... 









87 


13 




87 


i:i 




8« 


H 




86 


14 




8fi 


14 




Kfi 


14 




74 


2fi 




.51 


49 




29 


71 




27 


73 


1 



Designation. 



Lean beef 

Eggs 

Veal 

Potatoes. . 

Pork 

CocWsh... 
Blood .... 

Trout 

Apples. ., 
Pears 



-3 




2f> 


74 


2(i 


74 


25 


75 


25 


75 


24 


76 


21 


79 


20 


80 


19 


81 


18 


82 


16 


84 



Designation. 



Carrots 

Beets 

Milk 

Oysters 

Cabbage 

Turnips 

Watermelon 
Cucumber... 



Table showing the contents of circular cisterns in barrels for each foot 

in depth. 



5 feet 4.66 

6 " 6.74 

7 « 9.13 



8 feet 11.93 

9 " 5.10 

10 " 8.65 



Table showing the contents of circular cisterns, from Ifoot to 25 feet in 
diameter, for each 10 inches in depth. 



Diameter. 


Gallons. 


Diameter. 


Gallons. 


1 


4.896 


714 


271.072 


11^ 


11.015 


8 ..::;:: 


313.340 


2 


19.583 


«^ 


353.735 


214 


30.545 


396.573 


3 


44.064 


914 


441.861 


31/^ 


59.980 


1^:. .:..:. 


489.600 


4 


78.333 

99.116 


11 


592.400 


41/^ 


12 


705. 


5 


122.400 


13 


827.450 


5>4 


148.546 


14 


959.613 


6 ....- 


176.253 


15 


1101.610 


6U 


206.855 


20 

25 


.... . . 1958.421 


7^ :.:::.: 


239.906 


3a59.0*4 



USEFUL TABLES. 



751 



Table $Iuming the penod of reproduction and gestation •f domestic 

animals. 





Proper age 
for repro- 
duction. 


Period of 
the power 
of repro- 
duction in 


Number of 
females 


Period of gestation and incubation. 




for one 
male. 


Shortest pe- 


Mean peri- 


Longest pe- 










riod, days. 


od, days. 


riod, days. 


Mare 


4 years. 


10 to 12 




322 


347 


419 


Stallion.... 


5 " 


12 to 15 


20 to 30 








Cow 


3 " 


10 to 14 




240 


283 


321 


Bull 


3 " 


8 to 10 


30 to 40 






... 


Bwe 


2 » 


6 




i46 


154 


161 


Bam 


2 «« 


7 


40 to 50 








Sow 


1 " 


6 




109 


116 


i42 


Boar 


1 '• 


6 


6 to 10 








She Goat... 


2 " 


6 




150 


156 


163 


He Goat... 


2 " 


5 


20 to 40 








She Ass 


4 « 


10 to 12 




365 


380 


391 


He Ass.. . . 


5 " 


li to 15 










She Buffalo. 




8 




281 


308 


SSo 


Bitch 


2 " 


8 to 9 




55 


60 


63 


Dog 


2 " 


8 to 9 










She Cat.... 


1 " 


5 to 6 




48 


50 


56 


He Cat 


1 " 


9 to 10 


5 to 6 








Doe Rabbit. 


6 months. 


5 to 6 




20 


28 


35 


BuckRab't. 


6 " 


5 to 6 


30 


. .. 






Cock 


6 " 


5to6 


12 to 15 








Hen 




5 to 6 




19 


21 


24 


Turkey 




8 to 5 




24 


26 


80 


Duck 








28 


30 


32 


Goose 








27 


30 


33 


Pigeon 








16 


18 


20 


Pea Hen... 





.••■.•■• 




25 


28 


30 


Guinea Hen 








20 


2:3 


25 


Swan 








40 


42 


45 



Table showing the price of pork per pound at different prices per bushel 

for corn. 



Corn per bushel. 
Cents. 


Pork per pound. 
Cents. 


Corn per bushel. 
Cents. 


Pork per pound. 
Cents. 


r:::::::: 


1.50 

1.78 


38 


4.52 


40 


4.76 


17 . .. 


2. 

2.38 


42 


6. 


20 


45 

50 


6.85 


22 


2.62 


6.95 


25 


2.96 


55 


8.54 


30 


3.57 

3.92 


60 


7.14 


33 


65 


7.74 


35 


4. 


70 


8.57 



Hay in a mow ten feet drop, put in in good order, and not too ripe 
when cut, ought to average one ton to each 625 cubio feet. The com- 
pression increases rapidly as the height increases, and a mow of the same 
hay, fifteen feet drop, would probably turn out a ton to 475 cubic feet, 
if not even to 425 feet. All such guessing, however, is very hazardous, 
and it is always safer to buy or sell only by actual weight. 

Perhaps it would be a safe formula to say, sell at 400 cubio feet anj 
bay at 600 oabio feet. 



762 



USEFUL TABLES. 







Table 


showing the 


orice per cwt 


. of Tiay at given prices per ton. 





C 




•d 


-a 


•6 


•6 


"O 


•d 


"O 


•a 


•6 


•a 


■a" 












0) 


(D 


a 




<B 


V 


































a 


•o 


■a 


ra 


-a 




•c 


•a 


•a 


•a 






a) 


'! 




a 


a 


a 


fl 


a 


a 


a 


a 












3 


3 




3 


3 




3 


3 






u 


^ 


.a 


J3 


A 


fi 


A 


A 


2 


.a 


,a 


o 




CU 


.-■ 


T» 


to 


TT 


ift 


no 


t~ 


ao 


o> 


^ 


$ 


cts 


cts. 


$Ct8. 


$cts. 


$cts. 


$Ct8. 


$cts. 


Sets. 


$cts. 


$Ct9. 

1.80 


Sets. 


$Ct8. 


4 


10 


20 


40 


CO 


80 


1,00 


1.20 


1.40 


1.60 


2.00 


2.20 


5 


la 


25 


50 


75 


1.00 


1.25 


1..50 


1.75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.. 50 


2 . 75 


6 


15 


30 


60 


!K) 


1.20 


1..50 


1.80 


2.10 


2.40 


2.70 


3.00 


3 30 


7 


17 


35 


70 


1.05 


1.40 


1.75 


2.10 


2.45 


2.80 


3.15 


3. 50 


3.85 


8 


ao 


40 


80 


1.20 


1.60 


2.00 


2.40 


2.80 


3.20 


3.60 


4.00 


4.40 


9 


aa 


45 


90 


1.35 


1.80 


2.25 


2.':o 


3.15 


3.60 


4.05 


4.. 50 


4.95 


10 


as 


50 


1.00 


1.50 


2.00 


2.. 50 


3.00 


3.. 50 


4.00 


4 50 


5.00 


5.50 


11 


a? 


55 


1.10 


1.65 


2.20 


2.75 


3.30 


3.85 


4.40 


4.115 


5.. 50 


6.00 


la 


30 


60 


1.20 


1.80 


2.40 


3.00 


3.60 


4.20 


4.80 


5.40 


6.00 


e.fiO 


13 


3a 


65 


1.30 


1.95 


2.60 


3.25 


3.90 


4.55 


5.20 


5.85 


6.50 


7.15 


14 


35 


70 


1.40 


2 10 


2.80 


3.50 


4.20 


4.90 


5.60 


6.30 


7.00 


7.70 


15 


37 


75 


1.50 


2.25 


3.00 


3.75 


4.. 50 


5.25 6.00 


6.^5 


7.. 50 


8.25 



FORCE OP WIND. 

The force exerted by windmills will vary greatly with the velocity of 
the wind. The following table shows the pressure against a fixed sur- 
face ; from the velocity given in this table, the average velocity of the 
sails must be deducted, and the remainder will show the real force ex- 
erted : 



Velocity. 
Miles an hour. 



Pressure 
in lbs. on 
square ft. 

005 

020 1 



Description, 

Hardly perceptible. 
Just perceptible. 



.045 ( 
125 \ Liglit breeze. 

320 i ^*''*1^> pleasant wind. 
!500( 



J5 j'j.25 !• Pleasant, brisk wind. 

S:::::::::::;;:;:::::::::::;::::::::l?^ivery brisk, 
is :: :::: ^-^^j strong, wgii wind. 

40 8.000 I ,.^,.., 

45 10.125 (Very high. 



50 l;;i.500 

60 18.010 

80 32.000 

100 50.000 



Storm or tempest. 
Great storm. 
Ilurricane. 

Tornado, tearing up trees and sweeping 
off buildings. 

VALUE OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF WOOD AS FUEL. 

The celebrated experiments of Marcus Bull, of Philadelphia, many 
years ago gave the following results, showing the amount required to 
throw out a given quantity of heat: 

Hickory 4 cords. 

White Oak 4 3-4 " 

H ard Maple 6 2-3 " 

Soft Maple 71-5 " 



Pitch Pine 9 1-7 cords. 

White 91-5 " 

Anthracite Coal 4 tons.. 

Bituminous Coal 5 " 



TEMPERATURE FOR TDE RISING OP CREAM. 

The temperature of the surrounding air has a great effect upon the 
time required for the rising of the cream. Experiment has domon- 
strated that, with the thermometer at 

55 deg. all the cream will rise in 24 hours. 

50 " " " 36 " 



80 deg. all the cream wiH rise in 10 hours 
iji^ «» <i « 22 II 

^ M M M 18 " 



45 



43 



USEFUL TABLES. 



^ S 

I 5 

-§ I 



s 


8 


«0 


"^ 


^ 


»« 




« 


"» 


g, 


s 


S 


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I 



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: :S . : 


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:§ : :S 






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:g : :Sg 


: .S 






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(NOT •Oi-itc . . . .-.T -^ • 


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:§ : :?? 


..:£)■• 
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SS :: -S :::::.:; . 


•uBSjqojui 


■00 • -30 


•■^Soi^O-^C^C^^iOr-. ^OOinrHT-.-^ "T - • 


-6)}asuqj«8SB]t 


:§ : .§ 


: :S .S 






•puBi-OBi^ 1 










•autujv: 1 


.§ : :§S : :l§ : : 






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:??::: 


: :g : : 






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:^S :S5 


: :S :§ 


: : :i§?;S 


. . . . ,0 ■ T 


•BBSOBX 


:S§a :S 


^gigg : 


S!f8 :S :S 


, , . . iO -^ ■ • 


•BA\OI 


:§8gS 


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I>OT ■in>-iO'3<T)" ■ -rr -TiCj • 


•BUBipUJ 


:§ : :S 


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:§8 :S5 


^30 O 


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■w 


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. . . . n tx) rr c cr 
• • • • ■n' ■» a. -. J 


•ejBMBied 








::;::::;: 


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: :gK : 


: : : : :g 


. . . .^j, .... 


•jnaipanaoo 


• ^ : :^:8 : : :g :S : : : : : . 


::;::;.:: 


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:^ : :^S§ :S 




?li| :S3S 


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;S : :§ 


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. • o J 

: :oj 
-. :as 

1 b b C 




JOOC 


"c 
J c 


• a 

I'd- 

3 a c 
: o I 


Dried Apples 

Dried Plums 

Flax Seed 

Grass Seed, Blue 


Grass Seed, Millet 

Grass Seed, Orchard 

Grass Seed, Timothy 

Hair, Plastering 

Hemp Seed 

Lime, Unslacked 

Malt 



764 



USEFUL TABLES. 



■:=r CO 





•nTsnoosiAV 


1 :??::: 


: : :S : 


:S : : : : 


::S:| 




; -aax uoi2aiqsB,vi 1 :igg : : :§g2 :gg : : : :SSS8 




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: :g ; 




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: :g : 




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: -gg 




•Btjoos uAojsi 1 ;^ :::::;:: :g ::: : 


. .o • 

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: :g2 




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: :g : 




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:gs 


1 


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• . . : ; luo • '• ■ ■ 


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logs 




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:g : 


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:gg 


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■spumi 1 :g?iT : : 






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KOSQQCOCC 


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-: O d W Eh 



USEFUL TABLES. 



755 



VELOCITY OF WATEE IN TILE DBAINS. 

An acre of land in a wet time contains about 1,000 spare hogsheada 
of water. An underdrain will carry off the water from a strip of land 
about two rods wide, and one 80 rods long will drain an acre. 

The following table will show the size of the tile required to drain an 
acre in two days' time (the longest admissible) at different rates of 
descent, or the size of any larger area: 

Velocity Hogsheads 

of current discharged 

per second. in 34 ho urs. 

22 inches 400 

560 

900 

1,290 

1,170 

1,640 

3,100 

3,600 

2,500 

3,500 

5,600 

V,800 



Diameter Eate 

of Bore. of Descent. 

I inches 1 foot in 100 



.1 
.1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 



50 


32 


20 


51 


10 


73 


100 


27 


50 


38 


20 


«7 


10 


84 


100 


82 


N) 


45 


20 


72 


10 


100 



A deduction of one-third to one-half must be made for the roughness 
of the tile or imperfection of laying. The drain must be of some length 
to give the water velocity, and these numbers do not, therefore, apply to 
very short drains. 

CAPACITY OF BOXES. 

A box 4 feet 7 inches long, 2 feet 4 inches wide, 2 feet 4 inches deep, 
holds 20 bushels ; a box 24 in. x 16 in. x 28 in., 5 bushels ; box, inches, 
24x11,2x8,1 bushel, box, inches, 12x11.2x8, 3^ bushel ; box, inches, 8x8.- 
4x8, 1 peck ; box, inches, 8x8x4.2, 1 gallon ; box inches, 4x4x1. 2, 1 quart. 
A cylinder 183^ in. inside diameter, 8 inches dfeep, contains U. S. stand- 
ard bushel. Any box containing the same number of cubic inches will 
hold same quantity as above sizes. To obtain a box holding any por- 
tion or multiple of above quantities, divide or multiply any one dimen- 
sion of the box accordingly. 

Table sliowing the numMr of days from any day m one month to the same 
day in any other. 



FROM 


i 


1 




P. 
< 

90 
59 
31 
365 
335 
304 
274 
24:i 
212 
282 
151 
121 


120 
89 
61 
30 
365 
334 
304 
273 
242 
211 
181 
151 


« 
a 
a 
>-s 

151 

120 
92 
61 
31 
365 
3:35 
304 
273 
243 
212 
182 


"3 
Isi 

150 
122 
91 
61 
30 
365 
.334 
304 
273 
242 
212 


< 

212 
181 
153 
122 
92 
61 
81 
365 
334 
304 
273 
24;^ 


i 

243 

212 

184 

VSi 

12:i 

92 

62 

31 

365 

*i5 

,304 

274 


o 
O 

273 
242 


> 

304 

a73 


1 




365 

334 

306 

275 

245 

214 

184 

153 

122 

92 

61 

31 


31 
365 
:i37 
306 
276 
245 
215 
184 
153 
123 
92 
62 


59 
28 
365 
334 
304 
273 
248 
212 
181 
151 
120 
90 


334 




303 


March... 


214 245 
183! 214 


275 
244 




153 
122 
92 
62 
30 
365 


184 
153 
123 
92 
61 
31 


214 




183 


July 


153 




122 




91 




61 




:«4 365 


30 


December 


.304 


33.b 


365 



Explanation. — Find, in the left-hand column, the month from any 
day of which you wish to compute the number of days to the same day 



756 



USEFUL TABLES. 



in any other month, and follow the line along until under the latter, and 
you have the required number of days . Thus, from the 12th of April to 
the 12th of October, is 183 days; from the 7th of March to the 7th of 
June, 92 days. 

Table showing the square feet and the feet square of the fractions 

of an acre. 



Fractions of 
an acre. 


Square feet. 


Feet square. 


Fractions of 
an acre. 


Square feet. 


Feet square. 


1-16 


2722^ 

5445 
10890 
14520 


52>/2 

104'/2 
120'/j 


." 

S 


21780 
48560 
87120 


147'4 
208k 
29514 



OOYEBICMXSrr liAND M£ASUBE. 

A township is 6 miles square, and contains 36 sections, or 23,040 
acres. 

A section is 1 mile square, and contains 640 acres. 

A quarter-section is half a mile square, and contains 160 acres. 

A half quarter-section is half a mile long, almost universally north 
and south and one-fourth of a mile wide, and contains 80 acres. 

A quarter quarter-section is one-fourth of a mile square, and con- 
tains 40 acres. It is the smallest sized tract, except fractions, sold by 
the government. 

TO FIND THE KUMBEB OF BUSHKLS OF OBAIN IN A OBANABT. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in inches, and 
that again by the depth in inches, and divide the product by 2150 (the 
number of cubic inches in a bushel), and for heaped bushels by 2748, 
and the quotient will be the answer. 

Example. — Given a granary 9 feet long by 4 wide and 6 deep. How 
many bushels will it contain? 

Solution. — 108 inches length, times 48 inches width, times 72 in. 
depth =373248-i-2150=173.65 bus. Ans. 



MEASUBEMENT OF OOBN IN THE GBIB. 

After levelling the corn, multiply the length and breadth of the house 
together, and the product by the depth, which will give the cubic feet of 
the bulk of corn: then divide this last product by 12, and the quotient 
will be the number of barrels of shelled corn contained in the house or 
crib. If there be a remainder after the division, it will be so many 
twelfths of a barrel of shelled corn over. 



Example. 
12 feet long 
11 feet broad 

132 
6 feet deep 

12)792 cubic feet 

66 barrels shelled com 
5 bashels in a barrel 

"^baabelcslieUed 



.Memoranda.— 21,500 cubic inches will contain ten 
bushels of shelled corn, but the same space filled with 
corn in the ear will shell out rather more than five 
bushels. These 21,500 cubic inches contain 12 cubic 
feet, and 764 cubic inches over. Now, two barrels^ or 
ten bushels in the ear, will generally, in shelling, 
overrun just about these 764 cubic inches. 



USEFUL TABLES. 



757 



PLOWING. 











(D 








Namea of Fields. 


ii 

a 


o . 

P 

2§ 


a 
S = fl 


1^ 

d.2 


ime tliat i 
takes in turn 
ing. Hour 
and minuteE 


ime taken i 
turning th 
soil. Hour 
and minutes 






H? 


n 


« 


iz; 


H 


H 


» 




78 
149 


186 
98 


8 
8 


279 
147 


4 39 

227 


3 21 
5 33 


8 


Harper's Hill 


8 


Home Close 


200 


73 


8 


109 


1 49 


6 11 


8 


East Lake 


21" 


69 


8 


103 


1 43 


6 17 


8 


Long Lands 


274 


53 


8 


79 


1 19 


6 41 


8 



ExpiiANATiON. — When the land is no more than 78 yards long, 4 hours 
and 39 minntes are spent merely in turning at the ends, in a journey of 

8 hours; whereas, when the land is 274 yards long, 1 hour and 19 minutes 
are sufficient for that purpose in the same length of time. 

The whole series of furrows on an acre of land, supposing each to be 

9 inches in width, would extend in length to 19,360 yards; and, adding 
12 yards to every 220, for the average estimated ground traveled over in 
turning, the whole work of ploughing one acre may be given as extend- 
ing to 20,416 yards, or 11 miles and nearly five furlongs. 

TABIiE FOB MAMUBINO LAND. 

ExpiiANATON. — The left-hand column shows the distance of the heaps 
of manure in yards, the figures at the top the number of heaps in a load, 
and under them the number of loads required for an acre for any given 
distance of the heaps: — thus, if heaps of clay are set 8% yards asunder, 
and 5 heaps made of a load, then under five in the table, and opposite 
S% yards in the width, you will find 80, which shows the number of loads 
required for an acre. Again, if the heaps of dung are 7 yards distant 
from each other, and 8 heaps made of a load, the table shows that 13 
loads are required to manure an acre. 



01 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 




Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


Heaps 


.2'S.S 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


in a 


«°' 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


load. 


Yards 


Loads. 


Loads. 


Loads. 


Loads. 


Loads. 


Loads. 


Loads 


Loads. 


Loads 


Loads 


1 


4840 


2420 


1614 


1210 


968 


807 


r92 


(i05 


538 


484 


W2 


2152 


1070 


718 


5:» 


4:n 


359 


Z0» 


269 


240 


216 


2 


1210 


605 


404 


303 


242 


202 


173 


152 


135 


121 


21/j 


775 


388 


259 


194 


155 


130 


111 


97 


87 


78 


3 


538 


269 


180 


135 


108 


90 


77 


68 


60 


54 


3!4 


396 


198 


132 


99 


80 


66 


57 


50 


44 


40 


4 


303 


153 


101 


76 


61 


51 


44 


38 


34 


31 


4'A 


240 


120 


80 


60 


48 


40 


35 


80 


27 


24 


5 


294 


97 


65 


49 


39 


33 


28 


25 


22 


20 


5V^ 


160 


80 


54 


40 


82 


27 


23 


20 


18 


16 


6 


135 


68 


45 


84 


27 


23 


20 


17 


15 


14 


6'/, 


115 


58 


89 


29 


23 


20 


17 


15 


13 


12 


7 


99 


50 


83 


25 


20 


17 


15 


13 


11 


10 


7'/i 


87 


44 


29 


82 


18 


15 


18 


11 


10 


9 


8 


76 


38 


26 


19 


16 


13 


11 


10 


9 


8 


SVi 


67 


84 


23 


ir 


14 


12 


10 


9 


8 


7 


9 


60 


30 


20 


15 


12 


10 


9 


8 


7 


6 


9y» 


54 


27 


18 


14 


11 


9 


8 


7 


6 


6 


10 


49 


25 


17 


13 


10 


9 


7 


7 


6 


6 



758 



USEFUL TABLES. 

POWER REQUIRED TO GRIND GRAIN. 



TO GRIND GRAIN WITH FCfRTABLE HILLS : 



Horse Power. 



Size of Stones. 



Revolutions per 
minute. 



Bushels corn 
per hour. 



Bushels wheat 
per hour. 



2to S 
5 to 8 
8 to 11 
12 to 18 
20 to 30 



12 inch. 
20 " 



48 



800 to 900 
650 to 700 
550 to 600 
450 to 500 
350 to 400 



Ito 4 
5 to 8 
10 to 15 

18 to 25 
25 to 35 



Ito 3 
4 to 6 
7 to 10 
12 to 15 
15 to 18 



Oat Meal. — It takes about 12 bushels of oats to make a barrel of 200 
lbs. of oat meal; another rating estimates that 14 lbs. of oats produces 
8 lbs. of oat meal — try it. 

One bushel of buckwheat, or 50 lbs., will produce 25 lbs. of buckwheat 
meal; more may be obtained, but the quality will be impaired. 

One bushel of good wheat (60 lbs .), is estimated to make 40 lbs. of 
flour; t. e., 2}/^ bushels of wheat for 100 lbs. of flour. 

A barrel of flour weighs 196 lbs.; a barrel of pork, 200 lbs.; a barrel 
of beef, 200 lbs.; a barrel of salt, 180 lbs.; a firkin of butter, 56 lbs.; 
corn, 5 bushels to the barrel; potatoes, 2^ bushels to the barrel. 

The following table 'gives nearly the following quantities of meal 
flour and bread, viz.: 

Wheat weighing 60 pounds makes 45 pounds of flonr, and 54 pounds of bread 
.... .. .- „ .. gg „ 

<c <c 60 <t 

(t <c go *' 

HOW SHAIili WE BEIili HOOS f 

A question of financial importance to farmers is often asked of each 
other in regard to the shrinkage of hogs in dressing to decide what 
should be the difference in the price between live and dressed hogs. A 
close calculator selected twenty pigs, they were well fed and fattened 
though not large, with the following results. We give below the exact 
weights, alive and dressed: 



Rye 


" 


54 


<( 


42 


Barley 


" 


48 


" 


37'/s 


Oats 




40 




22'/, 



No. 
1 


Live weight. 
...172 


Dressed weight. 
143 


No. 

11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
10 
17 
18 
19 
20 


Live weight. 
....131 


Dressed weight. 
113 


2 


....151 


128 


....176 


145 


3 


....155 


130 


....148 


118.. 


4 


126 


104 


....153 


128 


5 


135 


116 


....164 

....148 


138 


6 


.,..1(53 


136 


120 


7 


....130 


108 


....133 


115 


8 


.. .136 


114 


....168 

....132 


139 


9 


...153 


128 


114 


10 


148 


120 


....113 

Total, dressed ^ 


90 




Total, live we 


ght 2,935. 


velght,. 2,447. 



Shrinkage, 488 pounds, or a trifle over one-seventh. He was offered 
$4.00 per 100 for the lot on foot, but sold for $5.10 dressed, a gain of 
$7.62 in favor of dressing, and the rough lard was sufficient to pay for 
butchering. Farmere oon look this over at their leisure, and decide how 
they mil seU. 



USEFUL TABLES. 759 



STBENGTB OF lOIU 

Ice 2 inches thick will bear men on foot. 

Ice 4 inches thick will bear men on horseback. 

Ice 6 inches thick will bear cattle and teams with light loads. 

Ice 8 inches thick will bear teams with heavy loads. 

Ice 10 inches thick will sustain a pressure of 1,000 pounds per square 
foot. 

This supposes the ice to be sound through its whole thickness, with- 
out " snow ice." 

SHBINKAGE OF QBAIK. 

Farmers rarely gain by holding on to their grain after it is fit for 
market, when the shrinkage is taken into account. Wheat from the time 
it is threshed will shrink two quarts to the bushel, or six per cent., in six 
months, in the most favorable circumstances. Hence, it follows that 
ninety-four cents a bushel for wheat when first threshed in August, is as 
good, taking into account the shrinkage alone, as one dollar in the fol- 
lowing February. 

Corn shrinks much more from the time it is husked. One hundred 
bushels of ears, as they come from the field in November, will be re- 
duced to not far from eighty. So that 40 cents a bushel for corn in the 
ear, as it comes from the field, is as good as 50 in March, shrinkage only 
being taken into account. 

In the case of potatoes — taking those that rot and are otherwise lost 
— together with the shrinkage, there is but little doubt that between 
October and June, the loss to the owner who holds them is not less than 
thirty -three per cent. 

This estimate is taken on the basis of interest at 7 per cent., and 
takes no account of loss by vermin. 

SIZE OF liAILS. 

The following table will show at a glance the length of the various 
sizes, and the number of nails in a pound. They are rated 3-penny up 
to 20-penny: 



No. Length in inches. Nails per lb. 

2-penny .1 557.... 

4 " 1>4 535.... 

5 " 1^ 282..,. 

« « 2 177 ... 

7 " 2% 141.... 



No. Length in inches. Nails per lb. 

8-penny 2i^ 101.... 

10 '♦ 2% 68.... 

12 " 8 54.... 

20 •• 8«/4 84 



From the foregoing table an estimate of quantity and suitable size 
for any job of work can easily be made. 

GROWTH AND UFB OF ANDIAL8. 

Man grows for 20 years andlivee 90 or 100 years. 

The Horee grows tor 5 years, and lives ; 30 " 

The Ass grows for 5 years, and lives.... , 30 " 

The Ox grows for 4 years, and lives .i. ;... 15 to 20 " 

The Cow grows for 4 years, and lives ^. ■...'.... .20 " 

The Hoanvee ....i. ..........;... — l2to 15 " 

The Sheep lives ...l. ..10 " 

The Camel grows for 8 years, and lives.......;....;;; ....40 " 

The Lion grows for 4 years, and lives 4C " 

The Dog grows for 2 years, and lives '. — 12to 14 " 

The Cat grows for 1'/^ years, and lives 'Jor 10 " 

The Hare grows fori year, and lives 8 " 

The Oninea Pig growe 7 mouths, andlivee.... .....dor 7 " 



760 



USEFUL TABLE*. 



The Beaver lives M years. 

The Deer and Wolf live .39 " 

TheFox lives 14to M " 

The Squirrellives 7 " 

The Rabbit lives 7 *♦ 

The Eagle lives 100 « 

Geese live 20 " 

Hens and Pigeons live 10 to 16 " 

The Elephant, 100 years; Codfish 14 to 17 years; Eels, 10 years; Crocodile, 100 years; 
Queen Bees, 4 years ; Drones, 4 months ; Worker Bees, 6 months. 

TABLE OF WEIGHTS, 

Showing estimated number of pounds of barbed wire required to fence space or dis- 
tance mentioned, with one, two or three lines of wire, based upon each pound 
of wire measuring one rod (16^ feet), by H. B. Scott & Co., Buffalo, N. Y. 



TWO LINES. 



THREE LIKES. 



1 Square Acre 

1 Side of a Square Acre 

1 Square Halt Acre 

1 Sguare Mile 

1 Side of a Square MUe. 

1 Rod in Length 

100 Rods in Length 

100 Feet in Length 



50K lbs. 

n% " 

36 " 

1280 " 

320 " 

1 « 

100 " 

6 1-16 " 



101>5 lbs. 

25}i " 

72 " 

2560 " 

640 " 

2 " 

200 « 

12^ " 



lbs. 



152 

38 " 

108 " 

3840 " 

960 " 

3 « 

300 " 

18 3-16 « 



Shingles are usually 16 inches long, and a bundle of shingles is 20 
inches wide, and contains 24 courses in the thickness at each end; hence, 
a bundle of shingles will lay one course 80 feet long. When shingles 
are exposed 4 inches to the weather, 1,000 will cover 107 square feet ; 
43^ inches, 120 square feet; 5 inches, 132 square feet; 6 inches, 160 
square feet. 

DUBABHitTX OF SHUIOLES. 

The following table exhibits the average durability of shingles in ex- 
posed situations: 



Rafted Pine Shingles, from 20 to 35 years. 
Sawed, clear from sap, " 16 to 22 " 
" " with sap, " 4 to 7 " 



Cedar from 12 to 18 years. 

Spruce " 7 to 11 " 



Note— By soaking shingles in lime-water, their durability is considerably in- 
creased. 

BELATIVE HABDHESS OF WOODS. 

Taking shell bark as the highest standard of our forest trees, and 
calling that 100, other trees will compare with it as follows: 



Shell Bark Hickory 100 

Pignut Hickory 96 

White Oak 84 

White Ash 77 

Dogwood 75 

Scrub Oak 73 

White Hazel 72 

Apple Tree 70 

Red Oak 60 

White Beech 65 

Black Walnut 65 

Black Birch 63 



Yellow Oak 60 

White Elm 68 

Hard Maple 66 

Red Cedar 56 

Wild Cherry 55 

Vellow Pine 64 

Chestnut 62 

Yellow Poplar 61 

Butternut 48 

White Birch 43 

White Pine 80 



USEFUL TABLES. 



761 



ROPES. 

Table showing what weights hemp rope will bear with safety. 



CIBCUMPKRENCK. 


POUNDS. 


CXRCUMPERENCE. 


POUNDS. 


1 inch. 


200 


8 inch. 


1800 


154 " 


312.5 


3}i " 


2112.5 


1'/, 


450 


31/2 " 


2450 


IJi » 


612.5 


3% " 


2812.5 


2 " 


800 


4 " 


3200 


2i4. " 


1012.5 


5 " 


5000 


2« " 


1250 


6 " 


7200 


2Ji « 


1512.5 







Note— A square inch of hemp fibres will support a weight of 9200 pounds. Th» 
maximum strength of a good hemp rope la 6400 pounds to the square inch. Iti 
practical value aot more than one-half this strain. Before breaking, it stretches 
from one-fifth to one-seventh, and its diameter diminishes one-fourth to one-seventh. 
The strength of mantUa is about one-half that of hemp. White ropes are one-thirtj 
more durable. 



TABLE. 



Per Hour. 

A man travels Smiles 

A horse trots 7 " 

A horse runs 20 *' 

Steamboats run 18 " 

Sailing vessels run 10 " 

Slow rivers flow 3 ** 

Rapid rivers flow 7 " 

A moderate wind blows 7 " 

A storm moves 36 " 

A hurricane moves 80 " 

Jlrifleball -moves 1000 " 



Per Second 

4 feet 

... 10 " 

... 29 « 

... 26 « 

... 14 " 

4 « 

... 10 " 

... 10 « 

52 « 

... 117 " 

... 1466 «♦ 



AOCUBATE WOOD HEASUBS.— LENGTH EIOHT FEST. 



WIDTH. 


HEIGHT IN FEET. 








HEIGHT 


=% / 

IN INCHES. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


1 


6 


20 


40 


60 


80 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


18 




7 


21 


41 


62 


82 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


14 


15 


17 


18 




8 


21 


42 


64 


85 


2 


4 


5 


7 


9 


11 


13 


14 


16 


18 


ao 




9 


22 


44 


66 


88 


2 


4 


6 


8 


9 


11 


13 


15 


17 


18 


20 




10 


23 


45 


68 


91 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


11 


13 


15 


.7 


19 


21 




11 


23 


47 


70 


94 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 


3 





21 


48 


72 


96 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 




1 


25 


49 


74 


99 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


14 


17 


18 


20 


22 




2 


25 


51 


76 


101 


2 


4 


6 


8 


10 


13 


15 


17 


19 


21 


23 




3 


26 


52 


78 


104 


2 


4 


7 


9 


11 


13 


15 


17 


20 


22 


24 




4 


27 


m 


80 


107 


2 


5 


7 


9 


n 


14 


16 


18 


20 


23 


25 




5 


27 


55 


82 


109 


2 


5 


7 


9 


11 


14 


16 


18 


20 


23 


25 




6 


28 


56 


84 


112 


2 


5 


7 


9 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 




7 


29 


57 


86 


115 


3 


5 


8 


10 


12 


15 


17 


19 


22 


24 


27 




8 


29 


59 


88 


117 


3 


5 


8 


10 


12 


15 


17 


19 


22 


24 


27 




9 


30 


60 


90 


120 


3 


5 


8 


10 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


26 


28 




10 


31 


61 


92 


123 


3 


5 


8 


10 


13 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


29 




11 


31 


6;i 


94 


125 


8 


5 


8 


10 


13 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


29 


4 





82 


64 


96 


128 


8 


5 


8 


11 


13 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 



Explanation.— Find the width of the load in the left hand column of the table; 
then more to tbe rigbt, on ttw eame line, till joa oome under the height in feet, and 



762 



USEFUL TABLES. 



yon have the contents in feet; then move to the right on the same line till yon come 
to the height in inches, and you have the additional contents in feet for the height in 
inches. The sum of these two gives the true contents in feet. For loads 12 feet long, 
add one-half, and for 4 feet, subtract one-half. 

Example.— li a load of wood be 'i feet 10 inches wide, and 3 feet 7 inches high, 
what are the contents? Against 2 feet 10 inches, and under 3 feet, stands 68; and 
under 7 inches at the top, stands 13; then 13 plus 68 equals 81, the true contents in 
feet. 

BBIOES. 

Bricks may be estimated at 24 to a cubic foot, and five courses to 
one foot in height. But as bricks are not often of full size, the following 
allowances are made for each square foot of the surface on the face of a 
wall, namely: 

8 inch wall 16 to a square foot 1 16 inch wall 32"to a square foot. 

12 " " 24 " " 1 20 " " 40 " *' 

OHIMKXTS. 

Bricks, for chimneys, may be estimated for each foot in height, as 
follows: 







No. of Bricks 






No. of Bricks 


Size of 


Size of 


to each foot 


Size of 


Size of 


to each foot 


Chimney. 


Flue. 


in height. 


Chimney. 


Flue. 


in height. 


16x16 ... 


.... 8x 8.. 


30 


16x24 ... 


.... 8x16 


40 


20x20 ... 


....12x12.. 


40 


20x24 ... 


....12x16. 


. 45 



TABLE SHOWINO HOW MANY SACKS ARE KEQITIRED AT DIFFEBENT WEIGHTS TO 
PUT UP ONE BABREL OP FLOUR. 



No. lbs. in Sack. 


Sacks 
in bbl. 


lbs. 


No. lbs. in Sack. 


Sacks 
in bbL 


lbs. 


5 


S9 


1 


55 


3 


81 


10 


19 


6 


60 


8 


16 


15 


13 


1 


65 


8 


1 


90 


9 


16 


70 


8 


66 


85 


7 


81 


75 


3 


46 


80 


6 


18 


80 


2 


86 


85 


5 


21 


85 


8 


86 


40 


4 


86 


90 


8 


16 


45 


4 


16 


flS 


2 


6 


60 


8 


46 


100 




96 



COBD-WOOD ON AN AOBE. 



To estimate the quantity of cord-wood on an acre of woodland 
requires experience. A person who has been engaged in clearing land 
and cutting wood could give a very close estimate at a general glance, 
but other persons would make the wildest guesses. An inexperienced 
person may commence as follows: Measure out four square rods of 
ground; that is, thirty-three feet each way, and count the trees, averag- 
ing the cubic contents, as near as possible, of the trunks, and adding 
one-fourth of this for the limbs. Then, as 128 cubic feet make a cord, 
and the plat is one-fourth of an acre, the result is easily reached. Fairly 
good timber land should yield a cord to every four square rods. A tree 
two feet i9 diameter asd thirty feet high to the limbs, will make a cord 



USEFUL TABLES. 703 

of wood If it is growing in close timber, and the limbs are not heavy . 
If the limbs are large and spreading, such a tree will make 1}^ to IJ^ 
cords. A tree one foot in diameter will make one-fourth as much as one 
twice the diameter. In estimating, it is necessary to remember this fact. 

ROUND TIMBER. 

Round timber, when squared, is estimated to lose one-fifth; kence, a 
ton of round timber is said to contain only 40 cubic feet . 

Sawed timber, as joists, plank and scantlings, are now generally 
bought and sold by board measure. The dimensions of a foot of board 
measure is 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 inch thick, 

TO MEASUBB BOUND TIMBEB. 

Rtoe. — Take the girth in inches at both the large and small ends, 
add them, and divide their sum by two for the mean girth; then niulti- 
ply the length in feet by the square of one-fourth of the mean girth in 
inches ; divide the product by 144, and the quotient will be the contents 
in cubic feet. 

Example. — What are the cubic contents of a round log 12 feet long, 
54 inches girth at the large end, and 34 at the small end? 

Solution. — 64 plus 34 88-:-2=44 inches mean girth. 

Then 12 length times 121 inches (the square of }^ mean girth)= 
1452-:-144=10 1-12 cubic feet. Ans. 

SQUARE TIMBER. 

TO MEASUBE 8QUABE TIMBEB. 

Rule. — Multiply the breadth in inches by the depth in inches, and 
that by the length in feet, and divide the product by 144, and the quo- 
tient will be the contents in cubic feet. 

Example. — What are the cubic contents of a eqnare log 12 feet long 
by 20 inches broad and 18 deep ? 

Solution.— 20 times 18=360 times 12=4320- :-144=30 cubic feet. 
Ans, 

OOMPUTB WEIGHT OF CATTLE. 

The following table is compiled from two English works on the 
%ubject: 

Girth. Length. Renton's Table. Gary's Table, 

ft. in. ft. m. etone. lb. stone, lb. 

5 3 6 21 21 00 

5 4 24 24 00 

5 6 3 9 ar 1 27 00 

5 6 4 34 4 34 07 

6 4 6 ; 38 8 38 11 

6 5 43 1 43 00 

6 6 4 6 45 9 4.'J 07 

6 6 4 9 48 ... 48 00 

7 5 6 64 6 M 07 

7 6 70 5 70 03 

8 6 6 99 8 09 ii 

8 " 0. ,.,..,.•••••• ^07 5 , ....107 06 

47 



704 



USEFUL TABLES. 



TABLE OF SIMPLE INTEREST, AT SIX PER CEWT, 

FOB EACH DAT TO A MONTH, FROM $1 TO $100. 



a 

s 
o 

a 
< 


DATS IN THE MONTH. 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


u 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


1 

























































































1 


1 


2 















































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


3 



































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


4 































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


o 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


o 


2 


5 





























1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


fi 














01 1 










1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


7 














1 


1 










1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


8 













1 


1 










1 


2 


2 


o 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


9 













1 


1 










2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


o 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


in 








1 




1 


1 






2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


& 


20 





1 


1 




2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8 


8 


8 


9 


9 


9 


10 


10 


10 


30 




1 


1 




o 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


8 


9 


9 


10 


10 


11 


11 


12 


12 


13 


13 


14 


14 


15 


15 


15 


40 




1 


o 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


9 


9 


10 


11 


11 


12 


13 


13 


14 


15 


15 


16 


17 


17 


18 


19 


19 


20 


20 


50 




2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


fi 


7 


8 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


18 


14 


15 


16 


17 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


Zi 


23 


24 


25 


2« 


60 




2 


3 


4 


5 


fi 




8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


2i 


24 


25 


26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


70 


1 


2 


3 


5 


(i 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


15 


Ifi 


17 


19 


20 


21 


22 


2;^ 


24 


2f, 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


;« 


34 


35 


36 


80 




3 


4 


5 




8 


9 


11 


12 


13 15 


Ifi 


17 


19 


20 


21 


23 


24 


25 


27 


28 


29 


31 


32 


:« 


35 


36 


37 


39 


40 


41 


!I0 


3 


n 


5 


fi 


7 


9 


11 


19 


13 


15 1fi 


18 


19 


21 


22 


24 


25 


27 


28 


30 


31 


33 


35 


36 


m 


39 


41 


42 


44 


45 


47 


100 


2 


3 


5 


7 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 18 


20 


22 


23 


25 


27 


28 


30 


32 


:« 


35 


37 


m 


40 


42 


43 


45 


47 


48 


50 


51 



Explanation. — Find the amount in the left-hand column, then follow the line 
of figures until you come to the column giving the number of days at the head, and 
you have the amount of days to one month; then, by adding together, you have the 
interest of as many months as required on amounts from one dollar to one hundred. 



TABLE OP SIMPLE INTEREST, AT SEVEN PER CENT., 

rOR EACH DAT TO A MONTH, TROM $1 TO $100. 



a 

O 


DATS IN THE MONTH. 


g 
< 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 11 


12 


13 


14 15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 25|26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 































"o)~o 








"o 






































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 











































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 
































1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


4 
5 
6 




















1 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 

















1 


1 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


2 














1 


1 


1 








1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


I) 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 











1 


1 


1 


1 








1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


o 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


8 
9 

10 
20 
30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 











1 


1 


1 


1 






2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


J) 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4. 


4 


4 


5 


5 








1 


1 


1 


1 


1 




2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 





1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


o 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


6 





1 


1 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


7 


8| 8 


8 


9 


U 


10 


10 


10 


11 


11 


12 


12 


1 


1 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


.5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


7 


8 


ii 


9 


10 


10 


11 


12 12 


13 


13 


14 


14 


15 


16ll6 


17 


17 


18 


1 


2 


2 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


9 


io:ii 


12 


12 


13 


14 


15 


15;16 


17 


18 


18 


19 


20 


21 


21 


22 


%i 


24 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


fi 




8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


1213 


I'l 


15 


16 


17 


18 


19,20 


21 


22 


•£i 


24 


25 


26 


27 


2ti 


29 


30 


1 


2 


3 


5 


fi 


7 


8 


9'10 


V' 


13 


14 


1516 


17 


18 


20 


21 


22 


23!24 


25 


26 


2f 


29 


3C 


31 


32 


33 


35 


36 


1 


3 


4 


5 


7 


8 


9 


11 


12 


13 


15 


Ifi 


17 lU 


2( 


21 


23 


24 


26 


27i2t' 


29 


31 


32 


34 


35 


36 


38 


39 


40 


42 




3 


5 


6 


8 


9 


11 


12 


\A 


15 


17 


^^ 


20 21 


2;: 


25 


26 


28 


29131 32 


34 


35 


37 


m 


4(: 


41 


43 


44 


46 


48 




3 


5 


7 


9 


10 


12 


14 


Ifi 


17 


19 


21 


22 '24 


26 


28 


29 


31 133135 3fi 38 


40!4] 


43 


45 


47 


48 


50 


52 


54 


:; 


4 


6 


8 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


19121 


2;il25 27l2fl 


30 


33|35l3fi|:i8 4042 


44^46148 


50 


52 


54 


56 


58 


59 



Explanation. — Find the amount in the left hand column, then follow the line of 
figures until you come to the column giving the number of days at tlie head, and you 
have the amount of days to one month; then, by adding together, you have the in- 
terest of as many months as req^uired, on amounts from one dollar to one hundred. 



USEFUL TABLES. 



si 


m 





ai 




OD 


00— c-iNiMcCOTcoaiTiiiOintousasot-t-ooooosoJOT-iroio^co o m 
rH<NcOTi;i0 50t--cx3 35 r-^(^^OT■»^n;oc-aclCsOT-llJJcOlOalco^-^--l25 K oo 

l^^ 1-i rl" T-1 1-1 rH rl' t-J ti' r-i cj ©j CvJ (N Si «i M CO TT TT O t-' O o' 


ai 


d 


Q 


T-i ^ ft fi T^ r-i T^ 1-^ T^ T^T^ si aiaiei CO cico-'^-^--o si ci 




d 


S^ ;3?:S ::^:S ;3?:S :S::?? S!:^ ::S'::S :^:S :S^ ^:^ :§ 

C0^»f^C0i-lO00<O»OCCi-t COCC»racOrH03DCDlOCOT-i COO COCO ?D 
r-( Oi CO -3' is iB S Ci QO 33 ^Ot-lUCCWlOiOOl-OOO: _C0O . ". =^ . . . «> 

iHr^'rHrt'rHrHi-lT-ii-l'T-lT-ir-l'olirisicOeo'cOTl'tOODX 




d 

9) 




;^:f?::?!:3^ ^i^;^?:^!^!; ^tr^'-^tS ;5f>":S:S ^;^^ Sl^^t i?J ::S 

i-i 1-i i-i 1-J rl T-i rt T-i ¥-i fi 1-i i-i oioicococoint-'oo 


S 
a 


d 






to 


d 

m 


n 


rM T-< 1-i .-< >-i r-< T-i r-< r^ T-i .-< -: J oi oi CJ CO ■*' «>' t- 


o 
in 


d 

IS 

Q 


it:^^ i^::R;^ :s:i'^s? :>^>'!s^ :Si5!;it s:^?!;^ 


eo 


d 

Q 


' <-<»-< 1-; r^ rt r^' r-i r-I i-i ei »i oi ri -v' in .rj" 


^ 
^ 


d 


:5ti^iss? ^::^itS!? ::Sis;;f^ :>t^sf;§? :3?:^t ^sf::^:^ 

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1-1— CTHr-irti-irii-fMCJiI^MiniO 




d 






11 IM r-( i-lT-l r-i .-( <N oi Co' •*' ■** 


«» 


d 

Q 


ii^ifj:i°!s? ^i^^iSS? ;:^Xixi,t 2!'iNol'5^ ^^~^ ^?':f'' , i;^ 

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_^r^_-HS^5i©JcOcO'*T!;i010inOtOt--l-t~C0 00 35 3i rHCoJ3-:£CO CO 
i-ir-ir-ir^rn'r-il^'eO*-*-^' 


5 
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d 

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p 


::?:^;it^;3? ^ ^::^ j^^ iS^ :^:^ rs"? 5^^'? -«;?'iCS :?; 

eo^•o•*oo^^ma'(^»!0(pcot-T-l■*oo(^»lra«»«coo^?^^!^^Or^LOOlO(^^03> 

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r-l r-l r-i r1 r-i r-< OJ Co' CO 


2 

o 


d 

1 


i,'?;3e?i"5S5S :;i':s^>^;,ts^ :s::s>'':i«;^^ ::?^ :^ :^ 
«;*»s^S5;gig?o3S?o§^.^.gs?gg2g§sqj?fe .S^qsgs & 

•I r-i r-i r-i T-i Ot CO Co" 


i 1 ^^r^r^siai 




s 


g 1 ^r^ciol 




i 

4 

J 


;s::ss? ^3?:^^ 3?«;5f :s^s? s?^^-? ;3?:ss^ 

r^ r^ r^ r< « m c* c* eo CO CO CO ■* rr ■* ■<l"0 m m 10 to t- 00 OS r« ^ 00 ^ <^ 



706 



USEFUL TABLES. 



> 

GQ 

O 

H 

CO 

« 

Hi 

O 
P 

w 

« 

i^ 
o 

iz; 

M 

o 

Ph 
CO 

W 
O 
O 
^ 

o 





s 


d 
o 

p 


S::S55!: ;^:^^ S?i^^ i^^^ iS':^^ i??^^ .^ ^ ^ -. 

■ ^ ^ ^ (jf (N iji co' w TO TT ■fl-' rr »n in in in » to ;o t^ ^^ ad^^^jw ^*g<' o 




^ 


d 1 X^^^ s;i^:S?s« ;3?^^;^ ^i?::?!^'';?? ^^^^^ ^ 

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t 


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s 

^ 


d 

o 

p 


" " ' ' r^ rH rt i-^' (?i (N ei cj CO cr: OT CO TT ■<i< ■<r tp in in in in tc t- 00 OJ o — t^ g ^ 




s 


d 

o 

p 


■ ■ ' 'r^r-Ir-i r.i5J(NN'«OlC0' coco CO-^' •*'■«'•* in lOin'to'l- 00 05o'--g^K 






d 


' ' ' *rtr-i'--'i-HT-<j<(j<c<o<cococo"cocoTi"'»Tr'«'inintoi-'t-'ooosOinT-a 






d 

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o 
P 






s 1 


»-i rt i-i i-i r-1 ©{ o< ei oi et co' CO CO TO CO •*' -v^ ■» in CO t^ I- 00 OS ^ » O 




$4.50 
Dole C. 


S?:S:^ ?s?:s;3? S!:^:^ ???^^ ^:?*iS' J^:^::^^ ^ ^ . _ _ 
SSsSSSasgSfeSS^SS .SSigg§SSg?S .Sg^ S .S 

iHT4T-ir-.'r->oio»(Nei«TO'co'co"TO'TO'cOTi"-^TjiiniC50i>^adojcoaoc5 




S 
•* 
«» 


d 

(D 

o 

p 


t-Ii--ii-ir-n-iT^C^C^WC^(MCCMCOC>:tCOCO'<3''V^OtO<>l>00©Jt'-00 




t 


d 

o 

p 


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USEFUL TABLES. 



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768 



USEFUL TABLES. 



BOARD BY THB WEEK. 

The following table will also answer for calculating the amonnt of wages by the 
week or month of hired girls, servants, etc., who are compelled to labor on the Sab- 
bath, being calculated for seven days in the week. 

Multiply these tables by four, and yon have wages by the month. 



Showing the rate of 
board per day, at 
$1.00 per week. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 14J4 

2 28V2 

3 423i 

4 67 

6 71 

6 853| 

7 1.00 



Showing the rate of 
board per day, at 
^1.25 per week. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 ->... 1794 

2.. 35% 

3 S^il 

4 71^ 

5 8914 

6 i.orjl 

7 1.25 



Showing the rate of 
board per daj', at 
$1.50 per week. 



Dols. c. 

1 21M 

2 43 

8 6414 

4 85% 

5 i.or 

6 1.281^ 

7 1.50 



Showing the rate of 
board per day, at 
$1.75 per week. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 25 

2 50 

3 75 

4 1.00 

5 1.25 

6 1.50 

7 1.75 



At $2.00 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 28^ 

2 57 

8 85-% 

4 1.14U 

5 1.425i£ 

6 1.71^ 

7 2.00 



At $2.25. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 32 

2 6414 

3 96ii 

4 1.28'/j 

5 1.6O1/2 

6 1.92k 

7 2.25 



At $2.50. 



At $2.75. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 35% 

2 71^ 

8 1.01J4 

4 1.43 

5 l.TSU 

6 .2.14J4 

7 2.50 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 39J4 

2 78i| 

3 1.17Ji 

4 1.57 

5 1.96«^ 

6 2.35M 

7 2.75 



At $3.00. 



^^li 360>iSiO« 



At $3.50. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 43 

2 8594 

8 1.28% 

4 1.7114 

5 2.1414 

6 2.57 

7 3.00 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 4614 

2 93 

3 1.38^ 

4 1.85% 

5 2.3214 

6.. 2.781^ 

7 ..3.25 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 50 

2 1.00 

3 1.50 

4 2.00 

5 2.50 

6 3.00 

7 3.50 



At 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 5.3Vi 

2 1.07 

3 1.6OJ15 

4 2.1414 

5 2.67% 

6 3.211^ 

7 3.75 



At $4.00. 



At $4.50. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 57 

2 l.UH 

8 1.71^ 

4. 2.281^ 

5. .... ...2.851^ 

6 3.425i 

7 4.00 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 6414 

2 1.281^ 

3 1.92% 

4 2.57 

• 5 3.211/2 

6 3.85% 

7 4.50 



fAt $5.00. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 71J^ 

2 1.43 

8 2.1414 

4 2.85% 

5 3.67 

6 4.71>^ 

7 5.00 



At $6.00. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 85% 

2 1.71i| 

3 2.57M 

4 3.43 

5 4.28J^ 

6 51414 

7 6.00 



At $7.00. 



Days. Dols.c. 

1 1.00 

9 2.00 

8 8.00 

4 4.00 

B 5.00 

6 6.00 

7 7,00 



'At $8.00. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 1.14^ 

2 2.28 14 

3 . 3.42?4 

4 4.57 

5 5.71^ 

6 6.85% 

7 8.00 



At $9.00. 



Days. Dols. c. 

"1 1.281/2 

2 2.57 

3 3.85 Ji 

4 5.1414 

5 6.43 

6 7.71^ 

7 9.00 



At $10.00. 



Days. Dols. c. 

1 1.42% 

8 2.85U 

8 4.28U 

4 5.71J4 

5 7.14>4 

6 8.57^ 

7 10.00 



USEFUL TABLES* 



769 



Household weights and measures — dry measure. 



Wheat flour 

Com meal 

Butter (soft) 

Loaf sugar (crushed) 

White sugar (powdered). 

Best brown sugar 

Eggs — Ten eggs weight.. 



I pound of 1 6 oz. 


is 




quart 




20 ounces 


IS 








I « 










I ounce 










2 ounces 









LIQUID MEASURE. 

Four large tablespoonfuls are y^ agill. 

Eight large tablespoonfuls are I gill. 

Two gills ^ a pint. 

A common sized tumbler holds 3^ a pint. 

A common sized wine glass holds J^ a gill. 

Two pints are I quart. 

Four quarts are i gallon. 

About twenty-five drops of any thin liquid will fill a common sized tea- 
spoon. 

Four tablespoonfuls will generally fill a common sized wine glass. 

Four wine glasses will fill half a pint tumbler, or a large coffee cup. 

A juart black bottle holds in reality about a pint and a half — sometimes 
not as much. 

A tablespoonful of salt is about one ounce. 

DRY MEASURE. 

Haifa gallon is a Quarter of a peck. 

One gallon is Haifa peck. 

Two gallons are One peck. 

Four gallons are Half a bushel. 

Eightgallons are One bushel. 



MEASURE FOR MEDICINE. 

One tumbler contains about 

One teacup " " 

One wine glass " . " 

One tablespoon " " 

One dessertspoon *' " 

One teaspoon •' " 



8 ounces. 

4 " 
2 " 



2 drachms 
I " 



AVOIRDUPOIS. 

16 drams (drs) i ounce — oz. 

16 ounces ... ..._ I pound — lb. 

25 pounds I quarter — qr. 

4 quarters .. loo weight — cwt. 

20 cwt I ton 



770 USEFLL TABLES. 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

4 gills 1 pint — pt. 

2 pints I quart — qt, 

4 quarts I gallon — gal. 

3iJ^ gallons I barrel — bbl. 

2 barrels I hogshesid — hhd, 

DRY MEASURE. 

4 gills I pint — pt. 

2 pints . I quart — qt. 

8 quarts I peck — pk. 

4 pecks I I bushel — bu. 

8 bushels I quarter. 

36 bushels I chaldron. 

CAPACITY OF FREIGHT CARS. 

Kominally a car load is 20,000 pounds. 

It is also 60 barrels of Whisky. 

" " " 70 " " Salt. 

" " " 70 " " Lime. 

" " " 90 " " „ ..Flour. 

" " " 130 to 160 " " Eggs. 

" " " 200 sacks " Flour. 

'• " " 6 cords " Wood. 

" " " 18 to 20 head " Cattle. 

" • « 50" 60 « Hogs. 

« « .. 80 «« 100 " " Sheep, 

430 bushels" Irish potatoes. 

300 " " Barley. 

" " " 340 " " Wheat. 

" " " 360 " " ..Flaxseed. 

" " " 370 " " Apples. 

" " " 400 " " _ _ Corn. 

" " " 430 " " _ Potatoes. 

" " " 680 " ". ...Oats. 

'• " " 1,000 " " _ Bran. 

" " " 20,000 lbs. " Butter. 

" " " 6,000 feet " .Lumber. 

" " *' 9,000 " '« _ Solid boards. 

" " " 17,000 " " _ ..Siding. 

" " " 13.000 " " — Flooring. 

" " " J^less " " ..Hard lumber. 

" ♦' " % " " " Green lumber. 

" •* ♦* ^ Large timbers. 

" •* " 40^000 — Shingles. 



<( <( « 

i( « « 



USEFUL TABLES. 771 

STANDARD MEASURES. 

The ton used in the returns and calculations of the United States census 
is the net ton of 2,000 pounds. 

The ton used in the Treasury Department in its statements of imports 
and exports, is the gross ton of 2,240 pounds. 

The values of foreign imports are given in gold, and of domestic exports 
in currency. 

The United States standard gallon contains 231 cubic inches, or 7.48 or 
nearly "]% gallons in a cubic foot. 

A bushel (Winchester) contains 2,150.42 cubic inches, 1.224 cubic feet, 
or nearly i^ cubic feet, or 9.31 gallons. It is 18^ inches in diameter and 8 
inches deep. 

RULE. — To find the number of gallons divide the number of cubic inches con- 
tained in the vessel by 21; ..r divide by 2150.42, and the result will be the number of 
bushels the vessel contains; or if the contents are given in cubic feet, then multiply 
them by 7.4s (or 75^) to find the number of gallons; or to find the number of bushels, 
divide the cubical contents by 1.244 (or i}^). 

CX>MMERCIAL WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

A barrel of beef, etc 200 pounds. 

" " " rice 60 " 

:' « " flour _ 196 " 

" " " soap 256 " 

•' " " cider and other liquid 300 " 

" « " herrings 371^ « 

»* " " beer 36 gallons. 

A gallon of honey ^_ 12 pounds. 

" " " molasses li " 

" quintal of fish loo " 

" firkin of butter 56 '« 

" bag of hops (nearly) 350 " 

« " " wool 240 " 

A commercial bale of cotton in America is 400 " 

MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES. 

A "hand" used in measuring horses is 4 inches, 

A "league" is 3 miles. 

A "fathom "is 6 feet. 

A geographical mile is in proportion to the statute mile as 60 to 69.5. 

A degree is equal to 60 geographical miles, or 69)^ statute miles. 

The nautical mile is 6,082 feet; 

In artificers' measurements the inch is divided into twelve equal parts, 
called "seconds," marked thus "; each second is again divided into twelve 
parts, called "thirds," marked thus"'. In making the calculations, "feet 
multiplied by feet, give feet;" "feet multiplied by inches, give inches;" 
" feet multiplied by seconds, give seconds; " inches multiplied by inches, give 
seconds;" " inches multiplied by seconds, give thirds." This mode of calcu- 
lation adopted by artificers is called duodecimals^ going by twelfths in place of 
tenths, as in decimal calculation. 



772 USEFUL TABLES. 

TO ESTIMATE AMOUNT OF HAY IN A MOW. 

Ten cubic yards of meadow hay weigh a ton. When the hay is taken 
out of old stacks, eight or nine cubic yards will make a ton. Eleven or twelve 
cubic yards of clover when dry, weigh a ton. 

TO MEASURE HAY IN THE STACK. 

Measure half way down between the ground and the peak of the stack. 
Multiply this width by itself, and multiply by .7854. This will be the area 
covered by the stack. Then multiply the area by the height to where the 
width was measured. If these measurements are in feet the sum found is 
the cubic feet in the stack. 

Example :—h. stack is 12 feet high, and has an 18 feet base, how much 
hay does it contain? Ans. — The width half way between the ground and the 
peak is 9 feet; 9x9=81, and 8ix.7854=63.6i74x6 ft=38i.7044 cubic feet; 
500 cubic feet of timothy, orchard grass, millet or Hungarian grass make a ton, 
or a cube 8 feet each way; 350 feet will make a ton or a cube 7 feet each way, 
if the slack is very solid and was cut when dead ripe; 700 feet, or a cube 9 
feet each way, will make a ton, if the hay is mixed with clover; 800 feet will 
make a ton, if it is all clover, or light meadow hay. 

masons' ANU bricklayers' MEASURES. 

Masons' work is measured either by the cubic foot, or the perch. The 
perch is 16^ feet long, i^ feet wide, and I foot deep, and therefore contains 
24^ cubic feet. 

RULE.— To find the number of perches in a piece of masonry, first find the num- 
ber of cubic feet the wall contains and divide by 34^^. 

MEASURE OF LENGTH OR LINEAL MEASURE DISTANCE. 

3 barleycorns i inch. 

12 inches I foot. 

3 feet 1 yard. 

51^ yards or 16^ feet-, I pole. 

40 poles or 660 feet I furlong. 

8 furlongs or 5280 feet I mile. 

MEASURE OF SURFACES OR SQUARE MEASURE. 

144 square inches I square foot. 

9 square feet I square yard. 

30^ square yards . . I square pole. 

40 square poles I rood. 

4 roods I acre. 

640 acres I square mile. 

NOTE. — An error is often made in supposingf tht term square inches and "inches 
square" to denote the same thing-, but the dlfFerence is, that "twelve square inches" is 
only the twelfth part of a foot, and twelve inches square is J44 square inches. 



USEFUL TABLES. 773 



MEASURE OF SOLIDITY OR CUBIC MEASURE. 



1728 cubic inches I cubic foot. 

27 cubic feet i cubic yard. 

40 cubic feet of rough or 1 

50 cubic feet of hewn timber.. / 

42 solid feet l I ton of shipping. 

NOTE. — While square measure is based upon the square of numbers, which is 
found by multiplying any number into itself, as 4X4 — 16, which is the square of four, 
Cai^zV measure is based by multiplying any number twice into itself, as 4X4X4 — 64, 
which is the cube of four. Surface has only length and breadth; a solid body has 
length, breadth aiid thickness. 

LAND SQUARE, OR GUNTER'S CHAIN MEASURE. 
62.726 square inches I square link. 

2.295 " links .__ I " foot, 

20.661 " " I " yard. 

62.5 " « _ _..i " pole. 

10.000 " " I " chain. 

2.5 " chains I " rood. 

10 " " I " acre. 

NOTE.— A chain is equal to 100 links, or 7o2 inches, or 22 yards, or 66 feet; but 
the length varies in different countries, 

DENTITION OF CATTLE. 
I. — Table of Early Average^ the Breed and Other Causes Forming Early 

Development. 

1 year and 9 months, 2 prominent incisors. 

2 « « -1 « A « « 

2 " " 9 " 6 " " 

3 " " 3 " 8 

2. — Table of Late Aver age, the Breed and Other Causes Retarding Early 

Development. 
2 years and 3 months, 2 prominent incisors. 

2 " " 9 " 4 " " 
^ « « ^ « g <( « 

3 " « 9 " 8 " ♦♦ 

At the end of about two years they shed their first fore teeth, which are 
replaced by others, larger, and not so white; and before five years all their 
incisive teeth are renewed. These teeth are at first equal, long, and pretty 
white; but as they advance in years they wear down, become unequal and 
black. 

The horns also give a correct evidence of the age of neat cattle. During 
the first three years of the animal's life these appendages continue to grow, 
being impelled by a horny cylinder, after which the button moves from the 
head. Thus the horns continue growing as long as the animal lives, as is in- 
dicated by the annual joints, which are easily distinguished in the horn after 
the creature is three years old, counting three years few the point of the horn, 
and one year for each of the joints or rings. 



774 USEFUL TABLES. 

DENTITION ('F THE HORSE. 

The colt is born with lo grinders. 

At 12 days old the colt has four front teeth. 

At 4 weeks old it has four more front teeth. 

At 8 months old the corner teeth appear. 

At I year old the corner teeth have attained the height of the front teeth. 

At 2 years old the colt has the kernel (the dark substance in the middle 
of the teeth's crown) ground out of all \\\t front teeth. 

In the third year the middle front teeth are being shifted. 

At 3 years old the middle front teeth of the colt are substituted by the 
horse teeth. 

At 4 years old the next four front teeth are shifted. 

At 5 years old the corner teeth are replaced. 

At 6 years old the kernel is worn out of the lower middle front teeth 
and the bridle teeth have attained their full growth. 

At 7 years old a hook has been found on the corner tooth of the upper 
jaw, the kernel of the teeth next to the middle front is worn out, and the bri- 
dle teeth begin to wear off. 

At 8 years old the kernel is worn out of all the lotver front teeth and 
' begins to decay in the middle ufper fronts. 

At 9 years old the kernel has wholly.disappeared from the upper middle 
front teeth, the hook on the corner teeth has increased in size, and the bridle 
teeth lose their points. 

At lo years old the kernel is worn out of the teeth next to the middle 
fronts of the upper jaw. 

At 1 1 years old the kernel has entirely vanished from the corner teeth of 
the same jaw. 

At 12 years old the crorvn of all \}ii& front teeth in the lower jaw has be- 
come triangular, and the ^;'<V/.'e teeth are much worn down. 

As the horse advances in age the gums shrink away from the teeth, 
which consequently receive a long, narrow appearance, and ^i^&vfjiernels have 
become changed into a darkish point, gray hairs increase in the forehead over 
the eyes, and the chin assumes the form of an angle. 

After a horse is 9 years old a wrinkle appears at the upper comer of the 
lower lid and every year thereafter he has one well defined wrinkle for each 
year of his age over nine. If for instance a horse has three wrinkles, he is 
twelve; if four, he is thirteen. Always add the number of wrinkles, and it 
' will give the horse's age, 

HOW TO DETECT WATER IN MILK. 

Dip a well-polished knitting-needle into a deep vessel of milk, and with- 
draw it immediately in an upright position. If the milk is pure some of it 
will hang to. the needle ; but if water has been added, even in small propor- 
tions, the fluid will not adhere. 



USEFUL TABLES. 775 

AGE OF SHEEP. 

A sheep has 32 teeth, 8 incisors or cutting teeth in the fore part of the 
under jaw above and below on each side. The mouth of the lamb newly 
dropped is either without incisor teeth, or it has two. Before the animal is 
2 months old it has 8. Between 14 and 16 months old they are fully grown; 
between that time and 2 years old the two middle incisors are shed, and two 
prominent broad teeth appear in their stead. At 3 years old there are 4 cen- 
tral teeth; at 4 there are 6; and at 5 years old the whole 8 incisors are broad 
and large, and the mouth is considered full. After sheep pass 5 years old 
there are no certain rules of telling the age; they are then considered as old 
sheep, though they may be valuable breeders until much older. When six or 
seven years old the teeth become slender, loose, and begin to break off or fall 
out. 

AGE OF GOATS. 

The age of these animals is known by the teeth, the marks being the 
same as those of the sheep, and also by the annual rings on their horns. 

• POULTRY AND EGGS. 

Weight of Various Breeds of Poultry. 

Black Polish cock, 3 years old 5 pounds 

Black Polish hen, 3 years old 3 " 

Golden Polish cock 5 " 

Golden Polish hen 3 " 

Silver Polish hen . 3 " 

Silver Hamburg hen 3 " 

Game cock 4 " 

Game hen 3 " 

Pheasant Malay cock 7 " 

Pheasant Malay hen 5 " 

Pheasant Malay pullet, 17 months old 5 " 

Dorking cock 7 " 

Dorking hen 6 " 

Cochin China cock, 1 6 months old (moulting) 6 " 

Cochin China hen ^ 4 " 

Malay cock, 16 months old 6 " 

Malay hen, 16 months old .... 4 " 

Black Spanish cock, 4 months old 2 " 

Black Spanish pullet i " 

Turkey cock, i6monthsold 16 " 

Turkey hen, 3 to 4 years old 8 " 

White China gander, 6 months old 12 " 

White China goose --H " 



3 


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776 USEFUL TABLES, 

NUMBER OF EGGS PER ANNUM. 

Experience shows that the laying capacities of the principle varieties of 
fowls averages about as follows : 

Eggs to lb. Lay per year. 

Light Brahmas 7 130 

Dark Brahmas 8 ,. I30 

Partridge Cochins 7 ^3° 

Black, White and Buff Cochins 7 ___ 115 

Plymouth Rocks 8 150 

Houdans 8 150 

LaFleche 7 - 130 

Creve Coeurs --- ._ 8 I4» 

Black Spanish 7 — I40 

Leghorns 8 160 

Hamburgs 9 150 

Polish 9 - — 125 

Dominique 9 . 13S 

Games - 9 I30 

Bantams 16 90 

THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE FULL AMOUNT OF CREAM 

To rise to the surface of new milk at different temperatures may be ascer- 
tained from the following table. 

10 to 12 hours if the temperature of the air is 77 degrees Fahr. 
18 to 20 " " " " " 68 " " 

ni (< << •< « " It^ " " 

36 " " " " " 50 " •' 

THE AMOUNT OF BUTTER AND CHEESE OBTAINED FROM MILK, 

Is shown in the following table, and is the result of practice : 

IOC lbs. of milk contains about 3 lbs. of pure butter. 

100 lbs. " " " 7.8 lbs. of cheese. 

100 lbs. " averages " 3.5 lbs. of common butter. 

100 lbs. " " •' 11.7 lbs. of cheese. 

100 lbs. of skim milk yields 1 3.5 lbs. of skim milk cheese. 

TO CLEAR A WELL OF FOUL AIR, 

Put a quart or two of unslaked lime into a bucket, and, before lowering it 
into the well, pour a sufficient quantity of water on the lime to slack it; then 
let it down to, but not into, the water. In a few minutes the well will be 
clear of foul air, the slacking lime either taking up the noxious air, or forcing 
it out of the well, 



USEFUL TABLES. 777 



TO CUT GLASS. 

In the absence of a regular glass-cutter, glass may easily be cut with the 
point of a file or other hard steel tool, by wetting freely with camphor dis- 
solved in turpentine. Ragged edges of glass may in like manner be smoothed 
with a flat file. 

TO MARK TOOLS. 

Warm the metal slightly, and rub the polished steel with wax or hard 
tallow, till a film gathers. Then write your name on the wax with a sharp 
point, cutting through to the steel, and remove all the particles of wax cut 
out. A little nitiic acid poured on tl.e markings v ill eat or bite in the letters 
into the metal. After half an hour wipe the acid and wax off with a hot 
towel, and the markings will be clearly defined. 

TO TEMPER SAWS, CHISELS, AND OTHER EDGED TOOLS. 

The quality of the steel should be uniform throughout, and if rather too 
hard, so much the better, for use will reduce the temper. The best method is 
to melt a sufficient quantity of lead to cover the cutting part of the tool. 
Having previously brightened the tool's surface, plunge it into the melted lead 
for a few minutes, till it gels sufficienlly hot to melt a candle, with which rub 
its surface; then plunge it in the lead again, and keep it there till the steel 
assumes a straw color, but be careful not to let it turn blue ; but if it should 
assume that color take it out, rub it again with tallow, and let it cool. If it 
should be too soft wipe the grease off, and repeat the process without the tal- 
low, and when it is sufficiently hot plunge it into cold spring water, or water 
and vinegar mixed. By a proper attention to these directions, and a little 
practice, any one has it in his power to give a proper temper to the tools he 
may use. 

TO SAW IRON. 

Iron brought to a red heat, and then placed in a vise, may be severed 
with an old saw without difficulty. 

TO PRESERVE NAILS FROM RUSTING. 

Heat them (but not red hot) on a shovel over the fire, and then drop them 
into a vessel containing train oil. They absorb the oil and last many years. 

TO MEND IRON POTS. 

Take two parts of sulphur and one part, by weight, of fine black lead. 
Put the sulphur in an old pan; hold it over the fire until melted; then 
add the black lead ; stir well until all is mixed and melted ; then pour out on 
an iron plate or smooth stone. ^Vhen cold, break in small pieces. If a 
crack, place sufhcient quantity on and solder with a hot iron. If a hole, 
drive in a copper or Jron rivet, and solder it over >vith cement. 



778 USEFUL TABLES. 

CRACK 3 IN' CTOVES. 

Cracks or joints in a stove may be readily closed in a moment with a 
composition consisting of wood-ashes and a little common salt, made into a 
paste and plastered over the crack. The effect is equally certain whether the 
stove be cold or hot. 

CEMENT FOR JOINING CHINA, CLASS, ETC. 

Beat the whites of eggs well to a froth; let them settle; add grated or 
sliced cheese and quicklime. Work the compound up into a smooth paste ; 
apply a little to the broken edges, and join them together. This cement will 
endure both fire and water. 

RED BOTTLE WAX. 

Resin , 6^ pounds, "j Melt together. This wax will be 

Beeswax ^ pound !- found excellent for sealing fruit cans 

Venetian red l^ pounds.J or jars. 

GLUE. 

The best glue is really known by its transparency, and being of a rather 
light brown color, free from clouds and streaks. Dissolve this in water, and 
to every pint add half a gill of best vinegar and half an ounce of isinglass. 
The better the glue the more force it will exert in keeping the two parts to- 
gether; therefore, in all large joints, the glue should be applied immediately 
after boiling. Glue loses much of its strength by frequent remelting; that 
glue, therefore, which is newly made is much preferable to that which has 
been reboiled. 

A Portable Glue is made as follows : Boil one pound of best glue, 
strain it very clear; boil also. four ounces of isinglass; put it into a double 
glue-pot, with half a pound of fine brown sugar, and boil it pretty thick ; then 
pour it into plates or moulds. When cold, it is portable and ready for imme- 
diate use. It digsolves quickly in warm water, or may be softened in the 
mouth. 

A Liquid Glue is made as follows: Dissolve the glue in boiling water, 
using only enough water to reduce the glue to liquid form. It is then re- 
moved from the fire, and sufficient alcohol poured in to bring it to the right 
consistency, stirring it briskly. It is kept in a bottle, with a piece of India 
rubber or bladder tied over the mouth, and will, it is said, preserve its proper- 
ties for years. It is thus always ready for use, without the irouLIe of prepar- 
ing, when wanted. In very cold weather it may need to be warmed a little. 

PUTTY. 

To Make Putty. — Putty is made by mixing whiting with linseed oil to 
the consistency of dough. It must be worked well. 

Putty made with glycerine in place of oil, will keep soft for a long time. 

Hard Putty is quickly softened by pouring kerosene oil on it, or by 
passing a hot poker slowly on or over it, 



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